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Sequence in British

STEPHEN P. HESSELBO l & D. NEIL PARKINSON 2 IDepartment of Sciences, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PR, UK 2Western Atlas Logging Services, 455 London Road, Isleworth, Middlesex TW7 5AB, UK

In what has now become the standard model for we do not provide a comprehensive summary of the sequence stratigraphy, a depositional sequence terminology that has grown-up around sequence comprises an -bounded package of stratigraphy: judging by its sparse usage within the genetically related strata, whose internal geometries papers of this volume much of it is redundant are influenced largely by fluctuating (Fig. anyway. The interested reader should refer to the 1). This model evolved from regional mapping reviews of Haq (1991), Vail et al. (1991), Mitchum (Sloss 1963), and was later developed from seismic- & Van Wagoner (1991), Posamentier et al. (1992) reflection profiles on passive continental margins and Posamentier & James (1993) for further details. (Payton 1977). It was further extended to a higher In essence, sequence stratigraphy is practised resolution using data from the surface and sub- through the recognition of key surfaces which surface in many geological settings (Mutti 1985; define the boundaries of packages of genetically Wilgus et al. 1988; Van Wagoner et al. 1990). Here related strata (systems tracts) and by the recognition

Fig. 1. The standard sequence stratigraphical model for siliciclastic systems (based on Haq et al. 1988 and, Christie- Blick & Driscoll 1995) showing the different areas covered by papers in this volume. Wright (this volume) and Coe (this volume) discuss successions that were carbonate ramps, with an implied sequence stratigraphical character not dissimilar to siliciclastic deposits (see Schlager 1992; Tucker et al. 1993). A sequence boundary. (SB) is defined as an unconformity and its basinward correlative conformity. The lower of the sequence boundaries in this figure (type 1) is distinguished from the upper one (type 2) by its association with 'fan' sedimentation at the toe of slope, which has been related to rapid, high-magnitude, relative sea-level fall. The maximumflooding surface (MFS) corresponds to the time of greatest landward extent of the belts within a depositional sequence, and is characterized by detrital starvation in basinward regions. The transgressive surface (TS) is a widespread horizon across which deep- water abruptly overlie shallow water sediments, and it forms as the underlying progradational sedimentary succession is flooded by rising relative sea level. Systems tracts are defined between these key surfaces. For full discussion of this model, definition of systems tracts and their relation to relative and eustatic sea-level change the reader should refer to Haq et al. (1988), Posamentier & Vail (1988), Posamentier et al. (1988, 1990, 1992), Mitchum & Van Wagoner (1991), Vail et al. (1991) Jacquin et al. (1992) and Posamentier & James (1993). Useful critiques and alternative models are provided by Miall (1986), Galloway (1989), Carter et al. (1991), Fulthorpe (1991), Schlager (1991),Walker (1992) and Christie-Blick & Driscoll (1995), and references therein. As a substitute for depositional sequences as defined above, Galloway (1989) has proposed use of genetic stratigraphic sequences bounded by maximum flooding surfaces, and his approach has also been followed by many workers.

From HESSELBO, S. P. & PARKINSON, D. N. (eds), 1996, Sequence Stratigraphy in British Geology, Geoloeical Society Special Publication No. 103. Do. 1-7. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

2 S.P. HESSELBO & D. N. PARKINSON of transgressive and regressive facies trends within those packages (Fig. 1). The model is hierarchical and, to some extent, independent of time or physi- Paleogene cal scale. I~i Knox The power of the sequence stratigraphical model Shanmugam et al. probably lies in its simplicity (see summary in Gale Christie-Blick & Driscoll 1995) but many of the 100- I1. Wonham& Elliott fundamental questions posed as a result of the early sequence stratigraphical work remain unanswered, ~~---- Coe for example the relative importance of eustasy Tyson versus more localized tectonic effects (e.g. Parkin- Jurassic son & Summerhayes 1985; Hubbard 1988; and I[~ Parkinson many others) or sediment supply (e.g. Galloway z00- Macquaker et al. 1989). Thus, the topic of sequence stratigraphy pro- Triassic vides much fertile ground for further theoretical and ~" empirical work, whether concerned with verifi- v & cation, refutation or modification of the standard < Permian sequence stratigraphical model, or whether con- cerned with the application of the model to help 30o- solve wider geological problems. In addressing the application of sequence stratig- Carboniferous I1: .ee0er.S,e a. raphy to British geology, this book focuses perforce Wright on diverse aspects of sequence stratigraphy that tend to cut across divisions based on depositional Devonian environment or age alone. There are two main 4o0- ~ Macquakeret aL themes that run through most of the papers in this Silurian volume. I -~ Woodcocket aL (1) Biostratigraphical control is commonly so good in much of the British area, that precise corre- lations are possible within and between basins, and the geologist need not speculate whether the ele- 5OO- ments of a depositional sequence in one basin are precisely synchronous with those in another: this Cambrian can be established as fact or fiction (see for example Hesselbo & Jenkyns 1995, 1996; Coe 1995, this volume; Parkinson, this volume). For this reason, Precambrian - Glover& McKie many of the British outcrop sections serve as stan- 6OO l dards that can be compared to other areas around Fig. 2. Stratigraphical column showing the range of the world. This was recognized early on by Haq et geological ages covered by papers in this volume. The al. (1988) who derived much of their proposed time scale is based on Harland et al. (1990), Cande & global sea-level history from a sequence strati- Kent (I 992), and Gradstein et al. (1994). graphical analysis of British sections. (2) Many geologists have to work with the rocks they are given, rather than the rocks they would interpret by choice. Many, perhaps all, of the suc- intention to maximize the stratigraphical coverage cessions described within this volume may rightly in order to gauge the impact that sequence stratigra- be considered as difficult to interpret using the phy is having upon our understanding of the ge- simple (to some, simplistic) framework of the stan- ology of the British Isles. Nonetheless, the papers dard sequence stratigraphical model. However, as is fall more evenly into groups based largely on depo- demonstrated by several of the papers in this sitional setting, and it is by this criterion that we volume, sequence stratigraphical ideas can cast new briefly review the contents below: light on problematic facies and, in return, problem- atic facies can offer critical insights into the Non-marine and paralic sequences sequence stratigraphical model (see also, for example, Tucker 1991). Non-marine settings perhaps represent the most The studies in this volume concern both surface difficult of depositional systems for the application and subsurface geology and cover most parts of the of sequence stratigraphy. Not only are the problems British stratigraphical column (Fig. 2). It was our of correlation at their most extreme but also the Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

INTRODUCTION 3 simple fact of distance from sea means that strata peritidal carbonates in Early Carboniferous deposi- may be totally unaffected by sea-level change. The tional sequences of southwest Britain, and con- process by which the standard sequence strati- cludes that their character and spatial distribution graphical model has been constructed, a 'distilla- do not support the operation of high frequency, tion' from many ancient and modern case studies by moderate amplitude eustatic sea-level fluctuations inductive reasoning (Walker 1990, 1992; Christie- during that time (cf. Elrick & Read, 1991). Blick & Driscoll 1995), is not of itself adequate for the sedimentary systems with poor chronostrati- Shallow marine sequences graphical records such as the fluvial system. Hence, recent attempts to understand the controls of stratal By virtue of their commonly highly refined bio- geometries in non-marine settings have concen- stratigraphy, shallow-marine deposits offer the trated on forward modelling. Two different greatest chance of assessing the synchoneity or approaches to modelling fluvial systems are illus- otherwise of inferred relative sea-level cycles in trated by papers in this volume. In the first study, widely separated basins (e.g. de Graciansky et al. Burgess & Allen take a geometrical approach, 1996). However, although simpler to correlate, key using equilibrium profiles in computer-generated stratigraphical surfaces from these settings may be simulations to show that changes in the shape of the no easier to relate to specific relative sea-level fluvial profile may be a first-order control on changes than they are in any other setting. sequence architecture, irrespective of conditions of In studies using subsurface data, regional correla- sea-level change. In the second study, Leeder & tion of supposed maximum flooding surfaces within Stewart use numerical experiments to model the shallow marine strata is commonly based largely on response of a river to relative sea-level fall and illus- correlation of gamma-ray maxima, thought to be trate the rates and magnitudes of channel incision generated by relatively argillaceous intervals within expected from various combinations of river slope, sandstones, organic-rich intervals within mud- shelf slope and sediment transport coefficients. stones, or mineralized surfaces within a condensed In contrast to strictly non-marine systems, paralic section (see for discussion: Milton et al. 1990; Part- settings offer potentially the greatest insights into ington et al. 1993a, b; Creany & Passey 1993; the sedimentary effects of relative sea-level change, Armentrout et al. 1993; Hesselbo 1996). Two because sea-level fluctuations leave a more direct papers within this volume address different aspects record in these facies than they do in any other. In of this topic. Tyson reviews the sequence strati- paralic environments dominated by siliciclastic graphical interpretation of organic-rich mudrocks sediment, the development of estuarine facies and then applies the principles that he derives to the within 'incised valleys' and the influence of relative Upper Jurassic Kimmeridge Clay, the main petrol- sea-level change in the organization of these valley eum source-rock for the North Sea. In contrast to fills has become an important issue, not only for other recent work on the same interval (Herbin et al. documenting sea-level history (e.g. Plint 1988; Ruf- 1995 and references therein), Tyson concludes that fell & Wach 1991), but also for predicting the sedimentary dilution, and its affect on preservation, geometries of the numerous hydrocarbon reservoirs is the principal control on organic-matter enrich- found in these settings (Dalrymple et al. 1994). In ment in these settings. Sediment dilution can be this volume, Wonham & Elliott reinterpret the related to relative sea-level change by starvation or Lower Cretaceous Woburn Sands, a classic example winnowing, lending some support to the concept of tidal sedimentation (Dalrymple 1992), as having that organic-rich mudrocks developed around the been deposited largely as an estuarine complex time of maximum flooding. Parkinson details a within superimposed incised valleys, rather than regional outcrop-based spectral gamma-ray survey either an offshore tidal environment or single trans- of Lower Jurassic strata, and shows how variations gressive estuary as have been proposed previously in the relative abundances of Th, K and U (which (Bridges 1982; Johnson & Levell 1995). contain or parent the main gamma-emitting iso- In paralic settings, palaeosols and their attendant topes) can be related to transgressive and regressive diagenesis provide crucial evidence of the subaerial facies successions in rocks which are otherwise phases in the successional history (e.g. Tucker & difficult to interpret in this respect. Wright 1990; Tucker 1993; Wright 1994). This is of Mineralized surfaces are commonly represented particular interest in peritidal carbonate succes- by ooidal ironstones or 'bone beds'; two further sions, because vertical thickness variations of shallow-marine facies of problematic origin. Their metre-scale carbonate cycles have been widely used significance in sequence stratigraphy is discussed as a reliable monitor of relative sea-level fluctua- from a geochemical viewpoint by Maequaker et tions at a number of frequencies (discussed in al., who conclude that although the phosphate-rich Drummond & Wilkinson 1993). In this volume, 'bone beds' are most likely to have formed on Wright reviews the occurrence of palaeosols within marine flooding surfaces, oolitic ironstones can Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

4 S.P. HESSELBO & D. N. PARKINSON have formed over a much wider range of relative Regional studies sea-level conditions. The interrelationships between eustasy, tectonics, A very different approach to the use of sequence igneous activity and climate are brought out well by stratigraphy as applied to shallow-marine facies is regional studies. Drawing on much new work on the illustrated by Coe. After first establishing a Paleocene of northwest Europe summarized in sequence stratigraphical template from a relatively Knox et al. (1996), it has been possible for Knox to complete Upper Jurassic shallow-marine carbonate suggest clear relationships in space and time succession, she then uses this to effect a coherent between the uplift of shallow-water areas, deposi- interpretation on a basin-wide scale, of strati- tion in deep-water areas and activity in the British graphically less complete successions. The interpre- Tertiary Igneous Province. These patterns, if veri- tation takes correlation to a greater degree of fied as further new data become available, should resolution than obtainable through current biostrati- provide constraints on tectonic and geophysical graphical methods. models for the uplift of the British area during the early phases of sea-floor spreading in the adjacent Deep marine sequences Atlantic. The spectral gamma-ray data from the Lower The prediction of deep-marine sedimentary facies Jurassic of northwest Europe refered to above and their large-scale depositional geometries is dis- (Parkinson) show regional patterns in elemental cussed by Shanmugam et al. who, by reference to abundances that suggest temporal and geographical subsurface examples from the Paleogene and Cre- changes in detrital clay mineral assemblages pro- taceous in and around the North Sea area, challenge duced either by means of a large-scale fine-grained the view that 'basin floor fans' as defined by their sediment-transport path, or changing palaeoclimatic seismic-reflection and geophysical-log character, influences on the clay minerals derived locally. This are composed predominantly of turbidite facies, study suggests much future work documenting preferring instead to consider them as comprising regional patterns in spectral gamma-ray data and mostly debris flows and slumps. investigating their significance as palaeogeographi- A combination of detailed section measurement cal or palaeoclimatological indicators via their and basin-wide biostratigraphical and lithological relationship to clay mineralogy (cf. Hesselbo 1996; correlation has allowed Gale to reconstruct the Deconinck & Vanderaveroet 1996). larger scale geometrical relationships of a pelagic Special problems apply to the sequence stratigra- succession, the Upper Cretaceous Chalk of southern phy of Neoproterozoic successions (Christie-Blick England. The geometrical relationships of these et al. 1995). These problems are obviously com- rocks exhibit strong similarities to those described pounded when the studied succession is sited within from outer-shelfal siliciclastic deposits. Importantly, an orogenic belt. At first sight, the metasedimentary Gale demonstrates that the putative major transgres- Dalradian of the Scottish Caledonides would appear sive hardgrounds correspond to positive carbon-iso- to be unpromising ground for the application of tope excursions. Although carbon isotopes may be a sequence stratigraphy, but Glover & McKie use the good proxy for relative sea-level change, these recognition of depositional sequences to provide results for Mesozoic pelagic carbonates contrast criteria for the correlation of shallow-marine facies with those from Cenozoic shallow-marine examples to deep-marine facies and to suggest new locations which, according Baum et al. (1994), show negative for the basin depocentres. Further work of this kind excursions during rising relative sea level. may significantly advance our understanding of the In a detailed and basin-wide study of predomi- early history of the northern margin of Iapetus (see nantly deep-water siliciclastic deposits Woodcock Soper 1994; Soper & England 1995). et al. build on the earlier work of Woodcock (1990) to investigate the probable interactions of tectonics, sediment supply and eustasy as applied to the late Summary Ordovician and early Silurian of the Welsh Basin. In Stratigraphy, and particularly sequence stratigraphy, common with the regional studies outlined below, is an integrating discipline, so we are particularly these authors illustrate that the debate concerning pleased to have contributions from industry, aca- tectonics versus eustasy is still very much alive, demia and the British Geological Survey in varying especially in tectonic settings that are known to combinations. We hope that this diverse collection have been highly active during deposition. They of papers may go some way to demonstrating the also highlight the importance of considering mul- value of sequence stratigraphy: at several scales of tiple sediment sources and the possible distinctly analysis; in a variety of tectonic settings; to a wide different eustatic, climatic or tectonic influences range of geological ages; and using many different that may have operated on each source (cf. Gallo- kinds of geological and geophysical data-set. way 1989). Predicting the future direction of any branch of Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

INTRODUCTION 5 knowledge will always be a tricky business. How- --., Dyson, I. A. & VON DER BORCH, C. C. 1995. ever, advances in sequence stratigraphy may come Sequence stratigraphy and the interpretation of Neo- from: ever better chronostratigraphical and chrono- proterozoic Earth history. Precambrian Research, metrical calibration of ancient successions; techno- 73. COE, A. L. 1995. A comparison of the Oxfordian succes- logical developments leading to higher resolution sions of Dorset, Oxfordshire and Yorkshire. In: imaging of stratigraphical geometries; and a more TAYLOR, P. D. (ed.) Field Geology of the British sophisticated understanding of the relationship Jurassic. Geological Society, London, 151-172. between climatic change and the sedimentary CREANEY, S. & PASSEY, Q. R. 1993. Recurring patterns of record. Whatever the prospect for sequence stratig- total organic carbon and source rock quality within a raphy, we hope that the papers in this volume will sequence stratigraphic framework. American Associ- provide enough thoughtfully generated strati- ation of Petroleum Geologists, Bulletin, 77, graphical data (sensu lato) to aid future studies 386--401. whose aims may be entirely unrelated to our own. DALRYMPLE, R. W. 1992. Tidal depositional systems. In: WALKER, R. G. & JAMES, N. P. (eds) Facies Models: Response to Sea Level Change. Geological Associ- We thank the many referees whose thoroughness has led ation of Canada, 195-218. to significant improvements in the quality of this volume, , BOYD, R. & ZAITLIN, B. A. (eds) 1994. Incised- and Harold Reading for useful comments on a draft of this Valley Systems: Origin and Sedimentary Sequences. introduction. We are grateful to BP Exploration for Special Publications of the Society for Sedimentary providing the abstract volume at the Burlington House Geology, 51. meeting in March 1994 (sponsored by the Stratigraphy DECONINCK, J. 1:7. • VANDERAVEROET,P. 1996. Eocene to Committee and the Petroleum Group of the Geological clay mineral sedimentation off New Society) at which several of these papers were initially Jersey, western North Atlantic (ODP Leg 150, Sites presented. We record our particular thanks to Colin 903 and 905). In: MOUNTAIN, G. S., MILLER, K. G., Summerhayes for enabling and encouraging much of our BLUM, P. & TWlTCHELL, D. C. (eds) Proceedings of early involvement with this topic. the Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 150, New Jersey continental slope and rise, in press. References DE GRACIANSKY,P. C., HARDENBOL,J., JACQUIN,T., VAIL, P. R. & FARLEY, M. S.(eds) 1996. Mesozoic and Ceno- ARMENTROUT, J. M., MALECEK, S. J., FEARN, L. B., zoic Sequence Stratigraphy of European Basins. SHEPPARD, C. E., NAYLOR, P. H., MILES, A. W., Special Publications of the SEPM. DESMARAIS, R. J. & DUNAY, R. E. 1993. Log-motif DRUMMOND, C. N. & WILKINSON, B. H. 1993. On the use analysis of Paleogene depositional systems tracts, of cycle thickness diagrams as records of long-term Central and Northern North Sea: defined by sealevel change during accumulation of carbonate sequence stratigraphic analysis. In: PARKER, J. R. sequences. Journal of Geology, 101, 687-702. (ed.) Petroleum Geology of Northwest Europe: Pro- ELRICK, M. & READ, J. F. 1991. Cyclic ramp-to-basin ceedings of the 4th Conference. Geological Society, carbonate deposits, Lower Mississippian, Wyoming London, 45-57. and Montana: a combined field and computer BAUM, J. S., BAUM, G. R., THOMPSON, P. R. & HUMPHREY, modelling study. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, J. D. 1994. 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6 S. E HESSELBO & D. N. PARKINSON

Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralo- MITCHUM, R. M. JR &VAN WAGONER, J. C. 1991. High fre- gists, 42, 71-108. quency sequences and their stacking patterns: HARLAND,W. B., ARMSTRONG,R. L., Cox, A. V., CRAIG, L. sequence-stratigraphic evidence of high-frequency E., SMITH, A. G. & SMITH, D. G. 1990. A Geologic eustatic cycles. Sedimenta9 Geology, 70, 131-160. Time Scale 1989. Cambridge University Press, Cam- MUTTI, E. 1985. Turbidite systems and their relations to bridge. depositional sequences. In: ZUFFA,G. G. (ed.) Prove- HERBIN, J. P., FERNANDEZ-MARTINEZ,J. L., GEYSSANT, J. nance of Arenites. NATO-ASI series, Reidel, Dor- R, ALBANI, A. EL., DECONINCK, J. E, PROUST, J. N., drecht, 65-93. COLBEAUX, J. P. ~ VIDIER, J. P. 1995. Sequence PARKINSON, D. N. & SUMMERHAYES,C. 1985. Synchonous stratigraphy of source rocks applied to the study of global sequence boundaries. 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INTRODUCTION 7

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