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Salience and Social Meaning in Speech Production and Perception Salience and social meaning in speech production and perception Roy Alderton Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics Department of Linguistics and English Language Lancaster University September 2019 Declaration I declare that this thesis is my own work, and it has not been submitted in substantially the same form for the award of a higher degree elsewhere. Roy Alderton 20th September 2019 iii Salience and social meaning in speech production and perception Roy Alderton Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics Department of Linguistics and English Language Lancaster University September 2019 Abstract Research has shown that phonetic features can index social meaning, yet less is known about whether this phenomenon occurs in the same way in speech production and speech perception. In particular, one of the factors that most seems to affect variables’ capacity for social meaning-making is the notion of salience. This thesis addresses the question of how phonetic variation points to social meaning in speech production and perception and what role salience plays in influencing this process. I investigate these issues using a sociophonetic study of two phonetic variables currently undergoing change in the South of England – /t/-glottalling and GOOSE- fronting – as produced and perceived by adolescents at a state school and a private school in Hampshire, UK. While the former is reported to be highly salient with strong socio-indexical relations, the latter is said not to be very salient and to lack associations with speakers’ social characteristics. The production results show that /t/-glottalling displays macro-sociological variation in the community, while GOOSE-fronting varies between peer groups within the private school. Both features can be used to index stances in interaction, but this effect is much stronger for /t/-glottalling. In perception, listeners were easily able to notice glottal /t/ in auditory stimuli and consistently associated it with a set of related social meanings, yet this was not the case for fronted GOOSE. The findings have implications for our understanding of how the social meanings of phonetic variables are produced and perceived by the same individuals, especially in the contexts of adolescent peer groups at school and social stratification between different types of school. I argue that researchers employing the construct of salience in sociolinguistics should acknowledge the limitations and different dimensions of the concept and operationalise these in their study design. iv v Contents List of Tables x List of Figures xi List of Appendices xii Acknowledgements xiii 1 Introduction 1 2 Literature Review 4 2.1 Chapter overview 4 2.2 Sociolinguistics and social meaning 4 2.2.1 Social meaning and indexicality 4 2.2.2 Stance and style 8 2.2.3 Sociolinguistic speech perception 9 2.3 Salience in sociolinguistics 12 2.3.1 Overview and early work 12 2.3.2 Recent work 14 2.3.3 Summary 17 2.3.4 Salience in this thesis 18 2.4 Adolescents’ language use at school 19 2.4.1 Adolescence 19 2.4.2 Communities and constellations of practice 21 2.5 Language variation and change in the South of England 23 2.6 This thesis’s contribution to the literature 25 3 Data and Methodology 28 3.1 Chapter overview 28 3.2 The community: Hampshire 28 3.2.1 Hampshire accent and dialect 28 3.2.2 Geographical profile 30 3.2.3 Socio-economic profile 33 3.3 Research questions 38 3.4 Methodological approach 40 3.5 Pilot study 43 vi 3.5.1 Pilot study design 43 3.5.2 Pilot study results 45 3.6 The schools 47 3.6.1 Conducting fieldwork 47 3.6.2 The state school 49 3.6.3 The private school 53 3.7 Measuring the variables 58 3.7.1 Measuring socio-economic class 58 3.7.2 Measuring other variables 61 4 Quantitative analysis of /t/-glottalling 65 4.1 Chapter overview 65 4.2 Background 65 4.2.1 The sociolinguistics of /t/-glottalling 65 4.2.2 Phonetic and phonological properties of /t/-glottalling 66 4.2.3 Social meanings and salience of /t/-glottalling 68 4.3 Methods 70 4.3.1 /t/-glottalling in this study 70 4.3.2 Recordings and participants 71 4.3.3 Auditory coding 71 4.3.4 Statistical analysis 72 4.4 Results 77 4.4.1 Overview 77 4.4.2 Initial results 77 4.4.3 Main results 78 4.5 Chapter summary 85 5 Quantitative analysis of GOOSE-fronting 86 5.1 Chapter overview 86 5.2 Background 86 5.2.1 The sociolinguistics of GOOSE-fronting 86 5.2.2 Phonetic and phonological properties of GOOSE-fronting 88 5.2.3 Social meanings and salience of GOOSE-fronting 90 5.3 Methods 92 5.3.1 Recordings and participants 92 vii 5.3.2 Acoustic analysis 92 5.3.3 Statistical analysis 96 5.4 Results 99 5.4.1 Overview 99 5.4.2 Main results 99 5.4.3 Results for constellation of practice 109 5.5 Chapter summary 111 6 Interaction analysis 113 6.1 Chapter overview 113 6.2 Background 113 6.2.1 Identity in interaction 113 6.2.2 Phonetic variation and interaction 115 6.3 Methods 116 6.4 /t/-glottalling in interaction 118 6.4.1 Innovative speaker 119 6.4.2 Conservative speaker 123 6.5 GOOSE-fronting in interaction 127 6.5.1 Innovative speaker 128 6.5.2 Conservative speaker 131 6.6 Chapter summary 134 7 Speech perception analysis 136 7.1 Chapter overview 136 7.2 Survey task 136 7.2.1 Methods 136 7.2.2 Results 141 7.2.3 Summary of survey results 153 7.3 Conversation task 154 7.3.1 Methods 154 7.3.2 Results 156 7.4 Chapter summary 173 8 Discussion 175 8.1 Summary of findings 175 8.2 Social meaning in speech production and perception 176 viii 8.2.1 /t/-glottalling in speech production and perception 176 8.2.2 GOOSE-fronting in speech production and perception 178 8.2.3 Summary 180 8.3 Social meaning and salience 181 8.4 School, social class and constellations of practice 184 8.4.1 Social class 184 8.4.2 Constellations of practice at school 186 8.4.3 Summary 187 9 Conclusion 189 9.1 Thesis summary 189 9.2 Implications 191 9.3 Final remarks 193 10 References 195 11 Appendices 219 ix List of Tables Table 3.1: Average house prices for towns and villages in the East Hampshire area 33 Table 3.2: Distribution of the populations of East Hampshire and England by NS-SEC group 34 Table 4.1: Independent variables included in /t/-glottalling model 76 Table 4.2: Model output for /t/-glottalling data 79 Table 4.3: Analysis of deviance (ANOVA) table for the /t/-glottalling model 80 Table 5.1: Independent variables included in GOOSE-fronting model 98 Table 5.2: Model output for overall GOOSE-fronting data 101 Table 5.3: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) table for the overall GOOSE-fronting model 102 Table 5.4: Model output for private school GOOSE-fronting data 110 Table 5.5: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) table for the private school GOOSE-fronting model 110 Table 6.1: Top 10 frontest GOOSE tokens produced by Jonah 128 Table 6.2: Top 10 backest GOOSE tokens produced by Hugh 131 Table 7.1: Demographic information for stimulus speakers 138 Table 7.2: Realisations of /t/ in the four stimuli 138 x List of Figures Figure 2.1: Indexical field of hyper-released /t/ in American English, adapted from Eckert (2008 p. 469) 7 Figure 3.1: Map of main towns and villages in East Hampshire and surrounding area; map data from Google 32 Figure 3.2: Deprivation levels in Hampshire and the Isle of Wight (2015) 35 Figure 4.1: /t/-glottalling reading task results by phonological context adapted from Altendorf (1999 p. 6) 67 Figure 4.2: Realisations of /t/ for all speakers by following phonological context 78 Figure 4.3: Rate of /t/-glottalling by school and phonological context 81 Figure 4.4: Rate of /t/-glottalling by gender and phonological context 82 Figure 4.5: Rate of /t/-glottalling by previous school and phonological context 83 Figure 4.6: Rate of /t/-glottalling by gender and social class 84 Figure 5.1: Labelled waveform and spectrogram for a token of ‘shoes’ (Katrina) 94 Figure 5.2: Labelled waveform and spectrogram for a token of ‘zoo’ (Cath) 94 Figure 5.3: Normalised vowel plot for all speakers 100 Figure 5.4: Rate of GOOSE-fronting by following context (coda /l/) 103 Figure 5.5: Rate of GOOSE-fronting by gender and preceding context 104 Figure 5.6: Rate of GOOSE-fronting by previous school type and preceding context 105 Figure 5.7: Rate of GOOSE-fronting by settlement type and preceding context 106 Figure 5.8: Rate of GOOSE-fronting by task type and preceding context 107 Figure 5.9: Rate of GOOSE-fronting by vowel duration and preceding context 108 Figure 5.10: Rate of GOOSE-fronting in the private school by constellation of practice (room) 111 Figure 6.1: Rate of /t/-glottalling by school and phonological context 118 Figure 7.1: Vowel plots of each speaker’s GOOSE tokens heard in the stimuli (normalised using the Lobanov method) 140 Figure 7.2: Traits associated with Luke’s speech (high /t/-glottalling, low GOOSE- fronting) 142 Figure 7.3: Traits associated with Ellie’s speech (low /t/-glottalling, medium GOOSE- fronting) 143 Figure 7.4: Traits associated with Chris’s speech (low /t/-glottalling, medium GOOSE- fronting) 144 Figure 7.5: Traits associated with Amy’s speech (high /t/-glottalling, high GOOSE- fronting) 145 Figure 7.6: Perception responses for social class background by school 147 Figure 7.7: Perception responses for social group by school 149 Figure 7.8: Perception responses for relationship with listener by school 152 xi List of Appendices Appendix A: Reading passage 219 Appendix B: Word list 220 Appendix C: Survey answer sheet 221 Appendix D: Background information questionnaire 222 Appendix E: Transcription conventions 223 Appendix F: Pairwise comparisons 224 Appendix G: Perception results for personality traits 225 xii Acknowledgements I am very grateful to a number of people who have helped me over the course of writing this thesis.
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