Exploring resilience to climate change and other environmental challenges in Samoan communities. Anita Latai Niusulu A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. December, 2016 Explanation of the photograph: A painting of Namu’a Island (off the coast of Aleipata) by a young Samoan whose village was wiped out by the 2009 tsunami (courtesy of the ‘Moving on: arts as therapy programme’ conducted by Leua Latai, 2010). Instead of showing the ravages of the tsunami, the child illustrates the transformation and renewal of Namu’a. The painting depicts hope, renewal and transformation amid the traumatizing experience of witnessing the death of family members and loss of homes. i Abstract Climate change could be one of the most significant challenges of this century, and information about how societies have endured difficult times is crucial to the development of survival strategies. The latter is fundamental to the concept „resilience‟, the latest catchphrase in the literatures of climate change and global policy-making in the early 2000s. Being resilient in the face of climate change is especially important for island societies, which currently face the consequences of rising temperatures, unpredictable rainfall and wind patterns, and sea level rise, yet there is a dearth of academic literature on the subject. To date, the majority of studies have used indicators and methods rooted in Western science and neo-classical economics. These, have, however, been criticized as being locally irrelevant and inadequate to address the dynamic nature and social structures of island communities, and their capacity to adapt. This study challenges the current paradigm that defines resilience as a return to equilibrium, by using a non-equilibrium cultural ecological lens and interpretivist research design. The non-equilibrium view of resilience sees the social systems of island nations as highly dynamic areas, constantly undergoing persistent change and environmental disturbance. It is exposure to such disturbances that fosters resilience in people. The study found that island societies are resilient because they continue to adapt and survive despite living on small isolated landmasses and being exposed to physical and socio-economic challenges, including climate-related changes. A key argument of this thesis is that to understand the resilience of an island society to climate change requires assessment of islanders‟ perceptions and actions in the context of their physical locales and their socio-cultural systems. In the case of Samoa, it was found important to situate participants in their villages and investigate what they say and do in response to their cultural position in Samoan society as well as in their responsibilities and obligations to family, village, church and the nation. This approach revealed Samoans‟ detailed understanding, awareness and experience of climate-related changes. More importantly, it enabled greater appreciation of islanders‟ multiple and multi- layered connections, to take advantage of opportunities and devise ways of managing, avoiding and reducing the risks associated with climate change. These have already proven vital in enabling Samoans to cope with climate change, and are expected to do so in future. The research findings and approach could be used to assess the resilience of people in other places. ii Acknowledgments “Aua nei ia te i matou, le Alii e, aua nei ia te i matou, a ia tuuina atu le viiga i lou suafa, ona o lou alofa ma lou faamaoni”. As I come to the end of this short but difficult journey, I am grateful for the „blessings‟ that I have received and the „lessons‟ that I have learned along the way. The most important lesson has been the realization that this journey would have been a lot harder, even impossible, if I had taken it alone. To all those who have been so kind, I am humbled because I can only say „thank you‟ in return. This work would not have been possible without the valuable assistance of the church and village leaders and residents of the eight communities which are featured in this study. E le lava upu e faafetaia ai le fesoasoani taua a e sa faasoa mai le tomai mai alalafaga e valu sa faatinoina ai lenei suesuega- Saleimoa, Auala, Lano, Malaela, Saanapu, Maagiagi, Sili and Aopo. Faafetai tele mo le taliaina o lenei tagata i outou maota ma laoa. Thank you for sharing your hearts and your stories! I acknowledge the support and guidance of my supervisors, Professor Tony Binns and Professor Etienne Nel. Thank you for your kindness and patience, in putting up with my numerous „rough‟ drafts and your encouragements to „press on‟ during moments of „self- doubt‟ and „uncertainty‟. To Emeritus Professor Peter Holland, you truly are a „gem‟ in the Geography Department and words cannot express how deeply grateful I am, for your unwavering support and wise counsel. This thesis would not have been completed without your insightful comments and willingness to edit and correct my writing. You have been a great mentor and friend. I thank the University of Otago and the National University of Samoa for their financial assistance which has enabled me to pursue further studies. E manatua le tapuaiga ma le lagolago a le Afioga ia Lau Asofou Soo, Lafaitele Fualuga Taupi, Tuiloma Susana Tauaa, Sauia Louise Mataia faapea uso a faiaoga o le Faculty of Arts o loo tui mai le mulipapaga i le Papaigalagala. I also acknowledge the kind support of Professor Sean Fitzsimons- Head of the Geography Department at Otago University, as well as the „great‟ Geography Dept. iii administration staff- Marlene, Sandra, Christine, Dave, David and Nigel. Thank you so much for your support! To the Geog380 2016 Staff- Christina, Sophie, Sean, Tony and Etienne, thank you for giving me the opportunity to work with undergraduate students this year. It was indeed a great learning experience. I also acknowledge the support of the Samoan community in Dunedin, particularly members of the „small but spirited‟ Samoan Methodist Church (Dunedin) and Otago Pacific Islands Centre- Rev. Fiaalii ma Tasileta, Rev. Tualagi ma Ila, Rev. Olataga ma Tupu, Mataafa ma Epe, Tofilau Nina Kirifi Alai ma Vaagi faapea Afamasaga ma Naioka. Faafetai le alofa ma le agalelei! Faatutumu e le Atua mea ua faagaogaoina ona o lo tou titi faitama. Moreover, I am greatly appreciative of the generous assistance of Mr Adam and all our „mates‟ at the Pacific Auto Parts Limited. Additionally, our caring landlord Mr Stephen Fleming. A sincere thank you to the kind support of my friends and colleagues: Le Susuga ia Selota ma le uso ia Mercy- you have always been there! right from the beginning of this journey. Faafetai i lo oulua alofa aemaise a oulua tatalo ua iu manuia ai lenei taumafaiga! Thank you to Larissa, Lenara, Petelo, Lani, Mua, Alumita faapea Ata ma Fenika. To my office mates- Sanju, Shuy, Taimaz, Miki, Swati, Chaz and the rest of the „PhD crew‟ on the 5th floor, it has been „great fun‟ hanging out with you all. I wish you all the best in the future! E momoli le agaga faafetai i o ma aiga mo la outou tapuaiga aemaise a outou talosaga. O le upu moni e lei faigofie lenei galuega peitai e tau i manu faiva e tapuaia. Faafetai tatalo, malo tapuai! Faafetai i le Tina ia Alaimalo ma le aiga sa tapuai mai i Vaimoso, ia Aunty Natu ma o ma aiga i Moataa faapea Tupai Pisi ma o ma aiga i Fatitu Saleimoa. E manatua ma le alofa le Tama ia Niusulu faapea le Tina Matua ia Soo ua faiilagi le folauga ao feagai ai ma aoaoga. E le galo foi le alofa o aiga sa mafuta ai i Niusila ma Amerika: ia Amituanai ma Mafutaga ma le aiga, Lanu and Lynn ma le fanau, Seuao ma Rachel ma le fanau, Maluseu ma Alofa ma le aiga, Tufuga Manu ma Eti ma le aiga faapea Suemalo ma Mafutaga Jnr ma le aiga. Faafetai tele i le tapuaiga a lou uso pele ia Leua faapea nai ou tuagane ma o latou aiga- ia Aneterea & Naomi, Kenape & Lynn, Latu & Lotu, Jermaine and family, Tanika, Travis, Fekusone Jnr, Seilala, Faith, Olivia, Timothy, August, Brinda and Iaeli. E ui ina tatou valavala i le tele o taimi ae lagona pea le mafanafana o a outou talosaga molia. iv To my dear husband Misipati who has worked tirelessly to support us in the past three years- We finally did it! Malo tatalo. Malo galue. Faafetai tele mo lou onosai ma lou faapalepale. Viia le Alii ona o lona alofa i ai taua. This thesis is dedicated to my parents, the late Rev. Fekusone and Olivia Latai who instilled in me the value of „learning‟ and „honest, hard work‟. Your prayers echo daily in my mind and soul as I search for ways to show that I am deeply content with your love. v Table of Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgments iii Table of Contents vi List of Tables and Boxes xiii List of Figures xvi List of Abbreviations xix Glossary of Samoan terms and phrases xxii Chapter One. Introduction: Challenging the notion of ‘vulnerable islands’ 1 1.1 The climate issue and its implications 1 1.2 Studies on climate change and „vulnerable islands‟: reviewing current paradigms 2 1.3 Considering the „resilience‟ of island societies 6 1.4 Research hypothesis, questions and strategies 8 1.4.1 Research questions 9 1.4.2 Research strategy 10 1.5 A glimpse of the field area 10 1.6 Structure of the thesis 13 Chapter Two. Rethinking the resilience of island societies: the study’s 17 theoretical framework 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 The concept resilience 18 2.2.1 Equilibrist notions of resilience 18 2.2.2 „Non-equilibrium‟ perspectives of resilience 19 A.