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Home , Growth management, New Urbanism, Smart Growth, Urban sprawl

ICPM-2012. Crisis Management in the Time of Changing World From Garden to : The Evolution and Management of New

Chen Youzhen1，Duan Longlong2

1,2 School of Public Administration, Southwest Jiaotong University， Chengdu，P.R.China，610031 (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected])

Abstract class polarization along with the presence of gated communities in , bringing more Under the influence of industrialization and fragmentation in urban spaces. Distinguished rapid growth after World War II, by low density development and scattered , central ’ recession and distribution, caused many diseases have become three tumors problems of the privatization of public spaces that restricted urban the embezzlement of lots of urban lands and in western countries, so the has the acceleration of social contradiction and arisen. From garden city to smart growth, new social isolation ， so the rectification of urbanism thoughts have experienced long-term suburbanization and the containment of urban evolution. Diversification, compactness, public sprawl have become core issues of urban transportation and social integration advocated development in main western countries since by new urbanism have been supported by the mid-20th century. majority of people. The paper illustrates, in The great discussion about “challenges to detail, the evolution and management of new ” urbanism. urban sprawl has continued for nearly half a century, but there have not been many agreements on inter-cultural universal Key words Garden city; Smart Growth; measures. In and , the Evolution; Management; New Urbanism scholars have their own opinions，but hold a doubtful attitude to the others’ solutions. Even 1. Introduction in the academic circle of geography，scholars in North American and Europe hold different and economic opinions，and their main disputes concern two globalization have been the two most important factors affecting the evolution of city forms space forms of urban sustainable development, since the 19th century. International flows of namely dispersion or compactness[2]. Firstly capital, technical progress and a series of we need to make it clear that compact space material civilization transmutation make form of city is certain; here dispersion or continuous decomposition and reconstruction compactness just mean two forms of compact in city scale and urban space forms in many city, i.e.multiple-centers or single-center. countries. Dominated by new liberalism and Based on the specific practices of the two laissez-faire thoughts, urban sprawl, space forms，a series of ideas about urban suburbanization and de- become forms have arisen. New urbanism is one of three characteristics of urban space forms in them. It includes new modes of urban forms contemporary western countries. [1] The and development, learns experience from -oriented transit mode produced in numerous thoughts and urban development industrial city leads to over-exploitation of practices，affirms compact forms, advocates abundant urban lands and poses a challenge to mixed-used and diversified urban transit modes. the safety and ecological protection of central It builds self-included community, creates clear cities. Suburbanization, on one hand, caused urban landmarks and opposes car-oriented central cities’ recession increased the extensive development. Because new urbanism difficulties of urban regeneration; and on the brings nice community vision to citizens and other hand, accelerated social exclusion and local governments, it has become a successful

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example among numerous thoughts about both in theory and in practice there exist urban form development [3]. different judge standards. New urbanism is an outcome of historical, experience and 2. The origin of new urbanism：wrestle references. Howard’s garden city theory, Perry’s neighbor unit’s theory and urban between theories and practices regeneration theory of Site promote the As the outcome of both theory and practice, evolution of new urbanism. [6] new urbanism thoughts widely exist in the western countries nowadays. New urbanism 3. From Garden City to Smart Growth: the tend to express itself more in practice than in Evolution and Management theory, which is determined by its first spread in ekistics, so to seek the origin of new Historically, the concept and planning ideas of urbanism needs to examine both the theory and Garden City has a big impact on the formation the practice. and evolution of the subsequent new urbanism. First, in practice, new urbanism traces back Even after a-century-long changes, the essence to the “Pruitt-Ego” high public residence in of the Garden City concepts has affected much Saint Louis in 1972. Also it may date back to the thoughts of the contemporary new 2500 B.C. in Indian Valley. A lot of urban urbanism. After Garden City, the school of characteristics at that time, such as mixed uses, revisionism appeals to improve the designs of small blocks and walk-oriented modes, are Garden City and to develop the suburban areas applied in new urbanism now. In theory, of the city. In 1920s and 1930s, they put scholars on new urbanism universally take forward modes such as "Neighborhood Units" Camillo Sitte’s works The and "Sunshine Cities", in an attempt to expand Depends on Its Artistic Principle published in the values of Garden City by connecting the 1989, as the origin of new urbanism. In his suburbanization development with compact book, Sitte opposes straightforward avenues layouts, good public spaces and emphasis on designed by the Europeans and encourages ecological balance in the thoughts of Garden people to apply architectural principles of City. They also intended to evolve the European medieval. Just from this point of idealistic mode of Howard to the suburban view, new urbanism tends to advocate cross development mode. Owing to these concepts, mergings of tradition and modernity. [4] the revisionist school has become the main Although Sitte’s works, to a great extent, is driver of the urban sprawl and the regarded as the origin of new urbanism, his suburbanization movement. [7] It was not until works contributes little to the spread of new 1980s when people from all walks of life urbanism concerning theoretical construction. fiercely criticized the suburban sprawl and the In coomparison, ’ works The Life metropolitan diseases that the revisionists’ and Death of Great American Cities (1961) rights of discourse was deprived, which made does the most theoretical contribution to new new urbanism, which advocates to curb the urbanism. Jane Jacobs holds the opinion that sprawl and to construct the real harmonious the vitality of the city comes from the density, community, step on the stage of history. mixed uses and diversified neighborhoods，so 3.1. Garden City: Origin of New Urbanism he opposes to built high-rise buildings and The concept of Garden City was brought up large because they aggravate crimes and under the background where the recession of social isolation. Good cities and neighborhoods central cities and the suburbanization coexisted. must be committed to connect people from At that time, the appealing to the reversion of different sectors [5]. Based on this theory and the middle class became the major objective to combined with the tendencies in 1970s such as maintain the healthy development of cities. compact urban forms, historical Therefore, the social objectives of Garden City renewal, urban revitalization and mixed were reflected throughout the community division, new urbanism clearly puts forward designs of the garden cities, which advocated integrated theories about different forms of the harmonious development between the urban development, and the theoretical society and the nature, a reasonable density, paradigm of new urbanism was established. affordable residences which could be accepted In fact, even the scholars of new urbanism by each family, and the community residents admit that when people try to find the origin

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who could enjoy independence. In the specific the "Neighborhood Units" theory to adapt to design concepts, Garden City, on the one hand, the development of the urban motor offered the detailed and boundary in the transportation in attempt to redesign the layout urban functions, emphasized the importance of of the residential areas at the center and at the the urban system, and limited the suburban edge of the city. With a continuation of the sprawl by reasonably using the multilayer compact layout concept of Garden City, it layout of a central city with satellite towns and advocated the mixed use of land, construction the strict land sizes. On the other hand, it of public spaces and harmonious neighborhood outlined a layout with harmony between the relationships. It focused on the construction of society and the nature; it also created the public facilities in the community, called for mutual coordination between work places and the school-centered community construction public spaces by building gardens around the mode, promoted the development of public central city, using wide traffic connection spaces linked by the neighborhood relationship, between the central city and satellite towns, and enhanced the social justice and the class and setting greenbelts and public facilities integration [10]. In this way it not only greatly along the transportation axis. On the whole, amended and updated the deficiencies of the Garden City brought up an overall social urban traditional Garden City concepts, but also planning mode which was fair, interconnected provided the ideological foundation for new and self-sufficient. [8] urbanism thought. In 1940s and 1950s, the Garden City has been prospering in a design concept of Neighborhood Units was century long period because, as it successful popular for some time, but it was proved in defined the urban problems by using the values practice that the implementation of both of local communities. In the meanwhile, it Garden City and Neighborhood Units failed to provided the government with specific effectively put the suburbanization and the strategies which met the needs of economic urban sprawl under control. Instead, they development and achieved goals of the accelerated the urban expansion in the spatial management from a wide range of social and regions. political visions. [9] Garden City was the first 3.3. Traditional Neighborhood Design compact design concept aiming at the urban （ TND ） : the Commencement of New sprawl and the suburbanized transformation, of Urbanism which the design of landscape and places adopted the values reflecting the community Although the concepts of Garden City and spirits. Therefore, it exerted a great influence Neighborhood Units had countless ties with on new urbanism later. new urbanism thoughts, the theoretical circle 3.2. Neighborhood Units: the Amendment officially regarded the emergence of the and Update of the Garden City Concepts Traditional Neighborhood Development as the commencement of new urbanism. This design Howard did not explain the functional zoning was brought up by Duany (2000), a and the modes of the central city and well-known representative of new urbanism. satellite towns in the blueprint of the Garden The basic principle of the design was to City, which resulted in the much less assume that a clear and closed space would operability of the Garden City in practice. The bring comfort to the residents in the world's first garden city Letchworth was built community, so more attention was paid to the based on the designer’s reference to other space design of the community and the city trends of thoughts and cultural values, so the center. TND often regarded the city center with original intension of Garden City was commerce, municipality and mixed residence practically cast off. Therefore, Garden City as the sign of community and the core of social was gradually replaced by the Garden contacts; squares and greenbelts were used to Suburbanization concepts which became a new create public spaces and places; the residential trend in the development of suburbs. complex with the medium building density and Neighborhood Units was one of it. the low-rise buildings were adopted to enhance In 1930s, Perry (1930) discussed in detail the social contacts in the community; narrow about the functional layout of the community streets were taken to adjust layout of garages, and the central city which was never involved limit driving speed and enhance the in the Garden City concepts. He put forward possibilities; emphases were given to the visual

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consistency of economic grade residences and landscape or use the TOD principles to conduct top grade ones.[11] TND designers believed the development. Therefore, it has a high that the reconstruction of living environment flexibility. The design of City Villages is and the architectural scenes could promote the characterized by self-sufficiency, harmonious integration of the community and create a good neighborhood relationship, sufficient public social order. However, as the high quality of spaces and compact layouts. In general, City the space design needed a large number of Villages needs to have a central square, financial and human resources, the ideas of greenbelts, and streets mainly for , TND designers were often difficult to achieve mixed uses of land, well-developed by the market mechanism. The economic transportation networks, commercial centers, residence often became a costly luxury, which schools, places of employment, and other was still a nightmare for poor families. As a supporting public facilities. Owing to the result, the social division still existed. compact layouts and the mixed residences, 3.4. Transit-oriented Development (TOD) City Villages requires the residential areas to and City Villages: Expansion of New be near the employment places, public Urbanism facilities, schools and commercial centers so as to form a reasonably distributed spatial mode. TOD and City Villages, another two modes of Meanwhile, City Villages requires a high new urbanism thoughts, have the basic features proportion of economic and public residences, of new urbanism concepts with different which are a strong guarantee to promote social focuses. TOD focuses on the impact of the contacts and eliminate the class isolation. design of the transportation means on the urban 3.5. Smart Growth: Sublimation of New spaces and land uses while City Villages on the Urbanism Theories design of streets and communities. Calthorpe (1993) and Kelbaugh (1989), the TOD After thirty years of evolution and management, advocators, argues that the transportation new urbanism thoughts are mostly known for manner exerts a more direct impact on the their practices. However, their theoretical community or urban residents and the regional construction and elaboration are not in-depth mode of transportation has an important impact enough. The representative figures of new on the spatial forms of the city [12-13]. urbanism generally agree that theories are the Therefore, the design of the TOD seeks to limit best means to publicize the values of new the use of private by using the public urbanism, but planners never make designs in transportation and the stop design to change full accordance with the theories, nor do they the utilization mode of zones and land. With care about the value of promoting good designs the mixed methods, it uses the land near the to the theories. [14] As a result, since 1990s, transit hubs differently as commercial centers, new urbanism has started the theoretical pedestrian streets and work places. The construction in order to obtain the support from networking transit hub is taken as the center to politicians and the public, which gave birth to divide the clear peripheral zones so as to form the theory of Smart Growth. the scattered pattern from the center with the No matter whether it is to realize the low residential density to the edges with the designers’ personal values or the social high residential density. The transit hub is expectations, the concepts of new urbanism are taken as the center to determine the boundary established on the basis of urban development. of the urban growth and the clear scope of the Without the urban growth and the sustainable public space. development, everything should become a The City Villages is different in that it not fantasy. When it happened that the public only includes more TND principles and the strongly resisted a series of urban problems Neighborhood Units concepts, but also absorbs caused by the overexpansion of the city in many TOD designs, so it can be regarded as 1990s, the Smart Growth proposal was the typical example of references and mixture accepted by politicians and the public very within new urbanism frames. As another mode quickly. In a short time, the thought spread out. of new urbanism, City Villages focuses on the The theory of Smart Growth pointed out that compact design layout, mixed land use and the major problems of urban growth after residential complex. It can either follow the World War II were caused by the improper TND principles to create the community . It was because the

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government adopted the growth management public policies to intervene in the development policies of the strict control and partition and management. At the same time, it planning that led to the urban sprawl, recession reiterated the so-called "compact, mixed, in areas, overlong diversified, pedestrian-oriented, and distances and high prices of residence. differentiating the center from edges” Therefore, Smart Growth advocated the new principles of New urbanism. So far, Smart , allowed the cities and towns Growth has been feasible in the free market to plan their growth in wider scopes, reduced system, for it has encouraged the development the negative external pressures by reasonable and access of private sectors to a large extent. uses of existing , and called for [15]

Thoughts Determined Problems Major Concepts Resolutions Fate of the Thoughts Garden City Sprawl, over-sized Equal, beautiful, Developing cheap Dominating mode in cities, separated from sanitary, family, lands, controlling the the 20th century, the nature, expensive community, growth, limiting the gradually simplified residences, and poor nature, and density, simulating and evolved as the conditions country life nature, and separating mode functions Neighborho Auto/pedestrian Beautiful, Traffic separation, Popular since 1930s, od Units selection, lack of signs, family, effective, functional separation, and integrated to lack of communities community layouts centered at Garden City schools School of Sprawl, retro, layers, Technology, High buildings, high Popular in urban Revisionism degradation, confusion equal, effective, density, functional centers and public civilization, separation, multilayer residences, and functionalism layout of integrated to Garden City at the later stage TND/TOD Sprawl, auto-oriented Beautiful, equal, Mixed uses, increasing The new ideal adopted development, pedestrian, density, residential at the end of 20th ugly-looking community, complex, urban signs, century, popular in tradition transformed square some countries, and layout belonging to New urbanism City Lack of places and Civilized, Traditional classic Economic residences Villages signs, and lack of beautiful, equal, , mixed are hard to realize, economic residence in pedestrian, uses, density, designed areas are communities community, residential complex, faced with reduction, tradition, country village standards, and and it is integrated to life local styles New urbanism Smart Sprawl, recession, high Equal, limited, Mixed uses, increasing Popular in the free Growth price of residence, and and government density, residential market mechanism auto-oriented intervention complex, regional planning, and public policies

Table 1: The History and Features of New Urbanism Thoughts

the developing direction of new urbanism 4. Conclusion thoughts in the future is still unclear to us.

After the long evolution and improved Acknowledgment: Sponsored by the management, new urbanism has gradually Fundamental Research Funds for the Central become a mature concept and Universities (No.SWJTU12CX123) and by the prevailed in many countries in the world. The Creation Group led by Ms. Chen Youzhen in emergence of new urbanism, to some extent, School of Public Administration, Southwest reflects the needs of the government and the Jiaotong University. public to iron out the disorder of the urban space and the suburbanized sprawl. However,

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