Anthropomorphic Napi Effigies on the Northwestern Plains: a Petroform Record of Siksikaitsitapi (Blackfoot) Belief Trevor R

Archaeological discoveries and syntheses in Western Canada, 2020

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ALBERTA OCCASIONAL PAPER NO. 40

Anthropomorphic Napi effigies on the northwestern Plains: A petroform record of Siksikaitsitapi (Blackfoot) belief Trevor R. Pecka*

a Circle CRM Group Inc., 102, 9440 49 Street, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, T6B 2M9 *corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Anthropomorphic Napi effigies are petroforms (boulder outlines) of a static, frontal, male figure with a simple head, rectangular body, upraised arms, heart-line (lifeline), simple-extensions legs with out-turned feet and male genitalia. These petroforms have been called ‘Napi’ effigies owing to evidence linking them to the Siksikaitsitapi (Blackfoot) entity. This link was suggested over 50 years ago by Thomas F. Kehoe, Alice B. Kehoe and Richard G. Forbis for anthropomorphic petroforms in Montana, Alberta and Saskatchewan. More recently, J. Roderick Vickers formalized criteria that separate these Napi effigies from other human effigies. Since then, six new figures meeting the criteria of Napi effigies have been found compelling the reconsideration of four previously discounted effigies. This larger- sam ple of distinct anthropomorphic effigies (n=22) provides an opportunity for a further assessment of their style and distribution. A stronger case is made for linking the distinct anthropomorphic effigies to theSiksikaitsitapi (Blackfoot).

KEYWORDS Napi (Old Man), Natos/Natosi (Sun, Creator Sun), Siksikaitsitapi (Blackfoot), Old Women’s Phase, legendary history/ mythology, petroform, human effigy

1. Introduction Napi effigies are petroforms (boulder outlines) ofa ed their authorship and age has not been resolved (Worm- static, frontal, male figure with a simple single-tier cairn ington and Forbis 1965:100; Vickers 2008:218). head, rectangular body, upraised arms (sometimes with fingers), heart-line (or lifeline), simple-extension legs (of- Vickers (2003, 2008) provided the most recent review ten with out-turned feet) and genitalia (Kehoe and Kehoe of Napi effigies establishing that twelve figures are pres- 1959; Wormington and Forbis 1965; Vickers 2003, 2008). ent on the Northern Plains. The current paper provides These archaeological phenomena are referred to as Napi evidence of six newly recorded human effigies that meet effigies owing to the efforts of numerous researchers to the criteria for Napi effigies; these new data provide com- link them to the venerated Siksikaitsitapi (Blackfoot) enti- pelling evidence for reconsideration of four previously ty. While there is no doubt that the effigies are recognised discounted effigies. The larger sample of Napi effigies as Napi by modern Blackfoot people (Kehoe and Kehoe (n=22) allows for an expanded assessment of style and 1959:123; Vickers 2008:199), past scholars have suggest- distribution.

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2. Background With regards to further interpretation of anthropomor- Napi effigies were first described in the archaeological -lit phic effigies, Wormington and Forbis (1965:100) were quite erature in 1956 (Daugherty 1956:219; Krieger 1956:450). At guarded. They acknowledged that the effigies surrounded by this time, however, the figures were not ascribed to Napi. In specific oral histories could be linked to that group and con- 1959, Kehoe and Kehoe (1959:125) documented the Boze- sidered historic or proto-historic, while the more ‘mythical’ man effigy and tied it to Grinnell’s re-telling of Napi’s travels: human effigies interpreted as Napi may have been constructed by unrelated people and taken over by the Blackfoot as [Old Man] made the Milk River (the Teton) and crossed these figures are widely distributed over the Northern Plains. it, and being tired, went up on a little hill and lay down Thus, Wormington and Forbis (1965:98-100) recognised two to rest. As he lay on his back, stretched out on the basic categories of human figures: Historic Period effigies ground, with arms extended, he marked himself out documenting actual historic events and single figures without with stones, - the shape of his body, head, legs, arms associated features representing the ‘mythological’ past. and everything (Grinnell 1962:137). Gill and Hymers (1968) examined the human effigy at Cabri In another Grinnell reference, they noted: Lake, Saskatchewan and echoed sentiments of the Kehoes (1959) that such anthropomorphic effigies were representa- When [Old Man] had come nearly to the Red Deer’s tions of Napi. Working in Montana, Malouf (1975) recorded River, he reached the hill where the Old Man sleeps. the Bozeman human effigy and attributed it to the Blackfoot There he lay down and rested himself. The form of his citing the Kehoes (1959). Interestingly the Kehoes, who had body is to be seen there yet (Grinnell 1892:143 in Ke- supplied much initial insight to human effigies, provided an hoe and Kehoe 1959:125). interpretation at the Roy River’s Medicine Wheel that shift- ed emphasis away from human effigies. At the Roy Rivers The Kehoes acknowledged there were a number of other Medicine Wheel, a cluster of cobbles inside the stone circle effigies similar in form and appearance to the Bozeman effigy and adjacent to the cairn had been mapped and interpreted in Alberta’s Red Deer River area, including Steveville (Sand- as a ‘man’ but the Kehoes reinterpreted the cluster of stones gathe), Rumsey, and Consort, and another in Saskatchewan. as a ‘sunburst’ owing to their interest at the time in celestial Although willing to suggest ties to Napi, it is interesting that alignments and petroforms (Kehoe and Kehoe 1979). More the Kehoes referred to these effigies as ‘dead’ boulder effigies recently, Brace (2005) synthesized petroforms on the North- owing to their lack of associated historic narrative accounts ern Plains. With regards to human effigies, he provided an (Kehoe and Kehoe 1959:123). They took this position despite updated list of recorded sites, but little with regards to novel that fact that one of their own informants, Chewing Black interpretation. Bones, attributed the Bozeman effigy to “…the mythical Napi, the Old Man, or Creator” (Kehoe and Kehoe 1959:125). Vickers (1998, 2003, 2008) synthesised knowledge of human effigies on the Plains and provided strong evidence that In Alberta, Richard Forbis of the Glenbow Foundation had Napi effigies are a sub-group of human effigies on the Plains. been recording Napi effigies since the mid-1960s (Alberta As a larger group, human effigies consist of petroforms cre- Archaeological Site Data Inventory Forms- EiPf-1, ElPd-44). ated using boulder outlines, rock cairns, or boulder filled fig- Wormington and Forbis (1965, see also Forbis 1970:32-34) ures, rock covered mounds, and even sod cut figures, all of discussed the Consort, British Block, and Rumsey effigies which are restricted to the Central and Northern Plains (Vick- as likely representing “…the peregrinations of Napi, the ers 2008). While human effigies take on a variety of forms, Blackfoot trickster, as he coursed his way over the Alberta Vickers (2008) refined Wormington and Forbis’ (1965) ideas Plains”. They noted that these human figures lacked accom- and argued that petroforms depicting humans on the Plains panying ‘action’ features. In contrast, Wormington and For- could be classified into two distinct categories: 1) Narrative bis (1965:100) saw other human effigies as commemorating human effigies with similarities to Biographic Tradition rock historic events: art and Robe and Ledger art traditions of the Historic Period, and 2) Iconic human effigies with similarities to Ceremonial Some [human effigies] commemorate events that have Tradition rock art of the Late Prehistoric Period. This classi- occurred in living memory. They are usually concerned fication system relied heavily on previous rock art research with the murder of an individual from a neighboring (e.g., Keyser 1977, 1987; Klassen 1995) that suggested Pre- band or tribe. The effigy figures are usually accompa- historic Period images tended to consist of iconic figures that nied by other rock formations that are said to indicate were static, frontal depictions without references to actual the routes of the participants in the story. landscapes while Historic Period images were narrative with action attributes often relatable to known historic tales. 72 Peck / Archaeological Survey of Alberta Occasional Paper 40 (2020) 71–91

Narrative human effigies include petroforms such as the legs extend directly below the rectangular body with feet that Young Medicine Man effigy (EcPf-67) and the Wild- Tur appear to point south. The area where the genitals should be nip Hill effigy (DjPg-2) in Alberta (Vickers 2008). Both located exhibits a few rocks that may represent a phallus or sites are associated with historic stories and ‘action’ lines may be part of the rectangular body. Unlike other Napi ef- accompanying the ‘protagonist’ human figures (Kehoe and figies, this effigy has two small, single-tier cairns on either Kehoe 1959; Dempsey 1994). Similarly, narrative figures side of it, located at the waist-level (see Table 1, Figure 1). are known from South Dakota. At Punished Woman’s Hill a male and female human effigy, with accompanying cobble The British Block Medicine Wheel and Napi effigy lines and cairns, are associated with an historic story (Lewis (EdOp-1) is located on the highest hill in the area overlook- 1889; Vickers 2008). Some of these figures are cobble out- ing Dishpan Lake and the Middle Sand Hills. The British line figures while others are infilled and there is substantial Block Medicine Wheel, with which the Napi effigy is asso- variability in size amongst the figures (For a more complete ciated, consists of a central cobble cairn 9 m in diameter and review of narrative figures see Vickers [2008]). 5 m high that is encircled by a cobble circle 30 m in diameter (Wormington and Forbis 1965:123-124 Forbis 1970:33; Iconic human effigies are almost entirely restricted to Napi Quigg 1984:77-81). The Napi effigy is positioned within the effigies. Such figures are formed of boulder outlines on the encircling cobble circle with its feet immediately inside and prairie and are generally characterized by a rectangular body its head roughly oriented toward the centre of the cairn. The with simple extensions of the body forming the legs, out- figure is aligned roughly with its feet toward the east and its turned feet, up-raised arms, simple heads, heart-lines (life- head toward the west. The effigy, itself, consists of a cob- lines) and male genitalia (Vickers 2003:242; see also Vick- ble outline rectangular body. A single-tier cluster or cairn of ers 2008:207). cobbles forms the head. A couple cobbles may form a neck connected to a poorly defined horizontal ‘shoulder’ line. A Exceptions, or non-Napi iconic human effigies, in Alberta heart-line may also be present. Two slightly uplifted arms include the Noble Point effigy (DjPa-1) and the Herron -effi are depicted. Legs extend directly below the rectangular out- gy (EkOn-2). Vickers’ (2008) concluded there were twelve line body and exhibit out-turned feet. Several rocks appear known Napi effigies on the Northern Plains. in the genital area and a short phallus is depicted (see Table 1, Figures 1 and 2). 3. Napi effigies The Heron Napi effigy (EdOp-131) is a newly described The current paper provides evidence that six new figures figure located on a small knoll on a high point of land, north- meeting Vickers’s (2003:242, 2008:207) criteria for Napi west of British Block Medicine Wheel (Alberta Archaeo- effigies have been recorded. In light of these new effigies, logical Site Data Inventory Form - EdOp-131). The effigy four previously discounted effigies are reconsidered. Thus, is partially disturbed but elicits enough characteristics to be the following provides a review of ‘Napi’ effigies known for classified as a Napi effigy. The area above the waist is largely the Northern Plains from Alberta, Saskatchewan, Montana, disturbed. The legs appear as straight cobble lines from a North Dakota, and Kansas. disturbed body area; no feet are present. The phallus is evident and has a large cobble to form a bulbous end. The effigy 3.1 Alberta effigies is oriented with its feet towards the east and head toward the west. The effigy, unfortunately, is only known from a pho- For Alberta, Vickers (2008) described seven Napi effigies tograph taken by an avocational archaeologist and has not with another possible effigy based on a landowner descrip- been revisited in the field (see Table 1, Figure 1). tion. The current study reviews the seven known Napi effigies, adds four additional effigies and provides reconsideration of two effigies. The Sandgathe Napi effigy (EeOu-2), or Steveville Napi effigy, is located on valley-edge uplands above a part of the The McIntyre Napi effigy (EcPf-10) is a newly described Red Deer River where the banks are especially steep (Bay- petroform located on a high point of land overlooking a cou- rock 1964; Klassen 1986; Vickers and Case 1991). The effigy lee as it enters Snake Valley (now McGregor Lake) (Hjerms- has a single-tier cobble cairn head with no obvious horizon- tad 1991; Peck 2017). The effigy consists of a cobble outline tal shoulder-line, but a possible neck and a heart-line appear rectangular body oriented roughly southwest to northeast to be depicted. Arms are uplifted and have fingers. Legs are (Peck 2017). A few cobbles cluster to form a single-tier cairn relatively straight and extend directly below the body; the head. A single rock may represent a neck. Disproportionate- feet are out-turned and disproportionately large, especially ly long, uplifted arms extend from square shoulders. Straight when compared to other effigies (see Table 1, Figure 1).

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Figure 1. Map of Napi effigies (all to same scale but different North Arrows) a. McIntyre, b. British Block, c. Heron, d. Sandgathe, e. Napi’s Grave, f. Ross, g. Ward, h. Ni-Tum, i. Dorothy, j. Rumsey, k. Consort, l. Wildman Butte, m. Roy Rivers (Bullshead), n. Cabri Lake, o. Ted Douglas, p. Bozeman, q. Henry Smith No.1, r. Henry Smith No. 2, s. Federenko, and t. Penokee (courtesy of Trevor Peck: a. [Peck 2017], b., d., f., g., i.. k., n., p., q., r., s., and t. [Vickers and Peck 2009]; pers. comm. c., e.; courtesy of Meaghan Porter h. [Porter 2008]; courtesy of Archaeological Survey of Alberta: j. [Quigg 1984]; and courtesy of Saskatchewan Archaeological Society: l. and o. [Brace 2005]).

74 Peck / Archaeological Survey of Alberta Occasional Paper 40 (2020) 71–91 (m) Length 5.5 6.2 ? 6.2 8 ? 4 5.7 12 ? 6 ? 4 11 4.5 9.5 7 7.5 5.5 8.5 10 15 Alignment (head-feet) SW-NE W-E SW-NE W-E W-E NW-SE NW-SE NW-SE SW-NE disturbed NW-SE disturbed W-E N-S SW-NE NW-SE SW-NE SW-NE N-S N-S W-E SW-NE Apparel no no ? no no ? no no disturbed no disturbed no no no head apparel disturbed ? head apparel head apparel disturbed ? no Feet south out-turned no out-turned no disturbed south out-turned Right out- turned disturbed Right foot out-turned disturbed out-turned east disturbed south no out-turned right out- turned west out-turned east out-turned out-turned Legs straight straight straight straight angled straight straight bent at kness angled straight disturbed straight disturbed straight straight straight straight bent kness straight slightly angle straight straight angled bent at knees straight Phallus ? ? yes yes yes yes yes yes yes disturbed yes disturbed ? ? no yes yes yes no yes yes yes Hands no no disturbed yes no disturbed ? no yes disturbed disturbed disturbed no ? disturbed yes disturbed no no no yes ? yes Arms Body Element uplifted uplifted disturbed uplifted one uplifted, one straight disturbed ? uplifted uplifted disturbed disturbed disturbed right down left uplifted uplifted disturbed uplifted disturbed uplifted slightly uplifted uplifted uplifted uplifted Heart-line no no disturbed yes in-filled yes no no yes disturbed no disturbed ? yes ? yes disturbed no yes yes yes no Body rectangular rectangular disturbed rectangular rectangular elongate-oval rectangular ? rectangular rectangular rectangular disturbed rectangular disturbed rectangular rectangular rectangular rectangular rectangular ? rectangular rectangular rectangular rectangular rectangular Neck yes yes disturbed ? ? disturbed ? no yes disturbed disturbed disturbed ? yes yes yes disturbed disturbed ? ? disturbed? ? Head cairn cairn disturbed cairn cairn disturbed cairn cobble cairn disturbed disturbed disturbed cobble circle cairn cairn disturbed disturbed circle circle disturbed? circle Name McIntyre British Block Heron Sandgathe Grave Napi’s Ross Ward Ni-tum Dorothy Bed Napi’s Rumsey Gopher Head Hill Consort Man Butte Wild Roy Rivers Cabri Lake Douglas Ted Bozeman Henry Smith No. 1 Henry Smith No. 2 Federenko Penokee Discrete and metric variables for Napi effigies. Site No. EcPf-10 EdOp-1 EdOp-131 EeOu-2 EePd-1 EfOq-87 EfPf-16 EgPa-47 EhPb-24 EiPf-1 EkPf-2 ElPd-44 FaOr-4 DgNc-1 EfOl-2 EgOk-1 EgOk-11 24GA106 24PH794 24PH794 32WI320 14GH308

Table 1. Table 75 Peck / Archaeological Survey of Alberta Occasional Paper 40 (2020) 71–91

Figure 2. Plan view of the Napi effigy figure at the British Block site (EdOp-1). Head faces west, total length 6.2 m. Photograph by the author.

Napi’s Grave (EePd-1), or Napi’s Sleeping Place, is lo- in diameter, which has been heavily disturbed, on the hill- cated on uplands just east of a high point above the Bow top with a partial arc of ‘encircling’ cobbles restricted to the River within the Siksika Nation. Vickers (2008:217) did not west-southwest area at a radius of about 23-28 m (Quigg classify this petroform as a Napi effigy owing to its ‘cob- 1984:121-124; Brumley 1988:20; Vivian 2008). The Napi ble filled’ body that bore ‘greater resemblance to historic… effigy is a partial figure. It consists of a cobble outline rect- [narrative] …effigies’. The effigy was first record by Forbis angular body with no horizontal shoulder line. A heart-line in 1959 (Alberta Archaeological Site Data Inventory Form is present. There is no evidence of a head or arms. The legs – EePd-1; see also Reeves and Shortt 1994). Importantly, he extend directly below the body as straight lines. Where feet oriented the effigy incorrectly with its head to the north and may have been is a depression. A clearly delineated phallus is feet to the south. A revisit to the site by the author found the present. The effigy is oriented with its feet to the east-south- figure with its feet toward the east and the head is toward east and its ‘head’ toward the west-northwest. It is oriented the west. The effigy consists of a single-tier cairn head with directly toward the cairn. In fact, had a head been present it a poorly defined neck attached to a heavily overgrown, but would be immediately adjacent to the east side of the cairn, cobble-filled, body. The body is roughly rectangular-to-elon- or potential under it (see Table 1, Figure 1). gated-oval. The right arm is uplifted while the left arm is extending straight out from the body. The legs are straight but The Ward Napi effigy (EfPf-16) is located just north of slightly angled and not directly below the body and no feet Cluny and the Siksika Reserve on the highest hill in the are evident. In contrast with most Napi effigies, the length of immediate area with a view of the Bow River (Vickers the phallus on this figure is extremely exaggerated (see Table 2008:203-204; Vivian 2008). The site was initially recorded 1, Figure 1). and sketched by Vickers (2008:203-204); a recent revisit to the site by the current author was conducted to produce a The Ross Medicine Wheel and Napi effigy (EfOq-87) is formal map. The figure consists of a cobble outline rectan- located on the highest hill in the immediate area within roll- gular body. A head is present and may be represented by a ing terrain with a view south to the nearby Red Deer River. single large stone or a small cairn. A largely disturbed area The Ross Medicine Wheel consists of a cairn about 2.5 m just west of the head is present with numerous cobbles mak-

76 Peck / Archaeological Survey of Alberta Occasional Paper 40 (2020) 71–91 ing definite interpretation of the head difficult. Depending Archaeological Site Data Inventory Form- EiPf-1). Vickers on the interpretation of the head, a neck may also be present (2008) acknowledged that the ‘description of the figure as a immediately above a horizontal shoulder line. While Vickers boulder outline indicated it was a Napi effigy.’ While it can (2008:204) depicted a heart-line, no such element was found never be fully demonstrated given the site is now destroyed, upon revisit. The right arm may be present, but it is some- it seems likely Napi’s Bed was a Napi effigy (see Table 1). what detached from the rest of the figure (by 5 m); its align- In addition, its topographic location on a hill also supports ment is with the torso of the figure rather than uplifted as its placement as a Napi effigy (see Analysis - Topographic with most Napi effigies. Legs are depicted extending directly Location, below). beneath the body, but slightly bent at the knees. Feet may be represented by cobbles placed perpendicular to the cobbles The Rumsey Cairn (EkPf-1) and Napi effigy (EkPf-2) are demarcating the legs; the feet point south. A small but obvi- located on a knoll on Stone Pile Hill, a local high spot west ous phallus is present. The effigy is aligned with its feet to of the Red Deer River Valley with a view to the east (Quigg the east and its head to the west (see Table 1, Figure 1). 1984:153-158; Vivian 2008). The Rumsey Cairn was van- dalised prior to the 1960s. At the time, representatives from The Ni-tum Napi effigy (EgPa-47) is a newly recorded fig- the Glenbow Foundation estimated its central cairn to be ure located on a slightly elevated ridge on uplands above the about 9-10 m in diameter with a height of about 1.5 m with south side of the Red Deer River Valley (Porter 2008). The a partial encircling stone ring with a diameter of about 20 m, head is a single large cobble. There does not appear to be a open to the south east. Vickers (2008:204) expressed con- neck. The rectangular body is well defined except for the cern that the associated Napi figure, located on the southeast left side of the torso which is lacking definition and there side of the cairn, was too heavily disturbed to be properly is a slight depression in the chest area suggesting possible identified. An illustration from Barnum Brown, apparently disturbance. The figure exhibits uplifted arms. The legs are dating to ca. 1908, illustrates a human effigy adjacent to a straight but do not extend directly below the body and are cairn near Tolman, Alberta (Figure 3a). There can be little somewhat flared outward with out-turned feet (see Table 1, doubt the feature is the Rumsey Cairn and Napi effigy. The Figure 1). illustration shows a figure with a head, arms, and fingers, a heart-line, legs and feet, a phallus, and testes. In addition, an The Dorothy Napi effigy (EhPb-24), or Crawling Coulee aerial image taken at the time of the Glenbow Foundation Napi effigy, is on a flat promontory on the prairie level near excavations confirms the form described, with some alter- the head of Crawling Creek Coulee, above the south side of ations due to vandalism (Figure 3b). In the 1980s, Quigg the Red Deer River Valley. The figure has a single-tier cairn (1984:153-56) illustrated a relatively intact effigy (Figure head with a neck (Bayrock 1964; Quigg 1981:66; Vivian 1j). The figure is basically as Vickers (2008:204) described. 2008). The neck connects to a relatively rectangular body. A single-tier cairn head is heavily disturbed and occupies a Both left and right arms are present and are slightly uplifted depression which may be a looter’s pit. The body is relative- such that they are sticking straight out from the body and ly rectangular and may outline a depression as well. The par- bent slightly at the ‘wrists.’ Fingers are present. Straight legs tial, uplifted left arm appears to be present but the right arm extend directly below the rectangular body with the right is missing. Two legs are present extending directly straight foot out-turned and no apparent left foot. A phallus is present below the body, but the ‘thigh’ of the right leg is missing. and extremely exaggerated (see Table 1, Figure 1). The feet are out-turned. A phallus with a possible single-tier cairn creating a bulbous end is present. The figure is oriented Napi’s Bed effigy (EiPf-1) is on the highest hill in the area, with the feet to the southeast and the head to the northwest. about 14.5 km southwest of the Red Deer River. As Vick- A recent revisit by the author to this site observed the effigy ers (2008) noted, the site has been destroyed and was nev- as described above with a clearly visible body, two legs, feet er assessed by an archaeologist. A recent field visit by the and a phallus (see Table 1, Figure 1). author confirmed that no visible surface cobbles remain in place. The original site form dating to 1961 states: “Mosaic The Gopher Head Hill Napi effigy (ElPd-44, formerly (formerly), said to have been rocks faced in such a way as ElPc-1) is located on the highest hill in the area, south of to outline the figure of a man. Nothing remains. There is Gough Lake and east of Farrell Lake. The site was original- now a power shed at the locality. It is said by [John] Martin ly recorded by Forbis in 1961, but was not considered by [of Rosebud] that some pranksters of Blackfoot mythology Vickers (2008), so in this sense it is newly recorded. At the found old man [Napi] sleeping on the hill and outline his time, the effigy had already been disturbed, but the landown- body with stones. When he woke up, he was frightened by er recalled the figure was: “Formerly the figure of a man laid the stones, thinking he might be dead. He ran away” (Alberta out in stone which are now displaced and set into initials. H.

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a b

Figure 3a (left). Barnum Brown’s hand drawn image of the “Tolman…figure of Indian” is almost certainly a depiction of the Rum- sey Napi effigy and cairn (courtesy of Jack Brink). 3b (right) Glenbow excavation at Rumsey Cairn and effigy in the 1960s. The Napi effigy is highlighted in yellow to make it more apparent (Glenbow Museum B168-A, image cropped and emphasis added).

[Henry] Walters and friends did this as kids. Also, a circular known effigy, documents two new effigies and provides a hole about 1’ deep and 4’ across. Some stones contiguous reconsideration of one effigy. to it may be part of original mosaic” (Alberta Archaeologi- cal Site Data Inventory Form- ElPd-44). A recent revisit to The Wild Man Butte effigy (DgNc-1) was not consid- the site by the author found the grass was extremely long, ered a Napi effigy by Vickers (2008:214). The site was first however, numerous stones were observed. Some rocks still mentioned in the literature by William H. Clandening who formed lines; the potential for intact portions of the original observed the effigy in about 1863. He wrote (Clandening mosaic is not out of the question. As well, like the Napi’s 1928:260 in Brace 2005:65): Bed (EiPf-1) effigy, the description by the landowner as ‘a man laid out in stone’ and its hilltop location strongly sug- …the peak we passed yesterday… It was quite flat on gests this was [is] a Napi effigy (see Table 1). top and in the earth is the prostrate form of an elk cut in the ground by the Indians. The body is about 12 feet The Consort Napi effigy (FaOr-4) is located on a promi- long, the antlers are very large, and in the place where nent rise with views to the south towards the town of Consort the body is excavated is a round stone four inches in and Monitor Creek (Wormington and Forbis 1965:98-100). diameter painted red stone with strips of red cloth be- The effigy has a large cobble for a head. Some rocks suggest neath it. On a less elevated peak adjacent is the large a neck may be present directly above a relatively straight figure of a man with his feet south and his toes east. shoulder line. The body is relatively rectangular with a slight Nothing but the outlines are made which are of round pinching in at the waist on the right-hand side. Both arms are stones eight inches in diameter embedded in the earth. present and parallel the body rather than being uplifted. The His length from head to foot is 36 ft. Across the shoul- legs extend directly below the body with out-turned feet. A ders nine feet, from hand to hand which are in an el- possible phallus is depicted by a single cobble. The figure is evated position 18 feet and in his right hand is a bow oriented with its feet to the east and its head to the west (see and arrow. Table 1, Figure 1). In fact, previous assessments suggested the figure -ex 3.2 Saskatchewan effigies hibited a similar style of depiction as Ojibwa drawings on wood or birch bark (Dyck 1981:63). Dyck (1981:63) also For Saskatchewan, Vickers (2008) documented a single observed that when the effigy was first examined by the staff Napi effigy (i.e., Cabri Lake Napi), alluded to a possible sec- at the Saskatchewan Museum of Natural History the cob- ond effigy based on word-of-mouth reports (i.e., Ted Doug- bles used to create the ‘tail’ extending from the ‘rear’ and las), and discounted an effigy. The current study reviews the the ‘phallus’ extending from the ‘front’ were not as deeply

78 Peck / Archaeological Survey of Alberta Occasional Paper 40 (2020) 71–91 embedded as the rest of the figures suggesting more recent The Roy Rivers Medicine Wheel (EfOl-2, aka Bulls Fore- placement. The effigy is located on a flat part of a ridge near head after Reeves and Kennedy 2018) is located on a prom- the highest point on the butte (Bryan 2005:116). Given the inence on the north rim of the Red Deer River valley east of initial observations stating the figure was ‘a man’ and the the town of Empress, Alberta, just inside the Saskatchewan late placement of the ‘tail’ and ‘phallus’ on the left and right border. The medicine wheel consists of a cobble circle bro- side of the body, the effigy presents a striking resemblance ken on the south by an opening from which a parallel pair of to Napi effigies although, obviously, altered (Figure 4). No stone lines leads to a large central cairn. On the northwest- evidence of the historic remarks about a bow and arrow are ern portion of the circle is a smaller but prominent cairn of present in the current mapped images of the effigy. The -ef stones, and within the circle fifteen still smaller cairns, each figy has a head with a neck. The neck intersects a relatively about 1 m in diameter and 0.5 m high, incompletely sur- horizontal shoulder line. The body is relatively rectangular round the central cairn. Also, within the circle, like the small and exhibits a heart-line. The figure exhibits uplifted arms, cairns approximately midway between the central cairn and not drawn as simple extensions, but outlined and possibly the peripheral circle, is a partly disturbed figure about 3.5 with fingers. The legs are depicted as extended straight down m long. Kehoe and Kehoe (1979:15) reported: “This figure from the body, but again as outlined elements rather than was assumed when mapped some years ago to represent a simple line extensions. Feet may be present; Clandening’s man, but closer examination in 1975 suggests it may be a (in Brace 2005:65) 1863 observations suggested the toes ‘sunburst’ with one radiating line disturbed from position”. pointed east. The outlined images of the legs may have in- The original image in Kehoe and Kehoe (1975:16) is strik- corporated an original phallus. This would have allowed for ingly similar to Napi effigies. The effigy was recently revis- Clandening (in Brace 2005:65) to have assessed the figure as ited by the author and found to be altered even from Kehoe ‘a man’. However, as Brace (2005:65) points out “…the sex and Kehoe’s (1975) depiction. Still, there are remnants of a may have been assumed on the basis of the bow and arrow, single tier cairn head atop a relatively rectangular body. A such tools being attributed to males.” But again, no evidence single right uplifted arm may also be present as are two legs of a bow and arrow are present in the current map of the straight beneath the body. These elements appear clearer in effigy. The figure is roughly the same scale as Napi effigies. the earlier map. The feet are toward the east-southeast and Importantly, this effigy has its head toward the north and its the head is toward the west-northwest (see Table 1, Figure feet toward the south (see Table 1, Figure 1). 1).

Figure 4. Wildman Butte effigy. The left image is the effigy as it is today. The right image is the effigy without the ‘recent tail’ and happy face (adapted from Brace 2005:66).

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The Cabri Lake Napi effigy (EgOk-1) is situated on a east. The head is currently within a juniper bush and difficult cone-shaped hill about 4 km southwest of Cabri Lake and to discern. Deaver and Deaver (1984) provide a map that 40 km northeast of the confluence of the Red Deer River involved probing the juniper for rocks. Their representa- and South Saskatchewan River. The figure has a single-tier tion illustrates several rocks in the area of the head that may cairn head. A rock extension arcs from the centre of the head also include an array of rocks suggesting apparel on top of toward the north suggesting some form of head apparel. “A the head. There is no obvious neck. Both arms are present distinct nose-like rock was reported to be in position when and slightly uplifted. The body is slightly more circular to the figure was viewed fifteen years ago” (Gill and Hymers rectangular, although the shoulder line is relatively straight. 1968:26); this would be unique among Napi effigies if it Both legs are depicted and extend below the body but at could be confirmed. The head is attached to the body via a slight angles outward. Both feet are depicted and are out- neck. The body is relatively rectangular, wider at the waist turned. A prominent phallus with testes is present. The figure than the shoulders. There is a heart-line that terminates with is aligned with its feet toward the east-northeast and its head a large cobble. Within the body are two cobbles positioned toward the west-southwest (see Table 1, Figure 1). above the waist; as Vickers (2008:206) noted, these are almost certainly kidneys and analogous to similar painted de- The Henry Smith site (24PH794) contains two Napi effi- signs on sacred tipi covers (McClintock 1936:13; Brasser gies: the Henry Smith site stone effigy No. 1, and the Henry 1978:3). An obvious phallus with a bulbous end and testes Smith site stone effigy No. 2. Effigy No. 1 is located above is present. The arms are both uplifted and exhibit fingers. a valley rim and exhibits a roughly circular head with sin- The legs are relatively straight extensions directly below the gle-cobble protuberances on both sides. As well, an array of body, but with slightly bent knees and thighs thickened by cobbles straight above the head suggests some form of ap- several cobbles. Feet are present and point south. Interest- parel. There may be a neck, or the cobbles may be part of the ingly, ‘…a large rock, about one foot in diameter, lies about head. Two uplifted arms are observable but not well demar- three feet from the end of each arm…Six rock cairns occur cated. The body is rectangular with a few stones suggesting near the figure…” (Gill and Hymers 1968:26) (see Table 1, a heart-line. Both legs are present and extend directly below Figure 1). the body and exhibit feet turned to the east. A phallus is also depicted. The figure is aligned with its head to the north and The Ted Douglas Napi effigy (EgOk-11) is located about its feet to the south. Importantly, this effigy was interpreted 10 km south of the Cabri figure. The effigy is situated on as being incorporated into one of the drive lines. The drive a ridge crest in grassland uplands near a spring. Brace lines end in a steep-sided coulee bison pound that produced (2005:155) states it is: “…quite clearly a (disturbed) ‘copy’ Avonlea-Old Women’s transitional materials dated to ca. of the Cabri Lake Human Effigy…” The figure has a head 1100 BP (Ruebelmann 1988; Peck 2011:374) (see Table 1, that appears as a large cobble or perhaps a few cobbles to Figure 1). form a small cairn. There may be a neck and a horizontal shoulder line, but this cannot be discerned with certainty due Henry Smith stone effigy No. 2 (24PH794) is located to the disturbance. Similarly, a heart-line might be present, about 75 m south of effigy No. 1 on a rise. The effigy is but it cannot be stated for certain. The rectangular body, ex- much like the nearby effigy. The head is circular with pro- cept for the shoulder line is relatively visible. The left arm tuberances on both sides; again, an array of cobbles above appears to be present and is uplifted. Both legs are present the head suggests some form of apparel. There does not ap- and are depicted as straight lines directly beneath the body. pear to be a neck and the head ‘floats’ above the rectangular Feet may have been present but cannot be discerned with body that may be missing some cobbles on the left side. The certainty. A phallus is apparent with a bulbous end (see Table arms are both uplifted. A diffuse scatter of cobbles suggests 1, Figure 1). a heart-line. Both legs are present and extend directly below the body. The left leg appears to be missing cobbles and its 3.3 Montana effigies foot, while the right leg has a well delineated foot that points west. No phallus is obvious (see Table 1, Figure 1). For Montana, Vickers (2008) reported three Napi effigies. This paper reviews these three effigies and notes a likely Another Napi effigy may have been located near Choteau, fourth effigy. Montana. The Kehoes’ (1959) review of boulder effigies noted Grinnell’s comments concerning Old Man marking The Bozeman Napi effigy (24GA106), or Napi Man, is lo- himself out in stone on the north side of the Teton River, cated on the edge of a flat, high bluff overlooking the Madi- and that these stones were still visible. Grinnell, of course, son River towards the Bridger Mountains to the east-north- was writing prior to 1892. Interestingly, the Kehoes further

80 Peck / Archaeological Survey of Alberta Occasional Paper 40 (2020) 71–91 noted that: “…Mrs. James Willard Schultz (personal com- Napi effigies is then briefly addressed. In addition, several munication, 17 August 1957) mentioned that in an unpub- effigies are associated with medicine wheels and other fea- lished manuscript her husband reports such an effigy nine tures; these instances are reviewed. As well, a few of the miles northwest of Choteau, Montana, on a small hill near effigies exhibit obvious signs of disturbance; these instances the Teton River…” The Kehoes investigated the claim with are also discussed. The section ends with a summary which local residents but failed to locate an effigy (Kehoe and -Ke confirms that Napi effigies are a distinct petroform from hoe 1959:125). Without a description of the feature, it is dif- which two distinct subgroups of Napi effigies can be further ficult to confidently consider it a Napi effigy. chrono-geographically subdivided.

3.4 North Dakota / Kansas effigies 4.1 Discrete attributes In North Dakota, the Federenko Napi effigy (32WI320) The discrete attributes include head form, neck (presence/ is located on a hill, with exceptional views in all directions, absence), body form, heart-line (presence/absence), arm po- about 24 km northwest of Williston, North Dakota (Otto sition, hands (presence/absence), leg position, feet position, 1991; Palmer 1991). The petroform consists of a rectangular phallus (presence/absence), apparel (presence/absence), and body with uplifted arms. The area where the head should be orientation (see Table 1). located is disturbed. The figure may exhibit hands, or the cobbles may be the disturbed stone from the head. A heart- The head, when present, tends to be a cairn but is represent- line is visible. Both legs extend from the body but are flared ed as a small stone circle at Henry Smith No. 1, Henry Smith slightly outward, then bend back in at the knees. Feet are No. 2, Wild Man Butte, and Penokee. Most Napi effigies present and point perpendicular to the lower leg. A small tend to exhibit a neck. The body is invariably a rectangle, cluster of cobbles is in the genital area suggesting a phallus although it may taper slightly to the shoulders or the waist. A and/or testes. The effigy is oriented with it head to the west heart-line is less commonly represented with it occurring in and its feet to the east (See Table 1, Figure 1). A unique fea- the Sandgathe, Ross, Dorothy, Wildman Butte, Cabri Lake, ture of this petroform is that the entire figure, which is about Henry Smith No. 1, Henry Smith No. 2, and Federenko effi- 11.3m in length, is encircled by a single-tier ring of stone gies; it is not present in the McIntyre, British Block, Ward, about 21m in diameter. Such large stone circles are phenom- Ni-tum, Rumsey, Bozeman, or Penokee effigies and it is -un enon that have been recorded in isolation locally and associ- clear whether or not it is present in the Heron, Napi’s Grave, ated with the Mortlach Phase (Friesen 2011), an archaeolog- Napi’s Bed, Gopher Head Hill, or Ted Douglas effigies. ical culture usually ascribed as Assiniboine (Walde 2003). When present, the arms are almost invariably uplifted; In Kansas, the Penokee Napi effigy (14GH308) is located only the Consort effigy exhibits good evidence for an arm on a prominent ridge on the north side of the Solomon River that is not uplifted. Hands are rarely depicted and are only valley (Williston 1879; Witty 1978; Stein 1985). The figure recorded for the Sandgathe, Dorothy, Cabri Lake, Federen- consists of a small ring of rock for a head with loops on both ko, and Penokee effigies. Male genitalia are present for most sides of the head suggesting ears. There is no straight shoul- of the effigies (i.e., Heron, Sandgathe, Napi’s Grave, Ross, der line. The relatively rectangular body tapers in towards Ward, Ni-tum, Dorothy, Rumsey, Cabri Lake, Ted Douglas, the head to suggest a neck. Two arms are present and are Bozeman, Henry Smith No. 2, Federenko, and Penokee), but uplifted with cobbles to suggest fingers. Legs are straight apparently not present for the Roy Rivers, or Henry Smith and extend directly below the body with out-turned feet. A No. 1 effigies. Their absence or presence could not be -de cluster of cobbles in the genital area that extends between termined for McIntyre, British Block, Napi’s Bed, Gopher the legs suggest a phallus and, perhaps, testes. The effigy Head Hill, Consort, or Wild Man Butte. Legs are usually is oriented with its head to the southwest and its feet to the depicted as extending straight below the body (i.e., McIn- northeast (see Table 1, Figure 1). tyre, British Block, Heron, Sandgathe, Napi’s Grave, Ross, Dorothy, Rumsey, Consort, Wild Man Butte, Roy Rivers, Ted Douglas, Henry Smith No. 1, and Henry Smith No. 2), 4. Analysis although sometimes they are straight but angled out from The expanded sample of Napi effigies (n=22) provides an the body (Napi’s Grave, Ni-tum, Bozeman), other times they opportunity to further assess their style and distribution. The are bent at the knees (i.e., Ward, Cabri Lakes, Federenko), following analyzes the expanded sample of Napi effigies and still other times they could not be assessed (i.e., Na- by examining eleven discrete attributes and a single metric pi’s Bed, Gopher Head Hill). Feet tended to be out-turned attribute (see Table 1). The general topographic location of (i.e., British Block, Sandgathe, Ni-tum, Rumsey, Consort,

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4.2 Metric attribute Bozeman, Federenko, and Penokee), but in some instances, A single metric attribute was recorded – body length. were facing south (i.e., McIntyre, Ward, and Cabri Lake), This measurement refers to the overall length of the effigy others facing east (i.e., Wild Man Butte, Henry Smith No. 2), from head-to-toe or body length and does not include height some had no feet (i.e., Heron, Ted Douglas), while still oth- reached by extended limbs, other appendages, or apparel. ers could not be assessed (Ross, Napi’s Bed, Gopher Head Table 1 provides the metric body lengths for each effigy, Hill, Roy Rivers). while Figure 5 illustrates the range of variation. From tallest (15 m) to shortest (4 m) the Napi effigies are: Penokee, Dor- Only three effigies appeared to exhibit apparel or items othy, Wildman Butte, Federenko, Cabri, Henry Smith No. in addition to body elements; these include head apparel on 2, Napi’s Grave, Bozeman, Ted Douglas, Sandgathe, British the Cabri Lake, Henry Smith No. 1, and Henry Smith No 2 Block, Ni-tum, McIntyre, Henry Smith No. 1, Roy Rivers, effigies. All other effigies either failed to exhibit apparel or Ward, and Consort. Thus, the Napi effigies in the east tend to were disturbed. be taller than those in the west (Table 1; Figure 5).

The orientation of Napi effigies is generally with the head 4.3 Topographic location towards the west and the feet towards the east (i.e., McIn- tyre, British Block, Heron, Sandgathe, Napi’s Grave, Ross, Napi effigies are universally located on high points of land Ward, Ni-tum, Dorothy, Rumsey, Consort, Roy Rivers, Ted such as prominent hills or rises, or valley edges. Effigies Douglas, Bozeman, Federenko, and Penokee). Four effigies found on hills include British Block, Napi’s Bed, Heron, do not follow this pattern. They are Wild Man Butte, Henry Ross, Rumsey, Ward, Gopher Head Hill, Consort, Wild Man Smith No. 1, and Henry Smith No. 2 effigies, which are ori- Butte, Cabri Lake, Ted Douglas, Henry Smith No.2 Fed- ented north-south, and Cabri Lake effigy, which is oriented erenko, and Penokee. Napi effigies located on rises along northwest-southeast. valley uplands include McIntyre, Sandgathe, Napi’s Grave,

Figure 5. Bar graph illustrating the Napi effigies’ heights or body lengths plotted by geographic location. The east Napis (black bars) tend to be large, except for the Dorothy and the Henry Smith No. 1 effigies.

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4.5 Disturbance at Napi effigies Ni-Tum, Roy Rivers (Bulls Forehead), and Bozeman. Two A number of Napi effigies exhibit obvious signs of distur- effigies that do not seem to strictly fit this pattern arethe bance during both the precontact period and historic times. Dorothy effigy and the Henry Smith No. 1 effigy. Starting in the east and moving west, disturbed Napi effigies include the Federenko, Wildman Butte, Ted Douglas, 4.4 Napis associated with other features Roy Rivers, Ross, Heron, ElPd-44, EiPf-1, and Rumsey. The Federenko effigy has had its head disturbed. The Wildman A total of six Napi effigies are associated with other fea- Butte Napi effigy has undergone over a century of alteration tures: four figures are in direct association with medicine with some likely preceding Cladening’s observations in wheels (British Block, Ross, Rumsey, and Roy Rivers Napi 1886 when he observed the effigy holding a ‘bow and arrow.’ effigies), one with a drive line (Henry Smith No. 1), and one The Ted Douglas effigy was described by another author as with a large circle (Federenko). With regards to the medi- “quite clearly a (disturbed) ‘copy’ of the Cabri Lake Human cine wheels, the association between the effigy and medicine Effigy…” (Brace 2005:155). The Roy Rivers effigy was- ini wheel is different in each case. At British Block, the effigy is tially discernable as a human effigy, then reinterpreted as a positioned on the east side the medicine wheel within the en- sunburst, and then re-assessed in the current study as likely circling cobble circle with its feet immediately inside and its a disturbed Napi effigy; however, it is difficult to determine head roughly oriented toward the centre of the cairn (this is when the disturbance at this site occurred. The Ross effigy contrary to Vickers [2008] who did not realize the northern appears to be prehistoric vandalism; the presence of a heart- half of the cairn was covered in vegetation and therefore he line suggests the rectangular body had been present (and did not illustrate the cairn rocks). At the Ross site, the effigy the heart-line would have been incorporated within it) but is aligned with a large cairn. Given the heart-line is depicted the upper part of the body appears to have been removed to and would likely have been included only after the rectangle create the nearby cairn leaving the heart-line ‘floating’. The of the body was outlined, it seems reasonable to suggest the Heron site has had the upper body disturbed. Given the site cairn was created, in part, using stone from the upper body is on a military reserve, and difficult to access, it is tempting of the Napi effigy, thus being created later in time. At the to suggest the disturbance is precontact but modern distur- Rumsey site, the effigy is located west of both the cairn and bance cannot be ruled out. The disturbances at the remain- encircling stone ring with its transverse alignment angled ing three sites (i.e., ElPd-44, EiPf-1, and Rumsey) are all north of both features. At Roy Rivers, the effigy is on the documented disturbances of modern ‘vandals.’ Thus, inter- east side of the medicine wheel within the stone circle, but estingly, Napi effigies that have been distorted or disturbed on the west side of the cairn, with its feet towards the cairn in precontact times are located largely in the east with the and its head toward the stone circle. disturbance in the west being documented in historic times. A slightly different feature is noted in association with 4.6 Summary the Henry Smith No. 1 Napi effigy. The effigy is apparently associated with a drive line that leads to a bison kill site This analysis strongly supports all previous interpretations dated ca. 1,100 BP (Ruebelmann 1988). The site has been that Napi effigies reflect a consistent combination of attri- interpreted as an Avonlea-Old Women’s Phase transition- butes (see Vickers 2008). At the same time, it also supports al bison kill site (Peck 2011:3674). Numerous researchers a previously unrecognised separation of the Napi effigies have provided multiple lines of evidence that indicate that into two subgroups: one group is geographically located in the Old Women’s Phase is, in some way, an archaeological the east (southern Saskatchewan, northcentral Montana, and expression of the ancestors of the historical and modern northwestern North Dakota), while the other group is in the Blackfoot (Siksikaitsitapi) (Byrne 1973; Reeves 1969, 2009; west (southwestern Alberta and western-central Montana) Peck 2011; Peck and Hudecek-Cuffe 2003; Vickers and Peck (Figure 6). The ‘east’ Napi effigies include Cabri Lake, Hen- 2009). Similarly, the Federenko effigy is encircled by a stone ry Smith No. 1, Henry Smith No. 2, Wildman Butte, and circle that is not considered a medicine wheel. Comparable Federenko (the Penokee effigy is likely loosely linked to this large stone circles have been recorded locally but are usually group but, following Vickers [2008:218] it will be considered in isolation (Friesen 2011); these have been inferred to be an outlier). The elements that differentiate these figures are associated with the Mortlach Phase (Friesen 2011), which is orientation, head shape, apparel, heart-line, and size. These usually interpreted to archaeologically represent the Assini- east Napi effigies exhibit a small circle of stone for the head, boin (Walde 2003, 2010). except for Cabri Lake. The only other effigy that exhibits a

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Figure 6. Distribution of ‘west’ versus ‘east’ Napi effigies. stone circle head is Penokee, the effigy in Kansas. All the In contrast, the ‘west’ Napi effigies generally lack the pre- eastern effigies are aligned with their head toward the north viously mentioned features. As such, heads tend to be sin- and their feet toward the south; Cabri Lake is slightly differ- gle-tier cairns with no obvious apparel. They are invariably ent in that it is oriented more northeast-southwest but this is aligned more-or-less with their head to the west and their substantially different than the remaining effigies which are feet to the east. A few exhibit heart-lines (i.e., Ross, Dorothy, oriented mainly west-east. This is also true of the Federen- and Sandgathe) but most often this element appears to be ko effigy which is oriented west-east. All the east effigies absent. Other elements such as neck, arms, and phallus, are exhibit head apparel, except for Wild Man Butte which has consistently portrayed for both east and west Napi effigies. had obvious alterations which could have removed any head Legs tend to be portrayed as straight but there is some minor apparel and the Federenko effigy which has had its head dis- variation that is difficult to capture beyond random variation. turbed. In addition, although not exclusive to the east Napi Feet represent the most diverse body element in terms of effigies, heart-lines are more common in the east and less their depiction; again, it is difficult to capture this variability. represented in the west Napi effigies. Lastly, with the excep- tion to Henry Smith site stone effigy No. 1, all the eastern In addition to separating the Napis into east and west effigies are physically larger than the western Napi effigies. groups based on form, there is evidence to separate them

84 Peck / Archaeological Survey of Alberta Occasional Paper 40 (2020) 71–91 by age. The distribution of the east and west Napi effigies to that group and considered historic or proto-historic in age, is concurrent with the established distribution of the Avon- while more ‘mythical’ human effigies, interpreted as Napi by lea-Old Women’s Phase transition and the Late Old Women’s the resident Siksikaitsitapi (Blackfoot), may have been con- Phase, respectively, which has certain implications. Further, structed by unrelated people and taken over by the Black- the location of disturbed effigies versus intact effigies also foot as these figures are widely distributed over the Northern correlates with the distribution of Late Precontract archaeo- Plains. This paper agrees that the effigies are widely distrib- logical cultures and may provide some supporting evidence uted over the northwestern Plains, however, the distribution for the location of distinct ethnic groups in the past. is not at odds with the distribution of the Old Women’s Phase which has been reasonably connected to the historic Black- Regarding the distribution of the effigies and their- con foot (e.g., see Vickers and Peck 2009). Figure 7 illustrates currence with the established distribution of the Late Old both the Early and Late distribution of the Old Women’s Women’s Phase and Avonlea-Old Women’s Phase transition, Phase relative to the known Napi effigies with almost all the the following argument is based on coinciding distributions. effigies falling comfortably within the known boundaries. Recall that Wormington and Forbis (1965:100) argued that Again, the Penokee effigy is a clear outlier, being located in effigies surrounded by specific oral histories could be linked Kansas.

Figure 7. Distribution of Napi effigies compared to Early and Late distribution of the Old Women’s Phases.

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The effigies have been split into two subgroups with the Many of the west Napi effigies are recognised by the east subgroup being linked to a date of ca. 1,100 BP built on Blackfoot as Napi effigies, providing a link to the present. the Henry Smith site stone effigy No. 1. Based on attribute Chewing Black Bones recognised the Bozeman effigy as similarities, the other Napis of this subgroup date to roughly Napi (Kehoe and Kehoe 1959:125). Vickers (2008:199) the same time period. The assemblages the Henry Smith site noted a recent Blackfoot ceremony at the Sandgathe effigy. stone effigy No. 1 were inferred to be associated with are And Blackfoot Elders visited the Ni-Tum Napi effigy upon Avonlea-Old Women’s transition material. Other sites dat- its recording (Porter 2008:4). At the cusp of the Late Prehis- ing to the Avonlea-Old Women’s Transition include Meiss- toric –Protohistoric Period, this area has produced numer- ner, Empress, Estuary, Ramillies, Gull Lake, Newo Asiniak, ous Old Women’s Phase archaeological assemblages (Peck Bakken-Wright, Hartley, and Long Creek (Peck 2011:366- 2011:417-434). The distribution of the Late Old Women’s 375) (this distribution is not unlike the recognized distri- Phase is generally understood by archaeologists to be con- bution of the Early Old Women’s Phase [see Meyer 1988; sistent with the ancestors of the Blackfoot (e.g., Byrne 1973; Peck 1996; Peck and Ives 2001]). Figure 8 illustrates the Vickers 1994; Peck 1996; Peck and Ives 2001). The Boz- location of these sites, relative to the east Napi subgroup, eman effigy may, in fact, be a product of the late southern with which they are roughly coincidental, and the west Napi expansion of the Blackfoot known from the historic records. subgroup. The east Napis and the location of Avonlea-Old Women’s Phase transition site share a geographic distribu- Another aspect of the effigies that supports the assertion tion as a cluster in southeastern Alberta, southwestern Sas- that they are, indeed, Napis and constructed by the Blackfoot katchewan, northeastern Montana, and northwestern North comes from the distribution of the disturbed effigies (Figure Dakota, compared to the west Napi group. 9). As already discussed, many of the Napi effigies exhib-

Figure 8. Approximate distribution of known ‘transitional’ Avonlea-Old Women’s Phase sites (in circled area) relative to west and east Napi effigies.

86 Peck / Archaeological Survey of Alberta Occasional Paper 40 (2020) 71–91 it disturbance. Interestingly, it is the east Napi effigies that were allies but this situation quickly changed as competi- predominantly exhibit evidence of precontact disturbance tion associated with the Fur trade altered relationships as the while disturbance in the west Napi effigies is largely traced Assiniboine and other groups infringed into Blackfoot ter- to historic ‘vandals.’ This is significant owing to the fact that ritory (Binnema 1998). Thus, it is suggested the Mortlach/ the early Old Women’s Phase (and during the Avonlea-Old Assiniboine newcomers, like any group entering a new area, Women’s transition), stretched from across Alberta into disrespected the petroforms of the previous occupants as southern Saskatchewan and Montana, ca. 1100-650 BP. But, they occupied a new territory. Thus, the Wild Man Butte, later in time, the Late Old Women’s Phase was restricted to Ted Douglas, Roy Rivers, Ross, and Heron effigies, all -lo southern Alberta and northern Montana, with the Mortlach cated along the east side of the Blackfoot/Late Old Wom- Phase replacing it in southern Saskatchewan (Figure 9). en’s Phase distribution, appear to have been disturbed during Precontact-Protohistoric periods. Only the pristine state of The Mortlach Phase, considered by many archaeologists the British Block effigy does not follow this trend. to represent the material culture of the ancestral Assiniboine, moved into the area where the Early Old Women’s Phase 5. Interpretation had been present. This distribution of the Mortlach Phase is roughly coincidental with the Napis that appear to have been The Blackfoot today recognise anthropomorphic effigies disturbed in the precontact past (rather than in the more re- within and near their traditional territory as Napi (Kehoe and cent colonial past such as Rumsey, Napi’s Bed, and Gopher Kehoe 1959:123; Vickers 2008:199). The following argues Head Hill – west Napis) (Figure 9). In the late Precontact/ that changes in the attributes of Napi effigies parallel the -de early Protohistoric Period the Assiniboine and Blackfoot velopment of Napi as he peregrinated across the landscape.

Figure 9. Distribution of Napi effigies with modern disturbance versus those with precontact disturbance, relative to known archaeological cultures.

87 Peck / Archaeological Survey of Alberta Occasional Paper 40 (2020) 71–91 5.1 The life and times of Napi (Oldman) as reflected in the effigies out with stones, - the shape of his body, head, legs, arms and everything. There you can see those rocks From the Blackfoot perspective, Napi was “…ageless, an to-day (Grinnell 1962:137). object of creation” (Dempsey 2018:35; cf. Bullchild 1985). He created the world and everything on it, including people. The Kehoes tried to relocate this spot (see above) and Initially, Napi taught the people how to make bows and use mention that Mrs. James Willard Schultz noted an unpub- them to hunt buffalo, how to conduct drives to -impound lished manuscript of her husband with a passage about a hu- ments, how to butcher the animals, and how to honour their man effigy on a small hill a few miles northwest of Choteau, spirits (Dempsey 2018:40). A description of Napi indicates: Montana, near the Teton River. The Kehoes investigated the claim with local residents but did not locate the effigy Everyone thought he was just another one of their own (Kehoe and Kehoe 1959:125). Still, it suggests the original people and someone’s relation. What was noted about story told to Grinnell (1962:137) may have at one time been him was his attire and his build, his age, which people marked with a Napi effigy as recorded in oral tradition. thought was somewhere around middle age, a slight stoop of his shoulders and the graying hair, the ea- A similar situation occurs in Alberta. Grinnell recorded: gle feathers and eagle plume that he wore on his hair. “When [Old Man] had come nearly to the Red Deer’s River, He seemed to people an outstanding being (Bullchild he reached the hill where the Old Man sleeps. There he lay 1985:86). down and rested himself. The form of his body is to be seen Once the serious work of creation was behind him, Napi there yet” (Grinnell 1962:143). This is a reasonable descrip- engaged in activities that would be considered debauchery tion of Napi’s Bed (EiPf-1) (Dempsey [2018:5] has suggest- (e.g., see Uhlenbeck 1912; Grinnell 1962; Dempsey 2018). ed that this location may be represented by the Dorothy ef- This has inclined many authors to describe him as a ‘trick- figy, which is right at the Red Deer river). The site is on the ster’ (e.g., Dempsey 2018). Still, the legendary history of highest hill in the area, about 14.5 km southwest of the Red Napi (Kehoe 2005) starts with the arrival of an outstanding Deer River. The site has been destroyed, but an eyewitness being with an eagle plume in his hair who creates the world record states the site was a mosaic of rocks faced in such a and animals that inhabit it, along with educating people to way as to outline the figure of a man (see ‘Alberta Napis,’ survive in it. Having achieved that, Napi morphs into a less above). Like the effigy by the Teton River, this locale may than ideal being engaging in dubious activities (Bullchild have been where Grinnell’s (1962:143) record referred to in 1985; Dempsey 2018). This narrative, I speculate, parallels the documented oral account. the record left in the Napi effigies on the Northern Plains. Blackfoot Elders concur that these correspondences indi- 5.2 Oral tradition is captured in effigies cate the Napi effigies are associated with some facet of the ‘life and times’ of the Napi known from oral tradition. Much Napi (Oldman) is one of the most documented Blackfoot more research with the Siksikaitsitapi (Blackfoot) is needed figures in Western literature, with his exploits transcribed by to properly explore this topic. Unfortunately, knowledge of many ethnographers (e.g., Wissler, Schultz, Ewers). While ceremonialism amongst the Blackfoot does not include Napi there are many Napi tales in Blackfoot legendary history, effigies as they are not ceremonial in nature, but, as stated there are very few references to the Napi effigies, them- above, is a record of Napi’s activity (Francis First Charger, selves. It begs the question, is there a disconnect between personal communication, 2021). the effigies and the stories or was the connection not stated explicitly? There are tantalising hints that the effigies With this conundrum established, the following provides are more than iconic images but, in fact, representations of three speculative examples that accommodate oral tradi- events from the stories themselves. Blackfoot Elders have tion surrounding Napi and elements of a Napi effigy and/ confirmed that Napi effigies are not ceremonial depictions or its locale. One of the more infamous tales of debauchery but rather relate to the Napi stories (Francis First Charger, involving Napi occurs during his attempt to sexually pen- personal communication, 2021). etrate a sleeping beaver on the far side of a river (Wissler and Duvall 1908:36; Dempsey 2018:90). He asks muskrat For instance, as quoted above, Grinnell stated: to take his ‘rainbow’ across the river and place it behind the [Old Man] made the Milk River (the Teton) and sleeping animal. The size overburdens the small animal and crossed it, and, being tired, went up on a little hill and Napi chastises its efforts. Feeling used, muskrat places the lay down to rest. As he lay on his back, stretched out ‘rainbow’ in a thicket of thorns, rather than behind the bea- on the ground, with arms extended, he marked himself ver, and signals for Napi to proceed. Napi thrusts and the

88 Peck / Archaeological Survey of Alberta Occasional Paper 40 (2020) 71–91 ensuing pain causes him to ‘plough out a deep trail’ (Wissler As time moved forward, and Napi had passed on much and Duvall 1908:36). Coincidentally, the Dorothy effigy has of his knowledge, he began to increasingly engage in de- the second longest phallus of all the known Napi effigies, bauchery. This passage of time and change in Napi’s nature and it is located at the mouth of Crawling Valley, a dried is represented in the west Napi petroforms. These figures are water course that formerly connected the Red Deer and Bow physically smaller. They are aligned with the rising and set- rivers. Thus, the location of an effigy with an unusual ele- ting Sun (east-west), possible suggesting more reverence for ment (a large phallus) is in a geographic location (the mouth Creator Sun [Natosis]. Thus, it is speculated, but far from of a channel in the ground) that conforms to the elements of proven, that the documented difference between the east and a legendary Napi story. west Napi effigies may literally provide a petroform record of Siksikaitsitapi (Blackfoot) belief. Again, to speculate, the McIntyre Napi effigy provides a slightly aberrant Napi effigy that exhibits two single tier 6. Conclusion cairns at waist level below the effigy’s uplifted, but curved arms. Single tier cairns, with regards to Napi effigies, repre- There can be no doubt that the anthropomorphic petroform sent heads. In the legendary Napi story of ‘The Old Women effigies described above are recognised by the Blackfoot as and the Babies’, Napi is invited to overwinter in a tipi with Napi. Yet some scholars, while not doubting that the Black- two old women who each have a baby. Napi pretends to have foot revere the effigies, have suggested that their origin and made a kill to lure the Old Women from the camp. He then age of construction have yet to be resolved (Wormington and proceeds to slaughter their two children leaving only their Forbis 1965:100; Vickers 2008:218). The recent documen- heads sticking out of the blankets, putting the bodies into a tation of six Napi effigies provide good reason to positively cooking pot. Once the women find out, they are enraged, but reassign four previously discounted effigies as Napi effigies. ultimately, Napi kills the Old Women as well stating some- The larger sample provides strong evidence that Napi effi- thing to the effect that “Old Women should not have chil- gies can be defined using clear criteria and, in fact, exhibit dren” (Dempsey 2018:99-101). The location of the McIntyre both west and east subgroups. Napi is above a large valley (now flooded for a reservoir) that is close to the foothills and may have provided a reason- The major concern expressed by Wormington and Forbis able winter camp location. The single tier cairns on either regarding the linkage of the Blackfoot to all Napi effigies is side of the Napi effigy are the appropriate syntax to be -in the wide distribution of Napi effigies relative to the tradition- terpreted as ‘heads’. It is not unreasonable to suggest a link al territory of the historic/modern Blackfoot. This paper pro- between the Napi effigy and the Napi story. vides evidence that links the east Napi effigies to the Avon- lea-Old Women’s Phase transition, while the west Napis are As a last line of speculation, la longue durée is invoked largely recognised by the local Blackfoot as Napi and fall as an avenue to explain the apparent change in Napi effigies within the distribution of the Late Old Women’s Phase. Of through time and space using Blackfoot oral tradition. The course, many scholars consider the Old Women’s Phase to Napi effigies initially occur as larger petroforms in the east, represent, in some form, the ancestral Blackfoot. The ‘wide with many exhibiting apparels not unlike an eagle plume distribution’ of the Napi effigies is no longer a solid reason in the hair, and oriented north-south. One of these effigies for failing to link them with the Blackfoot. There is no need appears to be associated with Avonlea-Old Women’s Phase to invoke ‘unrelated people’ that the Blackfoot replace; transition material (ca. 1,100 BP) and the Napi subgroup as rather, the effigies can be considered in situ developments. a whole is coincidentally distributed with all other known The Blackfoot recognise the effigies as reminders of Napi’s Avonlea-Old-Women’s Phase transition sites. Using the life time on earth. These are not ceremonial sites but markers of and times of Napi as the narrative, the legendary history de- legendary history. Some of the Napi effigies directly reflect picts Napi as an ‘outstanding being with an eagle plume in Blackfoot oral tradition and are clearly describing an exist- his hair,’ arriving amongst his people. Through time, Napi ing effigy or an effigy that was known to exist. It is up to introduces bow and arrow technology, bison impounding, future researchers to continue efforts and attach other Napi how to butcher animals, and to honor their spirits. Avonlea is stories to Napi effigies to continue to flesh out the- petro the introduction of the bow to the Plains (Vickers 1994:14; form record of Siksikaitsitapi (Blackfoot) belief. A good set Peck 2011:335-366), and although bison impounding had of spatially distributed dates (e.g., from optically stimulated been conducted for millennium before, Avonlea archers luminescence) on different effigies would go a long way to would have needed to learn it, as they apparently entered the confirm or reject many of the ideas presented in this paper Plains from the eastern periphery (Morgan 1979; Landals et regarding ages and ethnic affiliations of Napi effigies. al.2004:14-17; Peck 2011:355-366).

89 Peck / Archaeological Survey of Alberta Occasional Paper 40 (2020) 71–91

7. Acknowledgements

Dempsey, H.A. 1994. The Amazing Death of Calf Shirt and other Black- Many people assisted with the development of the ideas foot Stories: Three Hundred Years of Blackfoot History. Fifth House in this article. First and foremost, I thank Francis First Char- Publishers, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. ger [Ninnaisipistoo], a Spiritual Blackfoot Elder with Kain- Dempsey, H.A. 2018. Napi: The Trickster. Heritage House Publishing ai. Francis was able to clarify several issues regarding the Company Ltd., Victoria, British Columbia. Blackfoot perspective on Napi effigies. Similarly, Blair First Dyck, I. 1981. New light on the Wild Man Butte Effigy. Saskatchewan Rider, also an Elder with the Kainai and a personal mentor, Archaeology 2:54-72. offered value input regarding the article. Many colleagues Forbis, R.G. 1970. A Review of Alberta Archaeology to 1964. Publications in the United States provided valuable information about in Archaeology 1. National Museums of Canada, National Museum of the effigies in the USA; unfortunately, during a recent office Man, Ottawa, Ontario. move all my specific contacts with these people were lost but Friesen, N. 2011. Recently mapped ceremonial circles and their geo- include staff at the BLM Montana, the North Dakota Archae- graphic distribution. Saskatchewan Archaeological Society Newsletter ological Association, and the Kansas State Historical Soci- 32:15-19. ety. The Glenbow Museum allowed the publication of the Gill, J., and M. Hymers. 1968. Indian boulder effigies on the Northern image of the Rumsey effigy. Meaghan Porter allowed the Ni- Plains. Report on file, Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, Tum effigy to be traced and included in the paper. Similarly, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. the Saskatchewan Archaeology Association allowed images Grinnell, G.B. 1962 [1892] Blackfoot Lodge Tales: A Story of a Prairie of Wildman Butte and Ted Douglas to be reproduced. Jack People. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska. Brink provided the image of the Tolman effigy from Barnum Hjermstad, B. 1991. T.R.A.C.E.: An artifact recording program in Brown’s notebook, which is a fascinating tidbit. Last, but not south-central Alberta. Archaeological Society of Alberta, Calgary least, J. Roderick Vickers sparked my initial interest in these Centre. Report on file, Archaeological Survey of Aberta, Edmonton. fascinating petroforms and conducted some foundational Kehoe, A.B. 2005. Introduction to the Blackfeet in Montana. In: Mon- work on the topic; I hope this contribution does his efforts tana 1911: A Professor and his Wife among the Blackfeet, Uhlen- justice. 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