Discrete Subgroups of the Euclidean and Hyperbolic Planes

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Discrete Subgroups of the Euclidean and Hyperbolic Planes University of Nevada, Reno Wallpapering the Hyperbolic Plane: Discrete Subgroups Of the Euclidean and Hyperbolic Planes A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Mathematics by Susannah C. Coates Dr. Valentin Deaconu/Thesis Advisor December 2014 c by Susannah C. Coates 2014 All Rights Reserved THE GRADUATE SCHOOL We recommend that the thesis prepared under our supervision by SUSANNAH C. COATES entitled Wallpapering the Hyperbolic Plane: Discrete Subgroups Of the Euclidean and Hyperbolic Planes be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Valentin Deaconu, Ph.D., Advisor Swatee Naik, Ph.D., Committee Member Frederick Harris, Ph.D., Graduate School Representative David Zeh, Ph.D., Dean, Graduate School December 2014 i Abstract The question driving this thesis is, \What are the hyperbolic analogues of the Eu- clidean wallpaper groups?" We first investigate symmetry groups of the Euclidean plane, the frieze and wallpaper groups, understanding both in terms of generators and relations. Each wallpaper group has a presentation as an extension of a point group by Z2. Some also have presentations in terms of reflections in the sides of a triangle. Since triangle groups also exist in the hyperbolic plane, we discuss the Euclidean triangle groups. We then examine the isometries of the hyperbolic plane, finding that Isom(H) differs structurally from Isom(E). In particular, translations are not closed in the hyperbolic plane. Thus, though the frieze groups are structurally the same in the hyperbolic as in the Euclidean context, Isom(H) has no translation subgroup, and so the Euclidean wallpaper groups do not transfer. There do exist tilings of the hyperbolic plane, however. We close with a discussion of the Fuchsian groups, and some hyperbolic triangle groups. The original results of this thesis analyze the composition of certain translations and of certain parallel displacements in Isom(H). ii Acknowledgements First and foremost, I wish to thank my advisor, Dr. Valentin Deaconu who has tire- lessly guided and encouraged this research over the past year and a half. My thanks also to my committee members Dr. Swatee Naik, for her rigorous and considered critiques, and her support and counsel outside of the thesis itself, and Dr. Frederick Harris for his immediate attention, detailed comments, and cheerful and freely given guidance. Acknowledgement is due to the following individuals, in no particular order, both inside and outside of academia, who have aided and sustained me throughout this project: Philip Raath, Mary-Margaret Coates, Sarah Tegeler, Dr. Anna Panorska, Jordan Blocher, Xander Henderson et al., Dr. Slaven Jabuka, Dr. Lou Talman, Dr. Chris Herald, Mike and Jayde Gilmore, Joe and Ashley Thibadeau, Banafsheh Rekabdar, Anthony LaFleur and Annalee Gomm. This list of names is of course incomplete. iii Contents Introduction 1 1 Isometries in E 4 1.1 Fundamental Definitions and Axioms . .4 1.2 Classification of Isometries of E .....................7 2 Group Structure of Isom(E) 12 2.1 Describing Isometries Using Complex Numbers . 13 2.2 Isometries As An Extension of O (2) by R2 .............. 15 2.3 Discrete Subgroups of Isom(E)...................... 20 2.4 Finite Subgroups of Isom(E)....................... 22 3 Frieze Groups 25 4 Wallpaper Groups 32 4.1 The Crystallographic Restriction . 34 4.2 Lattices of R2 ............................... 38 4.3 Wallpaper Group Presentations . 41 4.4 Triangle Groups . 55 5 Isometries in H 64 iv 5.1 The Hyperbolic Plane . 65 5.2 Models of the Hyperbolic Plane . 66 6 Classification of Isometries in H 71 7 Group Structure of Isom(H) 76 7.1 Linear Fractional Transformations and Fixed Points . 83 7.2 Matrices and Trace . 84 7.3 Composing Translations and Parallel Displacements . 90 7.4 Discrete Subgroups of Isom(H)..................... 95 7.5 Finite Subgroups of Isom(H)....................... 96 8 Frieze Groups in H 100 9 Analogues of Wallpaper Groups in H 108 9.1 Dirichlet Region . 109 9.2 Triangle Groups . 113 9.3 Conclusions . 116 9.4 Questions and Future Work . 117 Appendix: Semidirect Product of Groups 118 v List of Figures 1.1 Illustration of Proposition 1.33 . 11 3.1 Partial orbit of O under the translation subgroup h(I; v)i ....... 26 3.2 Hop . 27 3.3 Jump . 27 3.4 Sidle . 28 3.5 Step . 29 3.6 Spinhop . 29 3.7 Spinjump . 30 3.8 Spinsidle . 31 4.1 Fundamental region and translation lattice of a wallpaper group . 33 4.2 Wallpaper group W1 ........................... 43 1 4.3 Wallpaper group W1 ........................... 43 1 4.4 Example of wallpaper group W1 , including fundamental region Image credit: [8], Plate 11, Egyption No 8, Image 11 . 44 2 4.5 Wallpaper group W1 ........................... 44 3 4.6 Wallpaper group W1 ........................... 45 4.7 Wallpaper group W2 ........................... 46 1 4.8 Wallpaper group W2 ........................... 47 vi 2 4.9 Wallpaper group W2 ........................... 47 3 4.10 Wallpaper group W2 ........................... 48 4 4.11 Wallpaper group W2 ........................... 49 4.12 Wallpaper group W3 ........................... 50 1 4.13 Wallpaper group W3 ........................... 50 2 4.14 Wallpaper group W3 ........................... 51 4.15 Wallpaper group W4 ........................... 52 1 4.16 Wallpaper group W4 ........................... 52 2 4.17 Wallpaper group W4 ........................... 53 4.18 Wallpaper group W6 ........................... 54 1 4.19 Wallpaper group W6 ........................... 55 1 4.20 Example of wallpaper group W6 , including fundamental region Image credit: [8], Plate 30, Byzantine No 3, Image 19 . 55 4.21 Example of a (p; q; r) triangle . 57 4.22 Partial image of a fundamental triangle under the action of a full (p; q; r) triangle group . 57 4.23 Partial image of a fundamental quadrilateral under the action of an ordinary (p; q; r) triangle group . 58 4.24 Partial image of F under the action of the full (3; 3; 3) triangle group 59 4.25 Partial image of F under the action of the full (2; 4; 4) triangle group 61 4.26 Partial image of F under the action of the full (2; 3; 6) triangle group 62 5.1 Orthogonal circles . 67 5.2 Poincar´edisc model: divergently and asymptotically parallel lines . 67 5.3 Isomorphism between the Poincar´edisc and upper half plane models . 69 5.4 Distance from z to w equals distance from z1 to w1 .......... 70 6.1 Inverse P 0 of P in the circle γ ...................... 72 vii 6.2 Reflection of z across the geodesic l is the inverse z0 of z in l ..... 73 6.3 Partial orbits of z and w under translation with respect to t ..... 74 6.4 Partial orbit of i under parallel displacement about ideal point Σ = 2 74 7.1 d (z; D (z)) varies depending on the imaginary part of z ........ 88 8.1 Hop . 102 8.2 Jump . 103 8.3 Sidle . 104 8.4 Step . 105 8.5 Spinhop . 105 8.6 Spinjump . 106 8.7 Spinsidle . 107 9.1 Intersection of half-planes to determine a Dirichlet region . 111 9.2 Tesselation of the upper half-plane by the Modular group . 112 9.3 Tesselation of the upper half-plane by P GL (2; Z)........... 113 9.4 Triangles T1 and T2 generate the same group. 115 1 Introduction Euclid set down the Elements of Geometry more than 2000 years ago, beginning with the five axioms, and building up the structure of Euclidean geometry from there. Other axioms have been added over the millenia, and Euclidean geometry refined and better understood. The wallpaper groups, also called the 2-dimensional crystallographic groups, are sym- metry groups of the Euclidean plane wherein a convex polygonal fundamental region is translated in two non-parallel vectors, and possibly rotated or reflected as well, such that it tiles the plane. There are precisely 17 ways to do this, 17 wallpaper groups. The fifth axiom of Euclidean geometry is the Euclidean Parallel Postulate, that given a line, and a point not on that line, there exists exactly one line through the point that never intersects the given line. The Euclidean Parallel Postulate bedevilled mathe- maticians from Euclid's time on, seeming as if it should be provable, and therefore not a necessary assumption. In fact, the parallel postulate is independent of the other four axioms, and logically consistent geometries emerge when it is tinkered with. These are the non-Euclidean geometries. Hyperbolic geometry emerges with the assumption that given a line and a point not 2 on that line, there exist infinitely many lines through the point that never intersect the given line. So how does this one apparently simple change affect the tilings of the plane? What are the hyperbolic analogues of the Euclidean wallapaper groups? A review of current literature showed that while investigation into isometry groups of the hyperbolic plane is plentiful, no recently published papers addressed the question in the manner in which we wished to approach it. Thus, we turned to the fundamentals of group theory and the isometry groups of the Euclidean and hyperbolic planes in order to investigate. Chapter 1 lays out the fundamental definitions and axioms that underlie the rest of the discussion, and discusses the isometries of the Euclidean plane and how they are built from compositions of reflections. Chapter 2 investigates the structure of the group of isometries of the Euclidean plane, Isom(E). The Euclidean isometries may be represented in terms of complex numbers. They may also be described by vectors in the additive group (R2; +) and elements of the group of 2 × 2 orthogonal matrices, (O (2) ; ·). Since ι 2 π 2 R 0 ! R ; + ! (Isom (E) ; ∗) (O (2) ; ·) ! 1 ιO(2) is a short exact sequence of group homomorphisms which is split exact, then ∼ 2 Isom(E) = R o O (2).
Recommended publications
  • Simple Closed Geodesics on Regular Tetrahedra in Lobachevsky Space
    Simple closed geodesics on regular tetrahedra in Lobachevsky space Alexander A. Borisenko, Darya D. Sukhorebska Abstract. We obtained a complete classification of simple closed geodesics on regular tetrahedra in Lobachevsky space. Also, we evaluated the number of simple closed geodesics of length not greater than L and found the asymptotic of this number as L goes to infinity. Keywords: closed geodesics, simple geodesics, regular tetrahedron, Lobachevsky space, hyperbolic space. MSC: 53С22, 52B10 1 Introduction A closed geodesic is called simple if this geodesic is not self-intersecting and does not go along itself. In 1905 Poincare proposed the conjecture on the existence of three simple closed geodesics on a smooth convex surface in three-dimensional Euclidean space. In 1917 J. Birkhoff proved that there exists at least one simple closed geodesic on a Riemannian manifold that is home- omorphic to a sphere of arbitrary dimension [1]. In 1929 L. Lyusternik and L. Shnirelman obtained that there exist at least three simple closed geodesics on a compact simply-connected two-dimensional Riemannian manifold [2], [3]. But the proof by Lyusternik and Shnirelman contains substantial gaps. I. A. Taimanov gives a complete proof of the theorem that on each smooth Riemannian manifold homeomorphic to the two-dimentional sphere there exist at least three distinct simple closed geodesics [4]. In 1951 L. Lyusternik and A. Fet stated that there exists at least one closed geodesic on any compact Riemannian manifold [5]. In 1965 Fet improved this results. He proved that there exist at least two closed geodesics on a compact Riemannian manifold under the assumption that all closed geodesics are non-degenerate [6].
    [Show full text]
  • Frieze Groups Tara Mccabe Denis Mortell
    Frieze Groups Tara McCabe Denis Mortell Introduction Our chosen topic is frieze groups. A frieze group is an infinite discrete group of symmetries, i.e. the set of the geometric transformations that are composed of rigid motions and reflections that preserve the pattern. A frieze pattern is a two-dimensional design that repeats in one direction. A study on these groups was published in 1969 by Coxeter and Conway. Although they had been studied by Gauss prior to this, Gauss did not publish his studies. Instead, they were found in his private notes years after his death. Visual Perspective Numerical Perspective What second-row numbers validate a frieze pattern? (F) There are seven types of groups. Each of these are the A frieze pattern is an array of natural numbers, displayed in a symmetry group of a frieze pattern. They have been lattice such that the top and bottom lines are composed only of The second-row numbers that determine the pattern are not illustrated below using the Conway notation and 1’s and for each unit diamond, random. Instead, these numbers have a peculiar property. corresponding diagrams: the rule (bc) − (ad) = 1 holds. Theorem I Fifth being a translation I The first, and the one There is a bijection between the valid which must occur in with vertical reflection, Here is an example of a frieze pattern: sequences for frieze patterns and all others is glide reflection and 180◦ rotation, or a the number of triangles adjacent to the Translation, or a vertices of a triangulated polygon. [2] ‘hop’.
    [Show full text]
  • Molecular Symmetry
    Molecular Symmetry Symmetry helps us understand molecular structure, some chemical properties, and characteristics of physical properties (spectroscopy) – used with group theory to predict vibrational spectra for the identification of molecular shape, and as a tool for understanding electronic structure and bonding. Symmetrical : implies the species possesses a number of indistinguishable configurations. 1 Group Theory : mathematical treatment of symmetry. symmetry operation – an operation performed on an object which leaves it in a configuration that is indistinguishable from, and superimposable on, the original configuration. symmetry elements – the points, lines, or planes to which a symmetry operation is carried out. Element Operation Symbol Identity Identity E Symmetry plane Reflection in the plane σ Inversion center Inversion of a point x,y,z to -x,-y,-z i Proper axis Rotation by (360/n)° Cn 1. Rotation by (360/n)° Improper axis S 2. Reflection in plane perpendicular to rotation axis n Proper axes of rotation (C n) Rotation with respect to a line (axis of rotation). •Cn is a rotation of (360/n)°. •C2 = 180° rotation, C 3 = 120° rotation, C 4 = 90° rotation, C 5 = 72° rotation, C 6 = 60° rotation… •Each rotation brings you to an indistinguishable state from the original. However, rotation by 90° about the same axis does not give back the identical molecule. XeF 4 is square planar. Therefore H 2O does NOT possess It has four different C 2 axes. a C 4 symmetry axis. A C 4 axis out of the page is called the principle axis because it has the largest n . By convention, the principle axis is in the z-direction 2 3 Reflection through a planes of symmetry (mirror plane) If reflection of all parts of a molecule through a plane produced an indistinguishable configuration, the symmetry element is called a mirror plane or plane of symmetry .
    [Show full text]
  • Fractal Wallpaper Patterns Douglas Dunham John Shier
    Fractal Wallpaper Patterns Douglas Dunham John Shier Department of Computer Science 6935 133rd Court University of Minnesota, Duluth Apple Valley, MN 55124 USA Duluth, MN 55812-3036, USA [email protected] [email protected] http://john-art.com/ http://www.d.umn.edu/˜ddunham/ Abstract In the past we presented an algorithm that can fill a region with an infinite sequence of randomly placed and progressively smaller shapes, producing a fractal pattern. In this paper we extend that algorithm to fill rectangles and triangles that tile the plane, which yields wallpaper patterns that are locally fractal in nature. This produces artistic patterns which have a pleasing combination of global symmetry and local randomness. We show several sample patterns. Introduction We have described an algorithm [2, 4, 6] that can fill a planar region with a series of progressively smaller randomly-placed motifs and produce pleasing patterns. Here we extend that algorithm to fill rectangles and triangles that can fill the plane, creating “wallpaper” patterns. Figure 1 shows a randomly created circle pattern with symmetry group p6mm. In order to create our wallpaper patterns, we fill a fundamental region Figure 1: A locally random circle fractal with global p6mm symmetry. for one of the 17 2-dimensional crystallographic groups with randomly placed, progressively smaller copies of a motif, such as a circle in Figure 1. The randomness generates a fractal pattern. Then copies of the filled fundamental region can be used to tile the plane, yielding a locally fractal, but globally symmetric pattern. In the next section we recall how the basic algorithm works and describe the modifications needed to create wallpaper patterns.
    [Show full text]
  • The Cubic Groups
    The Cubic Groups Baccalaureate Thesis in Electrical Engineering Author: Supervisor: Sana Zunic Dr. Wolfgang Herfort 0627758 Vienna University of Technology May 13, 2010 Contents 1 Concepts from Algebra 4 1.1 Groups . 4 1.2 Subgroups . 4 1.3 Actions . 5 2 Concepts from Crystallography 6 2.1 Space Groups and their Classification . 6 2.2 Motions in R3 ............................. 8 2.3 Cubic Lattices . 9 2.4 Space Groups with a Cubic Lattice . 10 3 The Octahedral Symmetry Groups 11 3.1 The Elements of O and Oh ..................... 11 3.2 A Presentation of Oh ......................... 14 3.3 The Subgroups of Oh ......................... 14 2 Abstract After introducing basics from (mathematical) crystallography we turn to the description of the octahedral symmetry groups { the symmetry group(s) of a cube. Preface The intention of this account is to provide a description of the octahedral sym- metry groups { symmetry group(s) of the cube. We first give the basic idea (without proofs) of mathematical crystallography, namely that the 219 space groups correspond to the 7 crystal systems. After this we come to describing cubic lattices { such ones that are built from \cubic cells". Finally, among the cubic lattices, we discuss briefly the ones on which O and Oh act. After this we provide lists of the elements and the subgroups of Oh. A presentation of Oh in terms of generators and relations { using the Dynkin diagram B3 is also given. It is our hope that this account is accessible to both { the mathematician and the engineer. The picture on the title page reflects Ha¨uy'sidea of crystal structure [4].
    [Show full text]
  • Geometry Without Points
    GEOMETRY WITHOUT POINTS Dana S. Scott, FBA, FNAS University Professor Emeritus Carnegie Mellon University Visiting Scholar University of California, Berkeley This is a preliminary report on on-going joint work with Tamar Lando, Philosophy, Columbia University !1 Euclid’s Definitions • A point is that which has no part. • A line is breadthless length. • A surface is that which has length and breadth only. The Basic Questions • Are these notions too abstract ? Or too idealized ? • Can we develop a theory of regions without using points ? • Does it make sense for geometric objects to be only solids ? !2 Famous Proponents of Pointlessness Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646 – 1716) Nikolai Lobachevsky (1792 – 1856) Edmund Husserl (1859 – 1938) Alfred North Whitehead (1861 – 1947) Johannes Trolle Hjelmslev (1873 – 1950) Edward Vermilye Huntington (1874 – 1952) Theodore de Laguna (1876 – 1930) Stanisław Leśniewski (1886 – 1939) Jean George Pierre Nicod (1893 – 1924) Leonard Mascot Blumenthal (1901 – 1984) Alfred Tarski (1901 – 1983) Karl Menger (1902 – 1985) John von Neumann (1903 – 1957) Henry S. Leonard (1905 – 1967) Nelson Goodman (1906 – 1998) !3 Two Quotations Mathematics is a part of physics. Physics is an experimental science, a part of natural science. Mathematics is the part of physics where experiments are cheap. -- V.I. Arnol’d, in a lecture, Paris, March 1997 I remember once when I tried to add a little seasoning to a review, but I wasn't allowed to. The paper was by Dorothy Maharam, and it was a perfectly sound contribution to abstract measure theory. The domains of the underlying measures were not sets but elements of more general Boolean algebras, and their range consisted not of positive numbers but of certain abstract equivalence classes.
    [Show full text]
  • Draft Framework for a Teaching Unit: Transformations
    Co-funded by the European Union PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION (PrimTEd) PROJECT GEOMETRY AND MEASUREMENT WORKING GROUP DRAFT FRAMEWORK FOR A TEACHING UNIT Preamble The general aim of this teaching unit is to empower pre-service students by exposing them to geometry and measurement, and the relevant pe dagogical content that would allow them to become skilful and competent mathematics teachers. The depth and scope of the content often go beyond what is required by prescribed school curricula for the Intermediate Phase learners, but should allow pre- service teachers to be well equipped, and approach the teaching of Geometry and Measurement with confidence. Pre-service teachers should essentially be prepared for Intermediate Phase teaching according to the requirements set out in MRTEQ (Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications, 2019). “MRTEQ provides a basis for the construction of core curricula Initial Teacher Education (ITE) as well as for Continuing Professional Development (CPD) Programmes that accredited institutions must use in order to develop programmes leading to teacher education qualifications.” [p6]. Competent learning… a mixture of Theoretical & Pure & Extrinsic & Potential & Competent learning represents the acquisition, integration & application of different types of knowledge. Each type implies the mastering of specific related skills Disciplinary Subject matter knowledge & specific specialized subject Pedagogical Knowledge of learners, learning, curriculum & general instructional & assessment strategies & specialized Learning in & from practice – the study of practice using Practical learning case studies, videos & lesson observations to theorize practice & form basis for learning in practice – authentic & simulated classroom environments, i.e. Work-integrated Fundamental Learning to converse in a second official language (LOTL), ability to use ICT & acquisition of academic literacies Knowledge of varied learning situations, contexts & Situational environments of education – classrooms, schools, communities, etc.
    [Show full text]
  • COXETER GROUPS (Unfinished and Comments Are Welcome)
    COXETER GROUPS (Unfinished and comments are welcome) Gert Heckman Radboud University Nijmegen [email protected] October 10, 2018 1 2 Contents Preface 4 1 Regular Polytopes 7 1.1 ConvexSets............................ 7 1.2 Examples of Regular Polytopes . 12 1.3 Classification of Regular Polytopes . 16 2 Finite Reflection Groups 21 2.1 NormalizedRootSystems . 21 2.2 The Dihedral Normalized Root System . 24 2.3 TheBasisofSimpleRoots. 25 2.4 The Classification of Elliptic Coxeter Diagrams . 27 2.5 TheCoxeterElement. 35 2.6 A Dihedral Subgroup of W ................... 39 2.7 IntegralRootSystems . 42 2.8 The Poincar´eDodecahedral Space . 46 3 Invariant Theory for Reflection Groups 53 3.1 Polynomial Invariant Theory . 53 3.2 TheChevalleyTheorem . 56 3.3 Exponential Invariant Theory . 60 4 Coxeter Groups 65 4.1 Generators and Relations . 65 4.2 TheTitsTheorem ........................ 69 4.3 The Dual Geometric Representation . 74 4.4 The Classification of Some Coxeter Diagrams . 77 4.5 AffineReflectionGroups. 86 4.6 Crystallography. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 92 5 Hyperbolic Reflection Groups 97 5.1 HyperbolicSpace......................... 97 5.2 Hyperbolic Coxeter Groups . 100 5.3 Examples of Hyperbolic Coxeter Diagrams . 108 5.4 Hyperbolic reflection groups . 114 5.5 Lorentzian Lattices . 116 3 6 The Leech Lattice 125 6.1 ModularForms ..........................125 6.2 ATheoremofVenkov . 129 6.3 The Classification of Niemeier Lattices . 132 6.4 The Existence of the Leech Lattice . 133 6.5 ATheoremofConway . 135 6.6 TheCoveringRadiusofΛ . 137 6.7 Uniqueness of the Leech Lattice . 140 4 Preface Finite reflection groups are a central subject in mathematics with a long and rich history. The group of symmetries of a regular m-gon in the plane, that is the convex hull in the complex plane of the mth roots of unity, is the dihedral group of order 2m, which is the simplest example of a reflection Dm group.
    [Show full text]
  • Đối Xứng Trong Nghệ Thuật
    3 Đối xứng trong nghệ thuật Hình 3.1: Mái nhà thờ Sagrada Familia ở Barcelona (Tây Ban Nha), do nghệ sĩ kiến trúc sư Antonio Gaudí (1852–1926) thiết kế, nhìn từ bên trong gian giữa. Nguồn: wikipedia. 59 Chương 3. Đối xứng trong nghệ thuật Các hình đối xứng là các hình có sự giống nhau giữa các phần, tức là chúng tuân thủ nguyên lý lặp đi lặp lại của cái đẹp. Chính bởi vậy mà trong nghệ thuật, và trong cuộc sống hàng ngày, chúng ta gặp rất nhiều hình đối xứng đẹp mắt. Ngay các bài thơ, bản nhạc cũng có sự đối xứng. Tuy nhiên chương này sẽ chỉ bàn đến đối xứng trong các nghệ thuật thị giác (visual arts). Các phép đối xứng Hình 3.2: Mặt nước phản chiếu tạo hình ảnh với đối xứng gương. Trong toán học có định lý sau: Mọi phép biến đổi bảo toàn khoảng cách trong không gian bình thường của chúng ta (tức là không gian Euclid 3 chiều hoặc trên mặt phẳng 2 chiều) đều thuộc một trong bốn loại sau: 60 Chương 3. Đối xứng trong nghệ thuật 1) Phép đối xứng gương (mirror symmetry), hay còn gọi là phép phản chiếu (reflection): trong không gian 3 chiều thì là phản chiếu qua một mặt phẳng nào đó, còn trên mặt phẳng thì là phản chiếu qua một đường thẳng. 2) Phép quay (rotation): trong không gian 3 chiều thì là quay quanh một trục nào đó, còn trên mặt phẳng thì là quay quanh một điểm nào đó, theo một góc nào đó.
    [Show full text]
  • Hands-On Explorations of Plane Transformations
    Hands-On Explorations of Plane Transformations James King University of Washington Department of Mathematics [email protected] http://www.math.washington.edu/~king The “Plan” • In this session, we will explore exploring. • We have a big math toolkit of transformations to think about. • We have some physical objects that can serve as a hands- on toolkit. • We have geometry relationships to think about. • So we will try out at many combinations as we can to get an idea of how they work out as a real-world experience. • I expect that we will get some new ideas from each other as we try out different tools for various purposes. Our Transformational Case of Characters • Line Reflection • Point Reflection (a rotation) • Translation • Rotation • Dilation • Compositions of any of the above Our Physical Toolkit • Patty paper • Semi-reflective plastic mirrors • Graph paper • Ruled paper • Card Stock • Dot paper • Scissors, rulers, protractors Reflecting a point • As a first task, we will try out tools for line reflection of a point A to a point B. Then reflecting a shape. A • Suggest that you try the semi-reflective mirrors and the patty paper for folding and tracing. Also, graph paper is an option. Also, regular paper and cut-outs M • Note that pencils and overhead pens work on patty paper but not ballpoints. Also not that overhead dots are easier to see with the mirrors. B • Can we (or your students) conclude from your C tool that the mirror line is the perpendicular bisector of AB? Which tools best let you draw this reflection? • When reflecting shapes, consider how to reflect some polygon when it is not all on one side of the mirror line.
    [Show full text]
  • Sorting by Symmetry
    Sorting by Symmetry Patterns along a Line Bob Burn Sorting patterns by Symmetry: Patterns along a Line 1 Sorting patterns by Symmetry: Patterns along a Line Sorting by Symmetry Patterns along a Line 1 Parallel mirrors ................................................................................................... 4 2 Translations ........................................................................................................ 7 3 Friezes ................................................................................................................ 9 4 Friezes with vertical reflections ....................................................................... 11 5 Friezes with half-turns ..................................................................................... 13 6 Friezes with a horizontal reflection .................................................................. 16 7 Glide-reflection ................................................................................................ 18 8 Fixed lines ........................................................................................................ 20 9 Friezes with half-turn centres not on reflection axes ....................................... 22 10 Friezes with all possible symmetries ............................................................... 26 11 Generators ........................................................................................................ 28 12 The family of friezes .......................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 3: Transformations Groups, Orbits, and Spaces of Orbits
    Preprint typeset in JHEP style - HYPER VERSION Chapter 3: Transformations Groups, Orbits, And Spaces Of Orbits Gregory W. Moore Abstract: This chapter focuses on of group actions on spaces, group orbits, and spaces of orbits. Then we discuss mathematical symmetric objects of various kinds. May 3, 2019 -TOC- Contents 1. Introduction 2 2. Definitions and the stabilizer-orbit theorem 2 2.0.1 The stabilizer-orbit theorem 6 2.1 First examples 7 2.1.1 The Case Of 1 + 1 Dimensions 11 3. Action of a topological group on a topological space 14 3.1 Left and right group actions of G on itself 19 4. Spaces of orbits 20 4.1 Simple examples 21 4.2 Fundamental domains 22 4.3 Algebras and double cosets 28 4.4 Orbifolds 28 4.5 Examples of quotients which are not manifolds 29 4.6 When is the quotient of a manifold by an equivalence relation another man- ifold? 33 5. Isometry groups 34 6. Symmetries of regular objects 36 6.1 Symmetries of polygons in the plane 39 3 6.2 Symmetry groups of some regular solids in R 42 6.3 The symmetry group of a baseball 43 7. The symmetries of the platonic solids 44 7.1 The cube (\hexahedron") and octahedron 45 7.2 Tetrahedron 47 7.3 The icosahedron 48 7.4 No more regular polyhedra 50 7.5 Remarks on the platonic solids 50 7.5.1 Mathematics 51 7.5.2 History of Physics 51 7.5.3 Molecular physics 51 7.5.4 Condensed Matter Physics 52 7.5.5 Mathematical Physics 52 7.5.6 Biology 52 7.5.7 Human culture: Architecture, art, music and sports 53 7.6 Regular polytopes in higher dimensions 53 { 1 { 8.
    [Show full text]