Chapter I Introduction CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Preliminaries 1.2 Translation in English 1.3 Tradition of Translation in India 1.4 Tradition of Translation in Maharashtra 1.5 Linguistic Approach to Translation 1.6 Cultural Approach to Translation 1.7 History of Translation Studies in Europe 1.8 History of Translation Studies in India 1.9 Aims and Objectives 1.10 Hypothesis 1.11 Scope and Limitations of the Research 1.12 Justification for Research 1.13 Pedogogical Implications 1.1 Preliminaries This introductory chapter explains the different translations theories in India and the world. It also narrates the short history of translations in India and abroad. Though it is difficult to define translation in specific words, one can give various definitions to show the different ideas related to translations. Oxford dictionary of English language defines translation as ‘The action or process of turning something from one language into another”. It is true that dictionary is not basically meant to define terms like translation. Yet the dictionary has used the word ‘something’ which needs to be explained here. According to this defmition anything from a simple word to a work of art can be covered under this term translation. This covers a vast area and may mislead the basic concept of translation as we view it generally. Catford has defined it as “translation is the replacement of textual material of one language in another language”. According to this defmition material is replaced. A work of art does not contain only material. It has style and diction in it, which needs to be taken into consideration in translation. Otherwise it will be dry and dead translation. Another significant theorist of translation is Eugene A. Nida who stated that “the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language first in meaning and second in meaning”. Nida has expanded the scope of translation from something to meaning and style. Translators like Gauri Deshpande, Sudhakar Marathe, Dilip Chitre, Santosh Bhoomkar who translated various Marathi works have written about their experiences in translation processes. A well known Marathi writer Sunita Deshpande stated that ‘Translation is more demanding than creative writing because you are responsible for someone else’s thought and writing there”. Gideon Toury defines translation in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Semiotics as “Translating is an act or a process which is performed or which occurs over and across systemic borders. In the widest of its possible entity which is a constituent of a certain cultural system is transformed into another semiotic entity which forms at least a potential element of another cultural system, providing that some informational core retained invariant under transformation and on its basis a relationship known as equivalence is established between the resultant and initial entities”. This definition seems to be more inclusive because it relates translation to a process of transforming semiotic substance from one language to another language. Any defmition or description of translation should be descriptive rather than prescriptive. Because one text can be judiciously translated in various ways depending upon the reading of the source language text by a translator. These opinions are of crucial importance because the present research is based on the actual translations of Marathi texts into Enghsh. There are people like Lata Manaswini who believe that translator has to transgress his own personality into the personality of the writer inorder to make it real. Such metaphysical ideas may not always be usefiil in a research work like this. But practical experiences of the above translators would certainly guide the work. Translation activity which started on a small note in the begiiming of the last century has now become an industry. Term translation and transcreation are sometimes intermingled to mean the same activity. But there is a sharp difference between the two. Translation is generally a change in the language of the source text into the language of the target text whereas transcreation is a new cration. V.V.Shirwadkar transcreated Shakespeare’s ‘King Lear’ as "•TZ^yici' in Marathi. P.L. Deshpande transcreated Shaw’s ‘Pygmalion’ ‘eft Berolt Bretch’s ‘Three Penny Opera’ as ‘#T Transcreation changes the style, characters, names into local colours and names. 1.2 Translation in English Translation of text from one language to another language has been an eye old practice. Texts chosen for such translations were from the then dominant language. Texts from language like Greek, Latin, Arabian, Sanskrit were chosen for translations. Trend changed with the spread of English rules in various parts of the world. Texts from English were taken up for translation. There are traditions of translation in all the parts of the world. It will not be out of place to write about the translation practises out of India in order to place the study in proper perspective. The story of the ‘Tower of Babel’ is significant in this cormection. “According to the ‘Bible’, the descendants of Noah decided after the great flood to settle down in a plain in the land of Shinar. There they committed the great sin. Instead of setting up a society that fits God’s will, they decided to challenge His authority and build a tower that could reach Heaven. However this plan was not completed as God recognizing their wish regained control over them through a linguistic stratagem. He caused them to speak different languages so as not to understand each other. Then he scattered them all over earth. After that incident, the number of languages increased through diversion and people started to look for ways to communicate, hence the birth of translator.” This story shows that the God also disliked the idea of one language all over the world. This naturally gave birth to the translation of expressions from one language to another language knowingly or unknowingly. Romans were also impressed by Greek language. They learned Greek in order to be able to translate Greek texts into Latin. According to Eric Jacobson ‘Translation is a Roman invention’. The history of civilisation tells us that Roman and Greek civilisations were the most ancient civilisations in the world. ‘The Old Testament’ was originally written in Hebrew. There were many Jews then who did not know Hebrew language. It was therefore necessary to translate Hebrew Old Testament into Greek for the common readers of Roman and Greek empires. King Alfred’s contribution to translation activity is notable. He himself was a translator of texts into vernacular for easy acceptability in the public. He believed that the language which all understand easily must have important books available to all. His ideas were taken up by the people from Africa, Ireland, Italy and Germany. ‘The Norman Conquest’ of England in 1066 slowed down the practise for some years. English people had to depend on the translations and imitations from French, Latin, Italian, and Scandalviyan countries till the 14* Century. The age of English prose translation began in the 15''’ Century. According to Theodore Savory, the reign of Elizabeth I was the great age of translation in England. Barclay’s ‘The Ship of Fools’ is significant in this coimection. Thomas Shelton translated Don Quixote of Cervantes from Spanish into EngUsh. Wayat and Surrey translated poems from Petrarch. John Florio’s translation of Montaigne’s Essays showed to the people of England that essay was a rich and a practicable form of literature for translation. George Chapman translated Vergil’s ‘Iliad’ into English. His ‘Homer’ was published in 1616. These two translations are often quoted by the scholars in the field. The publication of the ‘English Bible’ has been the most important event in translation studies. The first translation of the complete Bible was produced by John Wycliffe between 1381 and 1384. A commission of translators under Henry VIII brought out the ‘Great Bible’ in 1539. The task of the ‘Bible’ translation was completed in 1611. Since that date ‘The Authorised Version of Bible’ has retained as the greatest of English translations. John Dryden devoted last 20 years of his life in translating the ancient classics. He translated Ovid, Vergil, Lucian, Bacascio and Chaucer. His translation of Vergil in 1697 is considered to be the masterpiece of translation. Dryden was also the first major English theorist on translation. Alexander Pope was an important figure in the field of translation in the 18"’ Century. He translated Illiad and Odyssey. Another important name of the period is William Cowper who put ‘Homer’ into English verse. The 19* century saw flowering of translation activity in Europe. One of the important names during this time is Thomas Carlyle. He translated Gothe’s ‘Wilhelm Meister’ into Enghsh in 1824. The period also witnessed outstanding poets like Byron, Shelley, Longfellow, D.G.rossetti and Robert Browning involved in translations. Edward Fitzgerald translated Rubaiyat of Khayyam from Persian into English which enjoys great fame even today. H.W. Longfellow’s translation of Dante’s ‘Divine Comedy’ was also well accepted. Translation has turned into an industry in the 20**’ century. Writers, critics, layman and scholars have taken up to translation. It made the general public aware of great and vast literature in multitude of languages. The translations of Tolstoy, Dostovsky, Anton Chekov, Strindberg, Ibsen, and Tagore have made these great literary figures widely known to the world. Shreedevi K. Nair observes, “Translation has brought the different nations closer to each other in this century than can ever be hoped. In so far as international communication is indispensability for the progress of mankind, translations are bound to play a very crucial role in the years to come.” (Page, 42) English people translated classic works from Greek, Roman, American and Sanskrit languages during the first phase of their empire expansion programme.