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Chapter 1 – Introduction and Research Methodology EMPOWERING ALTERNATIVES: A history of the Conscientious Objector Support Group’s challenge to military service in South Africa by Judith Patricia Connors submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of M Com in the subject Conflict Resolution and Peace Studies at the University of KwaZulu-Natal Supervisor: Professor G. Maré October 2007 2 To Nan Cross who has gone on her way leaving us a legacy of bright-eyed, sharp-minded, warm-hearted, fearless activism. 3 I declare that “Empowering alternatives: A history of the Conscientious Objector Support Group’s challenge to military service in South Africa” is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. 4 Acknowledgments I would like to thank all the people who have contributed to this study. To the members of the COSG who had the vision to fund a study like this; my sincere and humble appreciation for entrusting me with this task. It has been a privilege to get to know you and the work you were involved in. To my supervisor, Prof. Gerry Maré, whose commitment to ensuring that crucial parts of South Africa’s history do not get forgotten; thank you for striking the perfect balance between giving freedom on the one hand and urging the need for revision on the other; between challenge and praise. And to Prof. Geoff Harris who has developed and coordinated the Conflict Resolution and Peace Studies Programme at UKZN; I am extremely grateful to you for making a programme of this calibre accessible to us, and for asking me whether I would like to research this particular topic. Then to all the conscientious objectors and activists from the COSG and/or ECC; I cannot thank you enough for your willingness to spend time talking with me and for sharing your personal archival material with me. It is your openness and honesty that has enriched this study. Thank you especially to Donn Edwards, who set up the email discussion forum, without which the conversations between objectors and activists could not have reached the depth they did. These exchanges have been of immense value to me in this study, and while I am sure that you will not agree with all I have written here, I can only hope that by rekindling the connections between people, the debate, the sharing, the solidarity and the search for a more just and harmonious world order will continue. Also, a sincere thank you to all who helped coordinate and/or host focus group meetings; Adele Kirsten and Nan Cross in Johannesburg, Rob and Sally Goldman and Richard Steele in Durban, and David and Claudine Schmidt and Anton Eberhard in Cape Town. Thank you also to Janneke Weidema for translating Afrikaans texts into English, to Mike Evans for answering many legal questions and to Ayanda Khumalo, a third-year law student at Wits who helped research the many Defence Acts. Thank you to my friend in the Netherlands, Tom Schram, who by reading and commenting on the draft of the first chapter I wrote, showed me that the way forward was possible. To my work colleagues, Colin Glen, Jabu Mashinini and Lindi Tshabalala, thank you for so graciously taking over my work load for so long and giving me the time to complete this study. To Mam’ Francina; thank you for keeping our home running beautifully while I had no time for anything except this study. And to Mama and Papa, thank you for the many nourishing meals you prepared for Dermot and me, so that I could continue working. Thank you also to my brother, Ronnie, for researching information on the internet, for helping with various computer-related aspects in the final stages of the write-up, and above all for your keen interest throughout this study. To my son Adrian; just knowing that we were both studying and that in our weekly phone-calls you were going to ask me, “How’re things going Mom?” gave me 5 the impetus to continue. And to my husband, Dermot, who in reading a number of South African war literature novels brought important aspects of this topic to my attention; thank you so much for your gentle encouragement and patience with me throughout the three years of this project. Finally, my heartfelt gratitude to two of the pillars of the conscientious objection movement; Rob Robertson and Nan Cross, who never grew tired of sharing information, perspectives and insights with me. Thank you also to Rob for your meticulous proof reading of my dissertation. To both of you; your life’s work has been an inspiration to me. 6 Abstract Conscription of white males to the South African Defence Force between 1969 and 1994 was one of the measures used by the South African government to uphold apartheid and white supremacy. While it appeared that the majority of white males and their families supported the National Party propagated ideologies of the country at the time and felt it was their duty to render military service, there were some for whom this duty provided a conflict of conscience. Giving expression to this conflict and finding constructive ways of dealing with it was almost impossible within the highly restrictive, repressive political, legal and social climate of that time. Limited options seemed available to the young men who had objections to serving in the military, namely exile, evasion or deferment: personal choices that drove people into physical and emotional isolation, and which did not engage the state in the resolution of this conflict. Some young men, however, chose to confront the state and object openly. This began a protracted series of negotiations with ruling authorities, debates within state structures, legislative changes and prosecutions that attempted to prevent and quash the presence of objectors. In the face of this oppression, family and friends formed themselves into solidarity groups around individual objectors to support them in handling the consequences of their objection and in making their stance known and heeded by the government. And so began a movement for change, which over the years learned the skills of nonviolent direct action and constructively challenged the state on issues of conscription and the militarisation of society. This initiative, known as the Conscientious Objector Support Group, although small in scale, ranks as one of the anti-apartheid movements that contributed to South Africa’s peaceful transition to democracy. As such it has invaluable lessons to share with movements for change throughout the world that are presently grappling with situations of human rights’ violations. 7 8 Contents Abbreviations .................................................................................................11 Chapter 1 – Introduction and research methodology ......................................13 Chapter 2 – Overview .....................................................................................41 Chapter 3 – Conscription, conscientious objection and the COSG .................57 Chapter 4 – The COSG as a nonviolent movement for change ....................115 Chapter 5 – The impact of nonviolence on the power of the state ................165 Chapter 6 – Self-evaluation ..........................................................................195 Chapter 7 - Conclusion ................................................................................213 Appendices ..................................................................................................219 References ..................................................................................................251 9 10 Abbreviations ANC African National Congress ANS Alternative National Service BRO Board for Religious Objection CANSP Churches Alternative National Service Project CCCO Central Committee for Conscientious Objection CCSA Christian Council of South Africa CO Conscientious objection / objector CODESA Committee for a Democratic South Africa COSAWR Committee on South African War Resistance COSG Conscientious Objector Support Group CSG Community Servers Group DB Detention Barracks ECC End Conscription Campaign ICOM International Conscientious Objector Movement IFOR International Fellowship of Reconciliation NUSAS National Union of South Africa Students SABC South African Broadcasting Corporation SACC South African Council of Churches SACP South African Communist Party SADF South African Defence Force SAFOR South African Fellowship of Reconciliation SANDF South African National Defence Force SAP South African Police SWAPO South West African People’s Organisation UDF United Democratic Front UN United Nations UNTAG United Nations Transition Assistance Group WASG Wits Alternative Service Group WCC World Council of Churches WITS University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg WRI War Resisters International 11 12 Chapter 1 – Introduction and research methodology The miracle is that despite all of society’s promotion of warfare, most soldiers find warfare to be a wrenching departure from their own moral values. Mark Kurlansky1 Conscription of white males from 1967 – 1994 for service in the South African Defence Force was a significant and highly effective pillar upholding apartheid policy – through military service and socialisation. In opposition to this increasing militarisation of South African society an anti-conscription movement was formed, known as the Conscientious Objector Support Group (COSG), with the broad aims of defending the right of individuals to object to conscription and raising awareness of the issues surrounding conscription and the role of the military in South Africa.
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