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'Manage and Mitigate Punitive Regulatory Measures, Enhance The Lee et al. Globalization and Health (2016) 12:55 DOI 10.1186/s12992-016-0192-6 RESEARCH Open Access ‘Manage and mitigate punitive regulatory measures, enhance the corporate image, influence public policy’: industry efforts to shape understanding of tobacco- attributable deforestation Kelley Lee1*, Natalia Carrillo Botero1 and Thomas Novotny2 Abstract Background: Deforestation due to tobacco farming began to raise concerns in the mid 1970s. Over the next 40 years, tobacco growing increased significantly and shifted markedly to low- and middle-income countries. The percentage of deforestation caused by tobacco farming reached 4 % globally by the early 2000s, although substantially higher in countries such as China (18 %), Zimbabwe (20 %), Malawi (26 %) and Bangladesh (>30 %). Transnational tobacco companies (TTCs) have argued that tobacco-attributable deforestation is not a serious problem, and that the industry has addressed the issue through corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives. Methods: After reviewing the existing scholarly literature on tobacco and deforestation, we analysed industry sources of public information to understand how the industry framed deforestation, its key causes, and policy responses. To analyse industry strategies between the 1970s and early 2000s to shape understanding of deforestation caused by tobacco farming and curing, the Truth Tobacco Documents Library was systematically searched. The above sources were compiled and triangulated, thematically and chronologically, to derive a narrative of how the industry has framed the problem of, and solutions to, tobacco-attributable deforestation. Results: The industry sought to undermine responses to tobacco-attributable deforestation by emphasising the economic benefits of production in LMICs, blaming alternative causes, and claiming successful forestation efforts. To support these tactics, the industry lobbied at the national and international levels, commissioned research, and colluded through front groups. There was a lack of effective action to address tobacco- attributable deforestation, and indeed an escalation of the problem, during this period. (Continued on next page) * Correspondence: [email protected] 1Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Blusson Hall, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © 2016 The Author(s). Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Lee et al. Globalization and Health (2016) 12:55 Page 2 of 12 (Continued from previous page) Conclusions: The findings suggest the need for independent data on the varied environmental impacts of the tobacco industry, awareness of how the industry seeks to work with environmental researchers and groups to further its interests, and increased scrutiny of tobacco industry efforts to influence environmental policy. Keywords: Tobacco industry, Leaf farming, Deforestation, Policy influence, Corporate social responsibility Introduction This paper argues that there is a need to locate indus- Deforestation is the process whereby natural forests try claims within a fuller account of the deforestation are cleared through logging and/or burning, either to problem, and how the tobacco industry has sought to usethetimberortheareaforalternativeuses[1]. shape environmental research and policy debates from Around 1.5 billion hectares of forests, mainly tropical the 1970s to early 2000s. While tactics used by the forests, have been lost since the 1970s [2], causing up tobacco industry to influence health policy are well- to 30 % of greenhouse gas emissions annually [3]. To- documented [16], there has been limited analysis of its bacco farming and curing constitute a “proximate efforts to influence environmental policy. Bringing to- cause” of deforestation due to forest removal for agri- gether how the industry has publicly framed deforest- cultural land, soil nutrient depletion and wood fuel ation, with internal industry documents, this paper usage [4]. Concerns about tobacco-attributable defor- describes the tactics used by the industry to shape the estation began to be raised in the mid 1970s [5], definition of, and policy responses to, the problem of spurred by a 128 % increase in production in low- tobacco-attributable deforestation. The findings raise and middle-income countries (LMICs) [6], and 40 % questions about the tobacco industry’sfullimpactson increase globally from 1971 to 1997 [7]. Geist [8] the environment, and its efforts to engage with envir- (p. 18) estimated that, during the mid 1980s, “Virginia onmental researchers and groups through its CSR (flue-cured) tobacco consume[d] between 82.5 and activities. 175 million cubic metres of roundwood harvested worldwide each year for curing…the equivalent of Background 1.2–2.5 million hectares of open forests or woodlands Large-scale commercial tobacco farming dates from the removed annually”. However, the problem continued seventeenth century when expanding European demand unabated. Available data suggests tobacco caused 4 % led to the establishment of plantations in the Americas of deforestation globally [9], but was a significant worked by African slaves. Over the next four centuries cause of deforestation in selected LMICs such as booming demand, and the ability of the plant to grow in China (18 %) [8], Zimbabwe (20 %) [10], Malawi most environments, saw tobacco farming spread world- (26 %) [11] and Bangladesh (>30 %) [12]. wide [17]. Tobacco production comprises three sectors: The tobacco industry has claimed for decades that growing and curing, leaf processing and manufacturing. concerns about tobacco-attributable deforestation are The first is the responsibility of farmers who must deal based on misperception and myths, and it has been a with the “preparation of farms, nursery establishment, minor cause of the problem. The industry has also planting, farm/crop management, harvesting, curing, been involved in mitigating activities in LMICs, not- sorting and leaf grading, and transportation from their ably tree planting (forestation), development of more homes to leaf buying centres” [18] (p. 5). Leaf processing efficient curing methods, and alternative fuels. By the is dominated by large transnational companies, led by late 1990s, these efforts formed a core part of the Universal Leaf and Alliance One, and their subsidiaries. corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives of sev- Some large manufacturers also operate in tobacco eral transnational tobacco companies (TTCs). Today, growing countries and purchase leaf directly from TTCs claim that tobacco-attributable deforestation is farmers. In both cases, it is common that loans and being effectively addressed. In 2015, for instance, Brit- other inputs (e.g. seeds, fertilizers) are provided to ish American Tobacco (BAT) reported the planting of farmers under contract by the leaf purchaser up front, over 170 million trees, and 94.8 % of wood used for who then purchases the ready-cured leaf at a pre curing by its contracted farmers not coming from agreed price. natural forests [13]. Philip Morris International (PMI) Leaf farming has shifted to LMICs since the 1960s, for described its replenishing of forests and improving of both domestic consumption and a cash crop, reaching wood use efficiency [14], while Imperial Tobacco [15] 90 % of world production by 2008 [19]. In 2015 tobacco argues that its partnerships are “helping farmers to was grown on 4.3 million hectares in 124 countries, pro- become self-sufficient in wood”. ducing 7.5 million tonnes of leaf [20]. Lee et al. Globalization and Health (2016) 12:55 Page 3 of 12 Given the above business model, hundreds of thou- problem, key causes, and industry responses. Materials sands of small farmers in LMICs are now dependent on reviewed include annual reports, company statements, growing and curing tobacco for a global oligopoly of public commentary, and news releases. To identify and processors and manufacturers. In Malawi following inde- analyse industry strategies to shape understanding of de- pendence in 1964, for example, development policies forestation caused by tobacco farming and curing, from favoured tobacco-growing estates, many controlled by the 1970s when concerns began to be raised, the Truth political elites [21]. Production more than quadrupled Tobacco Documents Library was systematically searched from 1961 to 1979 [22] (Table 5.1). By 2004, tobacco between December 2014 and July 2015 using such key- accounted for 70 % of exports [23] (p.274), 13 % of gross words as “*forestation”, “wood”, “fuel”, combined to- domestic product (GDP), and 23 % of total tax base [24]. gether using Boolean terms. A snowball method was In 2009, tobacco employed 40 % of Malawi’s total work- used to identify additional keywords generated from ini- force [25]. Similarly, production more than doubled in tial searches such as names of individuals, organizations, Zimbabwe from 1980 to 1998 [22] (Chapter 7), with
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