PUNJAB UNDER : A POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE HISTORY

Digtertation submitted for the Degree of MMttt of $()ilo«optip IN HISTORY

BY niclAZIft BE6DM

•-'•;A

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF DR. SHAIKH A. LATIF 1^ ^ OoKipas^

CBNTRE FOR ADVANCED STUDY DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY AUGARH () I mini DS2905 C O N T J N T Preface

Ackno%

Intrpduction

OttPTBR - I Punjab Uitder Akbar

(a) Establishment of Akbar's rule in Punjab, <,b^Political Instability in Punjab (c) Steps tak^i by Akbar for the cjonsolidatlon gf his rule in Punjab (i.e. as his Inperial headquarter)

CHAPTER - II Adminietrative Set up 31 (a) Different administrative units ^b) Principal Officers and their power and position (c) administration (d) Judicial administration (e) Military organization

CHAPTER - III Economy and Society 46 (a) Crops and Method of Cultivation (b) Irrigation (c) Mines/Minerals and Manufactures (d) Trade and Commerce

con td,,. (ii)

(e) Land Revenue administration (i) Land Rev^ue structure in Punjab (ii) Functionaries (iii) Land Revenue arrangements in Lands under , Jagirdars and in directly administered areas (iv) Revenue System in Punjab (v) Mode of Payment (vi) The Land Tenures, Madad-i^Maash ( f) Social jreforms of Akbar in Punjab and Promotion of B3ucation (g) Akbar's Relation with Sikh Gurus ^ (h) Architecture.

Oonclusion

Bibliography

Appendices PREFACE

Tile subject of the present study is to examine political and administrative history of the Punjab () under A)cbar, The %*ork is

chiefly based c^ the conteirporary sources namely/

Alcbamama, Ain-i-Akbari» Muntakhab-ut»Tawarikh,

TSrikh-i-Akbari. But one is -fraught with difficulty

in preparing a oon|>reh^nslve account of the province^

owing to scanty references available in the

above mentioned major sources about the subject

concerned under AKbar. Despite these draw­

back an atteRpt/ however, has been made to

draw as good picture on the political and

administrative history of the Punjab as possible. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am deeply thankful to my supervisor. Dr. Shaikh A. Latif for supervising my work with many positive sugges­ tions to inqsrove the preeentatlcMi of this work. He read the proofs not only with the eyes of a linguist but also as a critical historian.

It is not possible for me to proceed further without reoording my debt of gratitude for Chairman of the Deptt. of History/ who helped me throughout the course of the study.

Thanks are also due to the staff of the Maulana Azad Library, A.M.U., Al 1 garh,Seminar Department of History, A.M.U. and Nehru Memorial Library, New .

I am Very thankful to my friend Seema Verma for providing me relevant material available in the Punjab Univer­ sity, Chandigarh.

I am highly indebted to my restjected teachers. Dr. I,A. zilli and Professor z.U. siddiqi from whom I learnt a lot. I am also express my deep sense of gratitude to my father-in-law and mother-in-law without whose blessings this work would have not been completed.

I %40Uld like to acknowledge my deep sense of gratitude to my father Mr. Mohd, Arif Hussain and mother, brothers, sisters who inspite of my stresses and strain have supported and inspired me morally and materially and have waited quite patiently to see the result of their sacrifices.

I am very thankful to my husband, who in his own way has greatly contributed to the oonrpletition of this work by making it possible for me to devote my attention towards my studies. l can never forget my little daughter ""XUsra Ahmad" who with tears in her eyes used to say good bye to me to pay proper attention to my work.

I will be failing in my duty if I do not express my gratitude towards my grand-father, Janab Iqtidar Ahmad, grand-mot her and uncles, M.z. Sultan, M. Izhar Ahmad, Abrar Ahmad, their morals is a great factor behind the conpletion of this work. In the end i may add this work la due to the inspiration of my "Amnria Jan* who oould not see the fulfilling of her wishes and passed away before the work could be completed.

I am also very thankful to Rukheana Bajl# Dllnawaz Bhai and Alka Singh, for helping me in completing this dissertation and Mr. Habibullah for helping me in studying persian text, Mr. Akhlaque for careful typing.

HIJAZIA BEGUM INTRODUCTION

The Punjab subah enjoyed an extra-ordinary status in history because of its strategic importance,rich culture and economic richness, huch before its occupation by the Turks it drew towards it the Greeks, the sakas, the parti- haras and the KushlSnas. The arrival of the Muslim rulers 2 began in the 12th century. It was since th^ that various muslim leaders, representing the Turks, the Khiljis, the Tughluqs, Saiyyada and the Lodles came and ruled over India till the 1st quarter of the 16th ce»ntury and they left their deep imprint on the political, social, economic and cultural history of the Punjab,

A new era of political/social and economic development began in the history of India with the victory of at the 3 battle of Panlpat against Ibrahim Lodi in 1526. In the five years life after this victory Babur found no time to stabilize his gains and spent most of his time in fighting and dealing with the rival forces led by the Afghan chiefs and the 4 Rajputs. After his death in 1530, his son ascended the throne. Humayun could not prove himself better than Babur.

1. Imperial Gazetteer of India (Punjab), vol.I, pp. 18, 19^. superintend ©It of Government Printing Calcutta, 1908. 2. Imperial Gazetteer of India (Punjab), vol.I, pp.21-22. 3. , Vol.11, p. 463, A.S. Beveridge, Delhi, ed. 1922. 4. Baburnama, Vol.II, pp. 561-62,600 z

The Increasing threats of the anti Mughal forces and the growing ambitions of his brothers as chsllongers of the throne made him fail to shape and strengthen the Mughal enpire. The consolidation and the expansion of the Mughal erpire in India was done by Akbar. Akbar had his first posting in the Punjab by his father to fight out the Afghans and to stabilize the Mughal holds. He was informed about the death of his father xvhlle camping at Kalanaur in the Gurdaspur (Punjab). But before his return to Delhi he was formally seated to the throne at Kalanaur to acknowledge the homage of high officials and the Mughal nobles present there.

The pr^ent work is an attenpt to prepare an account of the Punjab subah^ under Akbar on the basis of data avail­ able in the Persian chronicles. But it is very surprising that no exclusive attempt has earlier been made by the medieval historians to make a proper study of the Punjab under Akbar. In general history of the Mughals like Ris» and fall of the Mughal EUpire by Tripsthi; Akbar the Great Mughal by Smith and by Latif; t^»e Punjab subah has been treated in fragmentation and has found a

1. Tabaqat~i-Akbari/ II, pp.136,137,139. Low Price Publication, Delhi, 1992. brle£ mention in theae >iK>rka. in view o£ the above facts it was felt neceasary to preT>are a conprehensive account of the Punjab eubah uncler Alcbar« who initiate's his career as king from this subah. After assuming kingship in 1556, Akbar Bp&it four years under the tutelage of . He freed himself from the cluches of Bairam Khan in 1560 and took deep interest in the state matters. Being closely asso­ ciated with the Punjab in his early years, it was natural that Punjab enjoyed Akbar's kind favour. Somuch so that In 1582, he made Lahore as the capital of the Mughal etipire. To argu­ ment the production of the subah« A)(bar re-dug the canals and made themuseableby the peasants. Besides extending support to agricultural output, he also patronized various industries to inprove the economic condition of the people of the subah. To eradicate social evils, like satidah and child•Kttarriage them prevalent in Punjab, he took some re£on«« measures wiilch had perfomied inpact on the social map of the Punjab.

The whole work is divided into three chapters. The first chapter deals with the establishment and consolidation of Akbar's rule in Punjab and also deals with the political instability in Punjab. 4

The secx>ncl chapter is concerned with the ^forking of administrative structure of the Punjab, various aspects of administration, via. town, village, judicial etc. have also been analysed.

The third chapter is concerned with the general features of economy like crops and method of cultivation mines, minerals and manufactures trade and comnerce. Further it deals with the revenue administration of the Subah; society, education, architecture and Akbar's rela­ tions with Sikh Gurus.

Lastly, I have included two appendices (A) a Brief Biographical Sketches of the governor of Punjab, (B) A ooiit>lete list of administrative divisions (i.e. Sarkar) and their resnective Mahals (Parqanahs).

in the preparation of the pres^it work I have mostly relied on the oontenporary persian sources and have tried to corporate those account with the help of informa­ tion available In latter sources.

Akbamama of Abul Fazl, Takmil-i- by Inayatullah, Muntakahb-ut-Tawarikh of Mulla Abdul Qadir Badaunl^ Tabagat-i-Akbari o£ Khwaja Nlzamuddin Ahmad are utilized for the details of the political condition of Punjab aubah and the details of eminent scholars and learned persons of the subah of Punjab, Tarikh-i-Akbarl of Haji Muhammad Arif Qandhari gives first hand informa­ tion about the rebellion of Bairam Ktan.

Tarikh-i^Farls hta of Mulla Muhammad Qasim Hindu Steh gives very useful information about the political condi­ tion. Zakhirat-ul-Qawanin of Shaikh Earld Bhakteri is uti­ lizes for biographical history of Akbar's nobility in Punjab. Mirat-i-Ahmadi of All Muhaiwnad Khan is utilized for the power* position and functions of the provincial officials. The Khulasat^ut-Tawarikh of sujaA Rai Bhandari is a general history of India, gives economic description of the subah of Punjab.

Hid a va t-ul -Oawaid writtei by Hidayatullah. The main significance of this work Is that it deals with the power and functions of different officials of the Mughal government and the nature of the office work and its schedule and the day to day problem faced by every officials. 6

CHAPTER-I a : The Mugtel found entry Into Hindustan at the hands of Babur in 1526 PP, but Babur was not able to give a firm shape to it and died in 1530. Humayun ascended the throne after the death of Babur, but his authority was challenged by the Afgten Chief Sher Steh, who defeated him and forced him to leave India in 1540. Thereafter* mmayun took shelter in Persia and stayed there in re-grouping his stren­ gth. He returned to India in 1545, with fresh resolve to re-establish the Mughal rule in India,

After re-establishing his hold over Hindustan Humayun appointed Shah Abul Maall as the governor of Punjab to deal with Sikandar Sur. Abul Maali did not prove him­ self equal to the task assigned to him. when the news reached Humayun/ he appointed Akbar as the governor of Punjab 1 in Novanber 1555, with Bairam Khan as his guardian. But Humayun was not destined to see the consolidation of Mughal rule. It is reported that one day while he was descending the steps of his Library* he slipped down the stairs and had some injury on the head. He became unconscious after this 2 incident and died two days after on 22nd Jan, 1556.

1. Tabqat-1-Akbarl* Bbl.II, Tr. B.De, p. 136. Low Prlco publication 2. Ibid., pp.136-37. The news of his death was not disclosed for seven­ teen days for fear of uprising. During this period one Mulla Bakhshi, who was th«i at the court and resembled Himayun, was dressed in royal clothes and made to appear daily on the palace balcony to acknowledge the customary greetings of the people. In the meanwhile Shaikh Juli was sent to Punjab to inforwAkbar and Bairam K|ian about the sudden death of Humayun. on hearing this news, Akbar was put on the throne and his accession was acknowledged by the nobles on 2nd Rabl-us-Sani (14th Feb., 1556) in the modest garden of Parganah of Kalaiaur (Distt. Gurdaspur).

During this period the political condition of northern India was almost chaotic. Most of the were practically independent under their local chiefs and the Mughal had their hold only on areas such as , Qandhar, Punjab and Western Doab of Hindustan. Bengal was under the control of the Afghans. The Afghan rivals with the signle exception of Ghazl Khan Sur still roaming In Punjib causing occasional alarms to the officials.^

It was not only Afghans who threatened Akbar, but there were some Mughal officers who also threatened his

1» Tabaqat-.i~Akbari . Vol.11, Tr. B.De, p. 139.

2« ftkbamamav Vol.I., Tr. H.Beveridge, p.634, Published by Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta, 1877. 8 authority. The most Inportant was the Shah Maali, who was a Sayyid of Kaehgar. He received special favour from Bxmayun, who called him as his son. Due to which he had great pride in his mind. Thus wh« Bairam Khan invited him in a meeting of nobles he pret^ided that he was still in mourning for the late Biperor and was therefore unable to present himself at the meeting.^ Shah Abul Maali felt some foul play when Bairam Khan Invited him to meet and had talk with him. He was not sure of his security at the hands of Bairam KhSn. To avoid any mishap he wanted the latter to fix his place in the meeting on the right side of Akbar and that he would be allowed to have meal in the same plate with the Btperor. Bairaa Khan agreed to his proposal. Thus Abul Maali came and participated in the meeting.^ After the meeting while he was washing his hands before taking meal Bairam Khan gave order to TulaK Khan Qurchi to arrest him"^, who took him as prisoner. After that Bairam Khan wanted to kill him/ but Akbar restrained him from committing this crime because he did not want to mark his accession by this bloody deed. Therefore, Abul Maali was sent to Lahore by Bairam Khan, and was placePi under the custody of Pahlwan Gulgaz the chief constable of Lahore. But Abul Maali escaped

from the prison and took shelter with Kamal Kl»n Ghakkar, the 4 ruler of Ghakkar Cbuntry. 1. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh, Vol.11 ,Tr.Lowe/ p«3. Pub,Royal Asiatic Society, Bengal, 1868. 2. Tabaqat-i-Akbari, Vol.11, p.210 3. Akbamama: , Vol.11, Op.cit., p.29 a. Tabaqat-i~Akbari, Op.cit., p.210 9

Thereafter Akbar diverted his attention towards Sikandar Sur. He aent a detachment under the command of Pir Muharrroad Khan, Hearing the news of rapid progress of 2 ln¥>erial army Sikandar Sur fled away towards siwalik Hills. While Akbar was busy with Sikandar Sur, he got news about the fall of Delhi, and Sambhal at the hands of , who enthroned himself in Delhi. Hearing this news he placed 4 the affairs of Punjab under Khizr KJian and proceeded him­ self towards Delhi.

Availing the opportunity of Akbar's sudden departure to deal with H^ou, Sikandar Sur came out of the siwalik Hills, Khizr Khan the governor of Punjab set out to oppose him. But he was defeated by sikandar Sur near the town Camyari, and retreated towards Lahore, and Sikandar Sur returned towards 5 his hiding place.

when Akbar came to know about these developments he began to march towards Punjab and reach Jullundur in a short time. From here he set out his forces into the hills then he reached Dhamiri via Desuha. Here he ordered Pir Muhammad

1. Pir Muhatwnad Khan was the pUpil of Bairam Khan. He_attained rank of an andr through the influence of Bairam Khan (See Ain--i~Akbarr7Vol.I/PP. 324-25 and Tabaqa t-i -Akba ri, Vol. 11, p.657) Akbar gave him title of Nasir-ul-Mulk aricfSooo mansab (See Zakhirat-ul-Qawahin, pp. 102-103). 2. Parishta,Vol.II,Tr.Brio. ,p.lll. 3. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh,Vol.II, Tr.Lowe, pp.6-7. 4. Khizr KHSn was one of the sultans of Kashgar.The sister of HUmayun married to him see Zakhirat-ul-Qawanin, p. 209 5. Akbamama, Op.cit. ,pp.47-48(See also Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh, Vol.H,p.8).»Airif Qandhari in his Tarikh-iAkbari does not mention the defeat Kibdzr K.han by the Afghans."— 6. Akbarnama, Op.cit., p.49. 10

Kt>an to cultivate negotiation with the chiefs of the neighs bourlng hills, who haS supported to Sikandar sur. After a little exertion these chiefs submitted to Akbar who cx>nferred upon them their Jaqir. After the submission of these chiefs Sikandar Sur fled away without ^countering the enemy and - 2 took shelter in the fort of Mankot. Akbar ordered his army to surround the fort. The army laid seige around the fort/ which was continued for six days. After that Sikandar Sur became ready to surrender. He sent out his son, Abdur Rehman to the court of Akbar as a hostage/ who forgave his past mis­ deeds and assigned him a fief in Bihar to fulfil his requlre- ments. On other hand Takht Mai was arrested and decapitated by the orders of Bairam Khan and fort was restored to his brother Bakht Mai/ who gave pledge to remain loyal to the 4 HTperor.

In view of the above facts it comes to light that the main hurdles in the path of securing firm grip on Punjab was Abul Maili who became unhappy with him after his removal from the governor ship of Punjab, The second potent obstacle was Afghan leader sikandar Sur, who wanted to keep Akbar out

1. Akbamama ', Op.cit. / p,4^ 1-L,^

Akbar was fed up with the functions and policy of 3 Bairam KIrian and wanted to assume royal authority himself.

1. 'For example after the battle of Tughlaqabad he executed Terdi Beg and inprisoned Khwaja Sultan Ali, and Mir Munshi He charged them that Mughal army was defeated at Tughlaqabac due to their treachery. Secondly, he dismissed Pir Muharrmac Khan Sharwanl because he became very powerful and did not give him due report when he w©it to his house. See Tabagat- Akbari, Vol.11, Tr.B.De, pp. 215,230231). Thirdly he appoin­ ted his own men to the highest position, i.e.* he appointed Shaikh Gadal to the office of Sadr and ill-treated shaikh Muhammad Ghause whom Akbar respected. (See Parishta, Brlgg., Vol.II, pp. 247,248). 2. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh, Tr» Lowe. Vol.11, p.29 3. A)cbamama% Vol.11, p. 143 12

So he spoke out that he wauld assume^ sovereignty and vfould ln£llct suitable punishment on Balraro Khan and his flatters, so that they should awoke from their misconduct. One day he op^ly expressed to Balram Khan his determination to take the power into his own hand and asked him to go to Mecca, to conceal the real state of affairs from Khan Khana.

After receiving this message, Balram Khan sent Haji Muhammad Khan Sistani (who was his Vakil or agent) and Tarsum Muhammad Khan (his seal keeper) to plead about his honesty before the mperor. But wh^ the envoys of Balram Khan reached the court, they were detained and not allowed to return. At the same time Akbar wrote the following message to Balram Khan:

"My Khan Baba I Let him read our letter of affectionate greetings and message of love, and know that, previous to this owing to certain facts and circumstances we have eicamnf^ at Delhi. When we heard that you were coming to wait ori us, we Sent Tarsum Beg (to say) that since we had received much grief and hurt from you. It is not proper that you should at this time wait on us, but should r^rialn as you are and deal with affairs as require attention. If the need arises we will come

1. Muntakhab~u t-Tawarlkh, Op.cit,, p. 185 13

to Agra. Ybu may go in advance to Owallor and that , so that whenever we summon you, ysu can wait upon ua. Ror re-assuring you, we had written that though there may arise a quarrel between father and son, yet neither can be indifferent to each other. Since you are our Khan Baba, the same relation­ ship applies between us. In spite of this grief and hurt and inproper and unworthy acts (from you) we hold you in our affection, and favour and love you. We still can ypu and recognize you as "Khan Baba" as in the past. We deem it proper that since at preset, a meeting between us and you has to be kept in abeyance, you may prepare to proceed on pilgrimage to the Holy places (Hajj) as requested by you in your petition. Send someone who should collect the wherewithall for present that you had, in the form of money, left in Sirhind and Lahore and loading it, carry it to them."

Reading this message Bairam Khan became more agitated, and left the capital Agra, and wait to Biana like a man who has lost wits.

When the news of Bairam Khan's departure arrived at the court, Shamsuddin Ahmad Khan and Maham Anga poisoned the

1. Tarikh-i-Akbari, Arif Qandhari, ed.Muinuddin Nadvi, Azhar Ali Dihlwi and Imtiyaz Arsjii, Raropur, 1962, pp.57,59. "After reaching Biana, Bairam Khan released Shah Abul Waall. But Nizarauddin says in Tabaqat-i-Akbari that at Biana he released Mohd, jwtdn Diwana and real intention behind it was that he should create disturbance." (See Tabaqat-i-Akbari, II,p.241) 14

ears of the BK|>eror that Bairam Khan had gone from Agra with the object of conquering of the Punjab, Ajcbar sent Mir Abdul Latif to Khan-i-Khana to convince him to go to Mecca* ana himself reached Jhanjhar on 22nd April, 1560. From here he sent a force under , Sharfuddin Hussain , Pir Muhamnad Khan, Majnun Khan, and ordered them to advance and blocked the passage of Bairam Khan into Punjab and pack him - 2 off as quickly as possible to Mecca.

Since Bairam Khan was not on ^od term with Pir Muhammad Khan, he deeply annoyed at his appointment to persue him. Taking the advantage of this disaccord between Bairam Khan and plr Muhammad Khan, the frigids of Kh^-i-Khana . advised him to raise arms against Akbar which he accepted and 3 turned himself towards Punjab and reached Tabarinda, and 4 then started for Jullundur.

When Akbar received this news he became angry and _ 5 recalled Pir Muhammad Khan and deputed shams-ud-din Muhammad Khan Atka, his son !iftisuf Muhammad Khan, Muhammad Oasim Khan

1. Akbarnama! , Vol.11, Beverldge, p. 153 2. T. Alfi, B.M. fol, 6016. A'M'I/ 3. Akbarnama,Vol.II,p. 166. "At Tabarinda(Bhatinda) Bairam Khah placed his family members and belonging in charge of Sher Muhammad Dlwana who seized Bairam Khah'^s pronerty and s^it his family members to the Imperial court." 4. Akbarnama,Op.cit. ,p. 167.(See also Tabaqat-i-Akbarl,Op.cit., p.244"on his way to Jullundur,Bairam KhSn invested the fort of Thara but he did not get success, "r* 5. Atoarnama,Ibid.,pp. 168-69.(See also Tabagat-l-Akbari,Op.cit., p.245 and Khafi Khan,Vol.I,p.l68 who said that AkJaar recalled Pir Muhammad Khan out of synpathy for Bairam J^han and in accordance with his request made in his letter to the King.") 15

of Nlahat^ur/ All Quli Khan, Mir Latif Hasan Khan etc,, towards Punjab. They reached Gunacur and blocked the path of Bairam Khan, who drew up his forces in two divisions. He had given the advance guard to wili Beg. shah Guli Khan Mahram, Ismail Quli Khan, Husain Yaqub Sultan, and Sabz Talk and kept other part of army under his own command. The central part of the inperial army was commanded by shamsuddin. The right wing was commanded by Mehdi Qasim while vanguard under Ali Quli, "XUsuf Muhammad Khan with a modest force took his post between Centre and vanguard.

After this, a battle was fought between these two forces near the village of Gunachur on 33rd August, 1560, in which Bairam Khan was defeated and retired to the hilly 2 country of the Siwalik, where he fortified himself at Talwara. On other hand Wali Beg, Ismail Quli Beg Yaqub Beg Hindavi were seized by the Imperial army and booty of which no accounts is possible^fell into the hands of victorious army.

Meanwhile Akbar himself reached sirhind. Here he gave order that those who had been taken as prisoners should

1. Akbarnama, Op.cit., p. 169. 2. Tabaqat~i-Akbari, Op.cit,,p. 247, (See also Muntakhab~ut-Tawarikh, Op,cit,, p. 38), "Talwara was one of the Shiwalik hills and residence of Raja govind chand." 3. Tabaqat-i-Akbari, Ibid., p.246. 16

be treated with humanity and no harm should be happened to him. Then he marched forward and reached Talwara where he fought a battle with Bairam Khan in which Bairam Khan was 2 defeated and his fored? fled away into jungle.

in this battle sultan Hussain Jalair was killed, when his hand brought to Khan-1-Khana to congratulate his Truimph Bairam Khan renembering the youth's past services to him and wept with grief. Being disturbed by these events Bairam Khan sent out Jamil Khan to seek pardon from the Hiperor. Akbar was not oblivious of the great services which Bairam Khan rendered to him. That is why he ordered that Abdullah Sultan- 3 purl would go to Khan-i-Khana and bring him to royal court. But he deiied Akbar's order. Later on Akbar sent Munim Khawaja Jahan, Ashraf Khan and Haji Muhammad Khan, Sistani to escort ~ 4 - Bairam Khan safely to the court. They brought Bairam Khan to the court, seeing Khan-i-Khana Akbar arose from his seat and embraced him, and seated him on his right side. After that - F he permitted him to go to Mecca. 1. Akbamama, Op.cit., pp.168-69. Also Tabaqat-i-Akbari, Op.cit., p.247. 2. Ibid., p.178. (See also Tabaqa t-i-Akba rl, Op.cit., p.247) 3. Tabaqat-i-Akbari, Op.cit., Vol.11, p.248 4. Akbamama, Vol.11, p. 179. 5. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh,Op.cit., p. 139 (See also Tabaqa t-i- Akbari, Op.cit., pp. 248-^45.). 17

After that Akbar sent his victorious army to Delhi and himself went towards HissaK-i-Firoza. On other hand BairaCQ Khan alongwlth his family members, moved towards and teached Pattan, where he was attacked and murdered by Mubarak Khan. Kuhan«\ad Amin took his son and family to the Inperial court, 2 where Akbar made arrangements for them.

After that, Akbar aoDointed Shamsuddin Muhammad Khan Atka as the governor of Punjab and himself returned to Delhi, and 3 th&ci reached Agra on 21 December 1560. and became busy with other part of his Empire.

In 1562, the condition of a portion of Punjab has been 4 the cause of some anxiety to .\kbar. The Gakkhars, a tribe always turbul^t, and the chief of which had never heartly accepted the Mughal sovereign, had set at defiance the orders issued for the disposal of their country by Akbar.

To enforce his orders Akbar salt an Imperial army under the command of Mir Muhammad Khan-i-Kalan^ entered into the Gakkhar country and made endeavours to subdue it. The chief of Gakkhar and his son came to oppose

1. lahaqat-i-Akbari, Vol.11, pp.249-50. "Mubarak Khan was a Nuhani Afghan, Re murdered Bairan Khan because he killed his father." 2. Tabaqat-i-Akbari, Op. clt., p. 250 3. Ain-i-Akbari, Vol.I, Blockman, pp.274, 337, 338 4. Tabaqat-i-Akbari, Op.cit., p.268. "The Gakkhars belonged to one of the war-like tribes inhabiting the confines of the PunjSb, their territory was laying between the Indus, and the Beas and their country was surrounded from all sides by the hills."Adham Khan was the chief of the Gakkhars during Akbar*s time. 5. Akbarnatna,vol.II ,pp. 299,297. "In 1562 Akbar gave order that the Gakkhar country should bg divided into two parts, one half stould be placed under Kamal Khan as a reward of his bravery shown against son of Adii In Bengal,other half 4so Adham Khan. the Imperial army. But after short skirmish the Gakkhars were routed and Ad ham Khan became captive. His son Lashkar escaped towards Ka'sh[nir. The whole country was captured and placed under Kamal Khan. After this Imperial army marched back to Lahore.

In 1562, Akbar the great firmly held the Punjab, but the Province of Kabul, which then extended up to the Indus, was governed in practical independence by his younger half- 2 - brother Mirza Hakim, who in 1566 came to Hindustan in order to seek the help of Akbar against Sulaiman Mirza of , who had driven him out of Kabul.

On hearing this news Akbar ordered the officers of the Punjab to help him and sent Faridun Khan Kabuli with his 3 troops to support Mirza Hakim. But Mirza Hakim changed his mind because Faridun encouraged him to seize upon Lahore as a compensation for Kabul and assuified him that Akbar was not 4 in a condition to oppose him, Mirza Muhammad Hakim himself thought that if he had taken possession of Lahore, he would

1. Akbarnama, Op.cit., p.299 2. District and State Gazetteer of Undivided Punjab, Vol.1, p.So. 3. Farlahta, Vol.II, Op.cit., p.l36. (See also Tabagat-i-Akbarl, Op.cit., p. 290). 4. '•In 1566 Akbar was busy in a war with Ozbuk in Doib." 19

face no difficulty in expelling Sulaiman Mirza from Kabul. That is why he accepted the advice of Faridun Mirza and inarched towards Lahore.

The report about his advance put the Punjab officers on their guard and Khan-i-Kalah/ Qutbuddin Khan, and Sharif Khan concentrated their measures together to defend the fort at all oostS'Vh^ Mirza Muhammad Hakim reached in the vicinity of LahDre and besieged the fort, Akbar's officers of the 2 Punjab frustrated his hopes,

on the other hand Akbar laid aside the expedition against Ozbuks in Doab and reached in Punjab, When the news of Akbar's arrival broken to Mirza Muhammad Hakim, he fled 3 away towards Indus.

In this way the rebellion of Mirza Hakim was over and Punjab again became peaceful.

In 1572, Raja of Nagarkot was imprisoned by Akbar 4 on some account, his son Bidi Chand presumed that his

1. Farlshta, Vol,II, Op.cit,, p.137, 2. Akbamama, Op.cit,, pp.410-11 3. Akbarnama,Op.cit. ,p.41l. "Akbar learnt about Mirza Muhammad Hakim's flight at the b^k of Satluj,but he continued to march and reached Lahore in the end of Feb. 1567, and despatched Qutubuddin and Kamal Khan to the border to chase the Mirza out of India." 4. Muntakteb~ut-Tawarikh,' Op.cit., p. 164 - The reasons is not mentioned by the contemporary authorities 20

father was killed, broke out into open rebellion against

Akbar.

Hearing the news of his rebellion, Akbar bestowecS the country of Nagarkot on Birbal and wrote a Fa men to the governor of Punjab to seige it, who alongwith Raja Birbal Mirza ^suf Kten, Jafar Khan and Shah Ghazi Khan started 2 towards Nagarkot and reached Polo garden and conquered Bhul.

Nith the conquest of Bhul, the outer fortification of Nagarkot catue into the possession of the Imperial army. After that Imperial army seige the main structure of the fort, The seige was continued for long time. But Bidi Chand did 3 not submit.

Meanwhile, Hussain Quli Khan received the news of the march of Ibrahim Hussain Mirza upon Punjab. He became worried ttet tow to cheek the progress of Ibrahim rtissain Mirza, on the other hand his army was oonfrenting with many harship in this area and asking him to sue for peace with the Raja.

1. History of Punjab Hill states,Vol.I,H & Vogel, p.199 tSee also Tabaqat-i-AkbarfTop.clt. ,pp,398-99). 2. Mutakhab-ut-Tawarikh,Op.cit.,pp. 165-67.(See also Tabaqat-i- Akbari,0p.cit.,p.400).''At Bhul was a teit5>le of Goddess Ma ha Mai, where a number of Rajput undomltable courage stood firm and performed great deed of valour." 3. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh,Opcit. ,p, 167.(See also Tabaqat-i-Akbari Op.cit., p. 401). 21

Thus, under these circumstances Hussain Dull Khan ooncluded peace with Bidi Chand,' who became ready to pay five rounds of gold according to the weight of j^cbar; which was equal to one year revenue of the temple. Bldi Chand 2 formally acknowledged the suzeraintly of Akbar, and Khutba 3 was read in the name of Hnperor. Finally coins were struck 4 in the name of Xkbar.

In the same year Janunu also submitted; he was a relative of Jaichand of Kangra. He strongly held a place near Dhamirl. while Hussain Qull Khan was marching towards Kangra, Janunu s©it his vakils, with tribute and a message ttet he could not oome himself to render the services on account of his fears and care of safety. But he wanted to discharge the duties of guarding the road. Hussain Qull Khan agreed and bestowed robes on Vakil, and gave then, 5 leave to go.

While going towards Nagarkot, Hussain Ouli Khan also carried out an expedition against fort of Kotla, which

1. Muntakhab~ut~Tawarikh,Op.cit. ,p.l67 (See also Tabaqat-i- Akbari, Op.cit., p.402). 2. Akbar the Great Mughal, smith, pp. 116-17 3. Akbamama,Vol.IlI, Tr.H.Bev, pp.36-37. 4. Tabaqat-i-Akbari, Op.cit., p.402 ^» Ibid. ,p.399."Janunu called Choto in the translation in Elliot Vol.vth,and name apoear to be mentioned in Badauni's Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh or in Akbamama." 22

belonged to Raja Ram Chand of Gwalior, which had been taken forcibly by Raja Dhartn Chand and Raj Jaichand of Kangra.

Hussain Quli Khan along with his Amirs climbed to the top of the hills/ which were opposite to this fort. Hence, they carried some canons from which they shoo ted some balls. As a result of which the Rajput garrisons frightened and fled away during night. The fort was given back to Raja of Gwalior.

Ibrahim HUssain Mirza rebelled in Gujarat and being - 2 defeated by the Imperial army, he marched towards Punjab. Hearing the news of his arrival HUssain Quli Khan (Governor of the Punjab) alongwith his forces came down from Nagarkot and reached opposite to the town of Talamba. Here he defeated Ibrahim Mirza who fled away towards , whereKe died in imprisonment.

In 1579-80, Masum Parakhund sent an invitation to 4 Mirza Hakim to attack India, who accepted his invitation

1. Tabaqat-i-Akbari, Vol.11, Tr. B.Be, p. 400 2. Parishta, Vol.II,Tr. Brigg, p.147 3. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh, Op.cit. ,p.l61.Sf»f» Tabaqat-i-Akbari, Op.cit., pp. 394-95 4. Tabaqat-i-Akbarl,Op.cit. ,p.397.'*ln l579,Muhaninad Masum Farakhundi of Ghazipur, Kabuli of Orissa,Mir Muizzul Mulk and Nayabat KJian revolted against Akbar because he shown favour to Christian missionaries secondly he brought out some reforms in Mad ad -i -Maaa h. Taking the advantage of Akbar's involvemoit^Mirza Hakim marched towards India. See Mun takhab-u t-Twarikh,Op. ci t, 284-99. 23 and reached at the bank of Indus along with 15,OCX) soldiers.

From Indus he sent one thousand soldiers under Hajl Nuruddin. Hearing the news of Jfeji's advancement Mirza "YUsuf incharge of Rohtas fort supported by Gakkhar marched to face the ^eny and fought a battle with them. In this battle Haji Nuruddin was defeated and fled away. There­ after Akbar ordered Man Singh to march forward and take charge of the frontiers.

on the other hand Mirza Hakim despatched Shah Qamar towards the fort of Nilib (15 miles, below the Attock) This fort was defended by zainuddin, whom Man Singh seit in advance from Sialkot, After some time Man Singh himself reached to Nilab with his troops and fought a battle with 2 Mirza Hakim's troops in which Rajput got success.

Meanwhile Akbar arrived in Punjab accompanied with his fifty thousand cavalry, five hundred elephants and innumerable infantry. Hearing the news of Akbar*s arrival 3 Mirza Hakim fled away.

1. Mun takhab-u t-Tawarikh, Op.cit. , pp. 299-84. 2. Akbamama, Op.cit., p. 493. 3. Badauni, Vol.1, Ranking, p.299. "While going bo Punjab ;Ocbar encamoed himself at Shahabad,where he came to know about the high treason of Khawaja Shah Mansur, who ted written a letter to Mirza Hakim to invade India/ Nhen some of the letters found out ;»kbar hanged him on a babul tree on 27 th February 1581." 24

lb effect the cotiiplete submission of the Mirza Hakim he advancepi towards Kabul, where he reached on August 9, 1581. Mlrza Hakim now oonpletely surrendered to Akbar.

C.'The Punjab remained quiet after the rebellion of Mirza Hakim/ the peasantry was peaceful and rajas of hill states remained friendly. But Abdullah Kten Uzbek's posse­ ssion over Badakhshan in 1584, unstable cc»iditions of Kabul and and the turbulent activities of Ftoshania and Yusufzai tribes again ruined the political activities in Punjab.

Now, Akbar thought that the consolidation and conr^lete control over this necessary for the security of his hard earned Drpire. Thus, for the next fourteen years (1585-1595), he riiade Lahore as his inperial headquarter. Prom where he conducted military operations against Kashmir, Swat, Bajaur etc.

Roshiania was a tribe at the north-west frontier of India, their leader was Jalala, who maintained amnicable relations with Akbar. In 1585, he came and paid respect

1. Akbamama, III, p.542. 25

to Akbar, but suddenly, he rebelled against Akbar and began to create havoc all around. He had a plan to invade Punjab When Akbar came to know about these developments he ordered Man Singh to chastise Rostenia. Man Singh wedged war against them but unable to crush their poi'^er completely. Thereafter Jalala alongwith 20,000 foot and 50/000 horse marched upon Peshawar and inflicted a crushing defeat upon 2 the Mughals.

Hearing the news of this disasterous defeat Akbar sent two reinforcement/ one was under zain K)n&n Koka/ another - 3 was under Mutalib Khan. Zain Khan adopted harsh policy and forced Afridis and Aurakzaibs to offer their allegiance. But the bulk of the tribes still remain unsubdued.

In 1588/ Akbar appointed Sadiq Kten in place of Zain Khan wlx> adopted a policy reconciliation towards Ftoshania. He posted men at different quarters of the tribes of neigh­ bourhood. Through his liberal policy he was able to reconcile 4 many of the tribes with the Mughal authority. After some time/ the leader of ftoshania was decapitated by Murad Beg - 5 in Hazara. 1. Akbamama/ Vol.Ill/ p.781. "Roshania nick-named as Tarikis by the Mughals. •• 2. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh/Op.cit., p.366 3. Akbarnama/ Op.cit. / p.794 4. Ibid./ p.796. 5. Ibid./ p.717. 26

'XU8u£zai*8 were the inhabitant of Swat and Bajaur country, in the beginning they voluntary subcnitted to Akbar who made their leader Kalu as his hostage. After some time he escaped away to his hilly region and revolted against Akbar. when A)cbar came to know about his tumult he s^it out zain Khan Koka alongwith Hasan Khan« Raja Mukat/ Hira Pradhan and Kabir to subdued him. Immediately after them, he B&it another reinforcement under Qara Beg# zaln-ul-Mulk and Farld BakhsM.. He further reinforced this contingent by 300 persons, under Said Khan Falzl« Sher Khasraja , All Muh^nmad, Fatehullah, Sharbatdar, AJab Beg, Yaqub Beg, - - 2 Abdur Rehman Beg and Abul Barkat. These Mughal nobles fought with them and brought '-*^e territory upto Karkara Pass under their subjugation. Bu- territory beyond Karakara pass was still unsubdued and zain 2£han was waiting for fresh reinforcement from Akbar, which had reached out for his - 3 help under Raja Birbal and another under Abul Fateh Khan.

The three armies met at Malakand pass and then reached at Balandari on 16th February 1586, but the dessen- sion broke out among the Mughal nobles. Taking the advantage

1. Akbarnama, III, p.1160. 2. Ibid., p.717 3. Ibid., p.718. 27

of this dessenslon/ the Afghans routed the Mughals and Raja Blrbal^ KTan Muhanvnad and Shaikh Junald alongwlth 8«000 men were slain by the Afghans.

Now Akbar decided to inarch himself against these tribes, but his nobles advised him not to do so. Thus, he gave over the task of exterminating the tribesmen to - 2 Raja Tbdar Mai and Murad. Raja Todar Mai and Murad were reached Into hills and routed the Afghans In the prelimi­ nary clashes. Thereafter Todar Mai occupied both the exit by posting Man Singh on the ^nk of Indus near Ohlnd In the direction of Buner and himself near LOnar hills. Prom here he carried out dally Incursions Into tribal territory. During these Incursions a large number of tribesmen were killed, and many were sold into Turan and Persia, in this way the country of Swat, Bajaur and Buner was cleansed of i - the evil doers. " After him the work was carried on by zain

Khan Kbka and Ismail Qull Khan, who reduced the Iftjsufzals completed and presented their leader Kalu to Akbar, who 4 put him under strict vigilance.

1. Muntakhab-ut-TSwarikh, Vol.11, p.361 2. Akbamama, Op.cit. , p.740. 3. Ibid.^ p.745 4. Ibid., p.813. 2^

wnexatlon of Kaahrolr;

j^cbar had for long cherished the ambition of redu­ cing Kashmir to submission by diplomacy or by force of arms. Though lAisuf Khan, the sultan of Kashmir sent his elder son to Ahbar's court in 1585/ but himself did not appear before ;^bar. With the object of overawing him into submission Ajcbar made arrangemeit for the reduction of Kashmir and entrusted the work to Qasim Khan, Raja Bhagwan Das and some other officers. The Imperial army proceeded towards early in 1586, but was dis­ heartened owing to rain and snow and agreed to restore peace with Sultan Wjsuf Khan, who felt himself weak, met the Imperial g«ierals and sought for terms. Yusuf Khan recog­ nized Akbar as his sovereign and agreed to the recitation of the Khutba and the issuing of coins in the Bnperor's name. He also consented to the apoointment of Imperial officers, to take charge of the mint saffron cultivation* manufacture of shawls and regulation of game in Kashmir. But Akbar disapproved the treaty, and when Sultan YUsuf Khan and his som Yaqub Khan came to wait him, he ordered the Sultan to be arrested and handed him over to Raja Tbdar

1. Akbamama,Vol.Ill, p.676 2. Ibid., p.715 3. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh. Vol,II, Opelt.,p.364 29

Mal# Yiqub Kten wto stayed behind in Kashmir and became the leader of the rebels. Akbar -r^ Thereupon sent an army against him, which ooitpelled him to surrender.

Thereafter, Akbar decided to conquer and Bluchistan without which his supremacy over north-western India could not be considered as complete. Thus, in 1590 ;Ocbar appointed Abdur Rehman as the governor of Multan with the instruction to conquer the lower Sindh from its Turkoman niler, ;^ur Rehman defeated him and acquired his territory 2 including fortress of and Sehwan.

In February 1595, Akbar deputed Mir Masum to conquer Bluchistan. The gifted g^eral attacked the fortress of Sibi, north-east of Quetta and compelled the pani Afghans to deli­ ver the whole of Bluchistan into the hands of the irr^serialists,

The acquisition of sindh and Bluchistan completed Akbar's conquests in Northern-western India. But it was not till the death of Abdullah Khan in 1598, that Akbar could feel sufficiently easy in his mind to leave Punjab and

1. Akbamama, Vol.Ill, p.763 2. Ibid., pp. 608,616,633. See also Tabaqat-i-Akbari, Vol.11, p.413'«. Khan-i-Khana's victory was a proof of his better generalship. 30

frontier region, in 1598« Abdullah Khan Uzbek died and he accordingly left Lahore on Nov. 6, 1598, and entrusted the affairs of the Punjab to Khawaja Shamsuddln who gover­ ned the Punjab very efficiently « Thereafter Punjab 2 remained peaceful.

1. Akbarnama* Vol.Ill, p.1114. 2. "In 1600 Zain Khan Koka appointed as the governor of_ Punjab, but soo he was recalled to Agra and Qulij Khan was 8«it to govern the Punjab (See Ain-i-Akbari, Vol.1 p.345 & Akbamama, Vol.Ill, p. 1196). 31

CH^g^TER- II

It l8 very difficult to give an exclusive acoount of the administration of Punj5b due to paucity of source material. An atteinpt^ however, has been made to present an acoount of admlnistiative set vtp o£ Punjab in the light of data available in the contenporary sources.

in 1580, Akbar divided his mpire into twelve adminia- trative units: AJUlahabad, Agra, , , Ahnadabad, Biter, Bengal, Delhi, Kabul, Lahore* Multan, . After the annexa­ tion of Berar, Klmndesh and Atiaadnagar in 1600 and 1601, the number of subaha ^ere increased to fifteen.

A3«inietrative Units: A close examination under AXbar shows that they were organized after the pattern of the central government and were run \mder strict control of it. To have an effective control on the provincial administration. Each was divided into a number of Sarkars. The Saricars were further subdivided into . 2 a number of parganahs or Mahals. Barl The Punjab subah had five sarkars: Jullundar Doab,/boab, Rechna Doab, Chinhat Doab, sind Sagar Doab. These sarkars were

i. Ain-i-JOcbari, Vbl.II, Jarrett., p.386. 2. "The Paraganah was a collection of a number of small ." 32

further subdivided into 234 parqanShs.

Principal offlcara and their Power & poaitiont

Acoordlng to the size of the administrative units, the Mughal government had a large number of civil servant who had official designation in the respective units* The chief of - - 2 the province was designated as Sipahsalar. He was directly appointed by the King's order known as farman-i-Sabti (farroan of confirmation), since the Subah of Punjab geographically holds very ia|>ortant position between the north­ west and rest of the country* it was necessary to put it under an experienced administrator* Hence# Akbar took extra pre­ caution in selecting the governor of the Punjab* He appointed Kost trustworthy and experienced nobles as the governor of Punjab, i*e.. Said Kh^, , Khan-i-Kalan*

Being the chief executive of the Subah a subedar was to look after entire administration of the subah. He

1. Ain-1-Akbari^ p. 114. Bet Jullundur Doab was 'divided into 60 Mahals or Parqanahs, Bari Doab into 52 Mahals, and RechnaUDoab into 57 MahalsT Sind Sagar Doab into 42 Mahals, and Chin hat Doab Into 21 Mahals or parqanahs,** (See also Ain-i-Akbarls Op.dt*, pp.377, 378 & 315). 2. Aln-1-Akbari, Op.cit., p*280. "The term Sipahsalar was generated term used by Akbar because tectalcally he hold military office." 3. Akbamaroah. Op.clt*, pp.410-12, 544. "Kten-i-Kalan dealt with first invasion of Mirza Ha)clm Said iKhan dealt with the second invasion of Mirza Hakim." 33

inaintain«3 law and order and eatablished peace In his region. In time of emergency he could carry out minor military operation In his own province or In the neigh­ bouring area, for Instance; Hussaln Qull Khan the governor of Punjab carried out minor military operation against the Janunu, a relative of Jalchand. Further, a governor was also authorized to conclude peace treaty on behalf of the Baperor^ and had power to take charge and supervise the administration of the adjacent subah In case of emergency.

Akbar maintained a firm grip over the administration of Punjab and never hesitated in removing an inoootpetent and dishonest subedar. According to Akfaamama, during one of his visit to Punjab some people oonplained to him that Shah CXili Muharr^ did not punish the oppressors and in oonsequ«ice the administration of justice was not on good state, on inquiry the complaint was found correct, and ^ 3 the governor was r^rlmanded.

Moreover, to maintain his firm grip on the governor Akbar kept the post of the governor transferable. The

1. Tabaqat-i-Akbarl, Op.cit., p.399 2. Central Structures, Ibn Hasan, pp.365-66 3. Akbarnama, Op.cit., p. 247. 34

governor and other In^ortant officials of the subah could be transferred from one subah to other or could be assigned any other work at the will of the Bi^cror.

The Pi wan was the next important officer in the Subah after the governor. He was appointed by the Inp«rial 2 Dlwan and was answerable to him for all his actions. The chief responsibility of the provincial Dlwan was to look after the revalue administration and to keep proper account of entire expenditure in the Suteh. He was supposed to keep his counterpart at the c^itre« well Informed about all developments at the province by sending periodical reports. Being Incharge of the revenue department the Dlwan was to look after the Interest of the agricultural class and to provide state assistance for the growth of agriculture.

Besides, discharging his duties as the incharge of revenue department, the Dlwan was also expected to scruti­ nize the work of the provincial sadr (head of the religious department charity and grant).

1. Akbamaroa, Op.cit., pp.332-33. (See also Muntakhab-ut- 'lawdrikh/ Op.clt., p.loS.) m 1568 Atk^j/]^^il and his council were transferred and charge of/ were given. •• i 2. Ain-i-Akbarl. Op.clt...p.670. In the year 1596, Akbar Issued an order that all the provincial Dlwans should report their proceedings to his Majesty in accordance with the suggestion of chief Dlwan Khwaja Shamsuddln." 35

provincial Balchshi was appointed by the loperial court. He was the Incharge o£ the local troops and military ana perforniod the function of l^aia Navis or the public n&oB reporter.

The provincial Bakhshi vas required to keep the proper account of the estpenditure of the salaries and the maintenance of the troops including mansabdars.

In addition to his above mentioned duties the Bakhshi was to keep the Irqperial court posted with in;x>rtant infer- 2 matlon.

Another in^rtant official of the secret departmeit was Swanih Miqar. He was to collect the infonnations relating to defence and civil matters^ and to work as a check on Bakhshi and waqla Navis/ who were sometimes suspec- 3 ted of producing false reports.

other secret agencies in the province were the Khufia Navia (or of secret reports) and Harkara. Khufla

1. Mirat-i-Ahmadi, (supplement), pp»l74-75 2. Ain-i»Akbari/ Op.clt, / pp. 41-42. 3. The Provincial Government of the Muqhals, p«198 36

NavlB were the most confidential agents. Harlcaraa «#ere to oollect minor Information and passed them to Khufla Navls,

The above Intelligence ageiclea in the Subah were required to keep the eubedar as well as the Eltperor always duly informed about every incident concerned with their was the respective units. ThisZcheck on the power of the governor of the Punjab.

The head of the Judicial department of the province was known as Qazl. He was apoointed by the Chief Qazi (qazi-ul-quzat) of the Brplre. It was his duty to super­ vise the work of the Qazls of the and tovms. He despensed Justice performed« marriages and acted as regis- 2 trar geieral for the whole province.

Another iR^>ortant officer was the Dlwan-i-Bayutat. He was the incharge of the state functicnaries and main­ tained accounts of the properties of the deceased officials in order to recover the paym^it of the state dues from

1. Mughal Adminis tration/ Sarkar, p. 27 2. Ain-i-Akbarl, Op.dt., pp. 42-43 V

the deceased if any, as well aa to safeguard property of such deceased person in order to be handed over to his heir or successor.

For the convenience of administration^ province of Punjab was divided into five Sarkars or Doabs. Bach Doab had its executive head known as Paujdar# who %»a8 usually a mansabdar of high rank. He was appointed by the Qfnperor by a royal Fartnan. He was the direct representa­ tive of the Enperor in the areas under his oonnand, working 2 however, under the supervision of the Bakhshi.

Abul Fazl has enumerated a number of functions of the Faujdars, viz., to bring the task of the rebel culti­ vators, defiant collect^or crown lands or the assignee of government estates, who had raised the banner of rebellion. He had asked to use minimum forces, while chastising them. He should be vigilant in the recovery of the arrears of the revenue due from a village and inspect the houses and the troops and send to royal court a roll of troops. A

1. Akbamama, Op.cit., p«711. 2. Ain-i-Akbari, Op.cit.,' pp.43-44 "Though a Faujdar was theoretically subordinate to the Imperial court, but Infact he was resnonsible ^ the governor of the province concerned. The Subedar had the power to disnjlss any faujdar. If he displeased with. Consequently, a faujd&r always forced to keep him satis­ fy. 38

Faujdar was wholly responsible for maintaining law and order of a sarkar. The contingent was placed under his conmand the Faujdar was particularly enjoined not to dis­ possess anyone from his rightful property. He was required to send monthly report to the subedar about the every occurrence of a sarkar.

In the Subah of Punjab fauldars were also appointed as the incharge of the forts such as of Lahore/ Sialkot and Attock forts. It is important to note down here that Akbar gave great importance to the fort of Attock and appointed experienced and trustworthy persons as its - 2 faujdars such as Mirza ^suf Khan and Mlrza Rustam.

Another officer at the sarter level was the ;>mal guzar. He was popularly knovai as Karori. He was a repre­ sentative of the Diwan and a collector of revenues. His other functions were to punish the robbers, to protect the peasantry and help the husbandman with advance of money and recover them in time. He was to supervise the work of

1. Ain-i-Akbari, Op.cit., pp.41-42 2, Akbarnama, Op.cit., pp.336-37 & 393,394,494, "Port of Attock was built by ;Ocbar to face foreign aggression beyond Indus & Chenab during the foreign aggressicxi of Mirza Hakim, Mirza "JfUsuf Khan was the Faujdar of the_ Attock for, Mirza Rustam "was appointed as its Faujdar in 1591." 39

the treasurer of his district and to send monthly reports of receipt and expenditure and the revenue of the district 1 to the Inperial treasury.

The incharge of the administration of the parqanah or Mahal was the Shicplar, but he was only responsible for the general administration. His main duty vas to receive money when cultivator mafSe payments in the parqanah. He was to supervise and control the Parqanah treasury and sanction e99>enditure from it. It was his duty to forward such cases which did not fall within his jurisdiction to Kbt^l of - 2 the Sarkar.

Amil : The reveiue affairs at the parqanah level was carried on by the amil# whose main duty was to assist and collect the land revenue with the help of an adequate staff. He dealt with the peasantry. Besides this, he 3 assisted the Shiqdar in the maint«iance of law and order.

Another officer at the parqanah level was the Oanunqo. His duty was to keep the same records for the parqanah as the patwari had to keep for village. They

1. Ain~i<-Akbari« Op.cit., pp.46-48-50. 2. The Provincial Governm^it of the Muqhal8#f^Sa¥an/ pp. 284«290, 3. CSentral structure of the Muohal Brrpjre^ Ibn-Hasan, p. 207 40

were paid by caeh salaries from public treasury* beaidee an assignment for personal maintenance. The incharge of the civil justice was the parganah Oazi.

The Kbtwal was the incharge of the entire adminis- 2 tration of all the police stations of the tovm. His duties were to watch and ward the town* and to control the markets and regulates* the prices of the commodities. He is also possessed the power to take care of heirless property and of the peoples conducts and prevention of crimes* social abuses drinking of wine and to regulate the affairs of the countries* jfruits* slaughter houses and supervision of 3 weight and measures were also included in his duty.

in 1585* Akbar made new addition to the duties of the Kptwal. He was required to take cognizance of the streets and houses of the and to engage some of the prominent citizens in a pledge of the reciprocal assistance and to keep a close watch on everyone who entered or left

1. Ain-i^Akbarl* Op.cit,* pp.23*25. See also Ain-i-Akbari* Op.dt. ,p.300. The grades of Oanungo in Akbar's time were as: the first got n^ees ao%* per month* The second rupees thirty and third rupees twenty. 2. Mirat^i^Ahroadi, Op.dt.* pp.168-178 3. Hidayat-ul-Qawaid* Pol.37-39. 41

the dty. They were to report about the feasts, marriages fairtte and deaths to the Kbtwal. A spy £rom among the obscure persons was to be kept in source by him in order to remain in touch with all that was going about in the area within his Jurisdiction.

Villaae Administration:

The smallest unit of the administration in the Punjab was the village called Mauza. The administration was carried by muqaddam and Patwart.

The Muqaddam %«as the head of the village adminis­ tration and discharge the police functions like preventing high way robberies and thefts in the villages and the region adjoining to it. His main duty was to distribute the demand slips and collect the land revenues from culti- vators. He was allowed 2^ of revenue as his fee.

patwari was a village registrar, he was the incharge of a group of circles. After the Kharif harvest, it vias his duty to give Muqaddam a list showing the demand

1. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh, Op.cit., p. 404. 2. The Provincial Government, p.Sasi(n, p.243. 42

due under different tiead, such as land revenues« local rates etc. from the o\mer of each holding. The Patwri was bound to help the Mugaddam by maintaining accounts and by writing if required. He was probably unlike Qanunqo continued to be paid one perc«jt commission which was taken from other sources.

Judicial Administration;

With regard to the judicial administration in subah of Punjab^ it may be pointed out that the Biperor was regarded as the fountain of Justice and the highest court of appeal to whom the aggreived could prefer appeal decision 2 of the highest court of the province.

The highest officer of the administration of Justice was the chief Qazi, who was posted in the of Lahore. Besides* a qazi was also posted in every large town of the Punjab subah and at the head quarters of a faujdar in a sartor, who were generally aptsolnted by the chief qazi of the province. In rural areas the mainte- 3 nance of law and order was entrusted to the revenue staff.

1. Mughal Administration* S.R. Sharma, p.245. 2. Provincial Government of the Mughal, pp.336-38 3. India at the Death of Akbar* Moreland, pp.34,37,40,41 43

We find references that in Punjab Akbar always appointed broad minded and impartial persons as gazi for Instancet Qazi Sadruddin of Lahore (some time of Jullundar) was so broad-4ninded that he was commonly suspected of being heretic and Qazi Nurullah of Shushtar was appointed as Qazi of Lahore was a Shia by religion« was distinguished for his impartial Justice.

Further, it appears that Judicial organization does not seem to have made much progress, the records of pro­ ceedings civil or criminal were kept everything being done verbally and non sort of code existed. However, the governor of the province was instructed by Akbar to main- 2 tain a brief account of witnesses and oaths.

Military Organization:

The military organization was an important aspect of the provincial govemm^it/ as it was of the central. The incharge of the military establishment in a subah was the Bakhehi. His assistants held yearly inspections of horses and reviews of soldiers according to the instruc­ tions received from the Mir Bakhahl.

1. Mun takhab~u t-Tawarikh, Op.clt., pp. 133-193 2. Aln-1-Akbarl, op.cit., p.37. 44

There were three types of forces in the province. Firat, the contingents which every high official from the governor downwards had to maintain in accordanee with hie Manaab. At first they were paid usually by the assignments made to the manaabdars carrying an income equal to his salary. Later on the system of assignment was discouraged by Akbar and disbursement of salaries was made directly from the imperial treasuries. Second, the provincial army consisted of the contingents of certain minor who were called upon to render service at the time of war. The third group of local forces consisted of calalry. Infantry and other armies mentioned in Ain-i-Akbarl as the quotas allotted to aarkars and Mahals, details of which la as: The total number of cavalry and infantry of aarkar of Bet 2 Jullundar waa of 155 and 79/436, respectively. The total strength of cavalry and infantry of sarkar of Bari Doab was 3 - 31,055 and 1,29,300 respectively at sarkar of Rechna Doab 4 cavalry was 6,795 and infantry was 99,652. Sarkar of 5 Chinhat Doab had 3,730 cavalry and 44,200 infantry. The total strength of cavalry and infantry at Sind Sagar Doab 6 was 8,553 and 69,700 respectively. Thus the total strength

1. "The category was of course a part of the regular army of the . It was maintained more for the general service of the entire than for the province.** 2. Ain-l-Akbarl^ Op.cit., pp. 3 20-21 3. Ibid., pp.322-23 4. Ibid., pp.323-24 5. Ibid.^ pp.325. 6. Ibid., pp. 326-28 43

of the provincial forces in the Subah of Punjab was 54,480 1 cavalry and 426,086 infantry.

As far as the artillery was concerned, it was entirely imperial, and administered as a department of the house hold and not of the army, the pay ranged between rupees three ajid nipees seven.

1, Ain-i.-Akbarl, Op.cit,, p. 319, 46

CHAPTER- III

The Punjab was^ ^^cl^ •'^ prosperoua province under Xkbar; Agriculture was the most important industry of t:he Punjab. It was probably Punjab where A)cbar carried out new experiments in cultivation of some products of Turkis- tan and Persia. Vetches of Kabul and muslonelons of Persia were the chief foreign crops were given the trial in the Punjab.

CROPS; Prom the data available in Ain it comes to light that wheat and rice were the staple crops raised in the province of Punjab. The cultivatiai of sugar-cane - 2 and Indigo was also carried out In the subah. Various kinds of millets,pulses and vegetables were also cultivated throughout the province in abundance.

METHOD OF CULTIVATION: There were practically no descrip­ tions of the methods of cultivation pursued by peasants in the Subah of Punjab, It is to be assumed that by and large the methods were the same as in the other parts of northern India.

1. Ain-i-Akbarl> Vol.11, p.312. 2. m Atlas of the Mughal Hnplre, Irfan Habib, p. 12 (Sheet 4B). 47

IRRIGATIONt The cultivation In the province generally defpended upon raln£all« but rain was preoarioue, so the people had to resort to artificial method of irrigation. The means employed for this were generally the wells with Persian wheels.

irrigation through canals was an old practice in Punjab right from the I4th century. But Akbar got some canals re-excavated and brought in order for the use by 2 the cultivators, i.e,# Firoz Shah Canal.

MINES, MINERALS AND MANUFACTURES; Akbar took deep interest in the development of handicraft. He established workshops in in^ortant tovai of Punjab. Professional experts were called to run these workshops to produce 3 essential items.

1. Ain-ii^Akbari. Vol.11, p.312. "Well with Persian wheel also known as 'rahat' or arhat earlier sources Babumama, also mention this machine (then made of wood humnen rope and earthen pots) the area where it was used included Lahore Dipalpur and sirhind, Babumama Tr.Beveridges, p.486. Mrs.Beveridge omit Sirhind but see Babumama. Ms Habibganj OollecticMi Farsia Tarikh 32/12 f 25oa. It clearly menticais Sirhind. 2. An Atlas of the Mughal Btipire/ Op.oit. ,p.ll, "Piruzshah Canal was re-excavated re-named it as shlhab Nahr and then shekhuni. Another canal named as steh Nahr was also noticed which is now choked up." 3. Ain-i-Akbari> Vol.1, Tr. H. Blockman, pp.87-88 48

The province of Punjab was knovoi for the manufacture of many essential Items. The chief centres of handicraft industry in the province were Lahore/ Sialkot* BaJ%«ra. A large number of items such as shawls* fine caldo striped silk stuff (alacha), satius, coarses, wooll^i, stuffs, carpets, cotton clothes, sviords, leather shoes, saddles, 1 bows and arrows were prepared at Lahore.

Besides, Lahore, Sialkot was famous for manufacturing of many kind of Bafta, chira, fotah, sozni, adsaka, table clothes, try cover, small tents with figures, paper, brocades, 2 daggers, spears etc.

Bajwari and Sultanpur were also iitportant centres of handicrafts and were famous for embroidery. Ship industry was also known to teve flourished in Punjab. Accor­ ding to Atn, Lahore had ship building industry. Wazirabad 3 was also famous for boat building.

1. Ain-i-Akbarl, Vol.1, Tr.H.Blockinan, p.55. See also An Atlas of the Mughal Empire# Irfan Habib, p.13 (Sh. 4B) 2. Atoarnama, Vol.Ill, Tr.H.Beveridge, p.lOO. Prof.lrfan Habib pointed out in his Atlas of the Mughal Bnpire that Rs. 1,00,000 worth of embroldened muslin sold annually at Sialkot." 3. Ain-i-Akbari, Op. cit., p.202. See also m Atlas of Mughal Bngire, Irfan Habib, p. 13 (Sheet 4B). "in Akbarnama we_ found mentlc^ of the construction of two ships in Punjab one was constructed in 1594, and other in Nov. 1596 - See Akbarnama, Vol.Ill, p.1066." 49

silver* copper* zinc, braes and lead were among the principal minerals which were found in Punjab. Gold was obtained from the Indus by washing the soil. Oopper and 2 iron mines were found at suket and Mandi. (in the bist, Jullundar Doab). Makhialah and Dtenkot (in slnd Sagar 3 Doab).

TRADE AND ODMMBRCEi

Punjab occupied very strategic position and inpor- tant alike for military and comnerclal purposes. Most of the foreign trade was regulated by this province. From here many roads were branched off to different countries 4 and towns.

By these routes Punjab had strong commercial link with Kabul, Qandhar, Persia, Herat, Basrah, Turkey, etc. The Imported items from Basrah, Merit, Khurasan and Turkey were the velvet and silk. muskmelons were imported from

1. Ain-i-Akbari, Op.cit., p. 312 2. Ibid., p.212 3. Ibid., pp. 317,324 & 323 4. (The important routes were from Lahore to Kabul, another was from Lahore to Patehpur and Lahore to Zend ha. Another was from Lahore to Srinagar;for details see Akbamaroa, Vol.Ill, pp.7-5, 818,853 & 870 and De Laet's Bnolre of Great Mongol, pp. 69-70) 5. Ain-1-Akbari, Op.cit., p.310 50

IcSbul, Badakhshan and Turkistan. The articles brought from Europe were the musical instruments, pictures and 2 3 tobacco. Ice was brought £rom the mountains.

Punjab also conducted a considerable business with 4 Ladakh, Yarkand, and Kashgar. and established oonmercial relations with with Nagarkot and Tibet and the chief articles of trade were blankets and camel's wool and shawls.

Lahore get dry fruits from Kabul and Kashmir and sent then to Agra, in return Lahore received from Agra spices brought in by the Dutch. Later sources indicates that Lahore received white cotton goods from Bengal and Golconda. Ivory from Multan, quick silver, vermilion,coral,turban and silk goods from Ahmadabad and sent them out side in a very large 6 quantity,

Awan in Sindh Sagar Doab was a good breeding ground 7 - _ for horses. while Hazara and country around Nagarkot were 8 famous for cattle and sheep.

1. Aln.i-Akbari, Vol.II. p.310 2. Ain.i-Akbari. Vol.1, p.95 3. Ibid., p.56. 4. The Indian Bnpire, sir W.w. Hunter, p.55 5. Cbmmentry by Monserrate, Tr, by J.S. Hollyland, p.107 6. India of Jahanqirl, Tr.by Moreland, p,31 7. Oommentry by Monserrate, English, Tr. By J.S.I*)lyland,M.A. p.107. 8. Ain«.i-Akbari, Vol.11, p.323 (See also CM, p.118) 5 u^

In the Subah, the mauza waa the smallest unit for measuremtfit assessment o£ land revenue administration with muqaddam as the headman.

Every mauza consisted of two portions,the abadi (habited called as deh or dehat) and the adjoining cultiv­ able (Ktestah or Parti) area. The two together constitu­ ted « village. The boundary of every village was clearly d«narcated through chaknamah. A corrplete record of culti­ vable and uncultivable land was maintained in a document called taqsim. At the time of every harvest a record of the lands under cultivation (Hashia-i-zabt) or Khasrah was prepared. The assessment of the entire village was called a Jama (assessed revenue).

The other territorial division was the qaabah/ which usually oonsisted of a number of villages within its circles. The number varying with every eras bah and even to tappahs.

nJNCnoNARIES: So far as the functionaries in the set up of land revenue and administration in subah of Punjab was

1. Kasamuddin Ahmad, Makhzanul Ansab, Raqbabandi, Documents of AJcbar's Reign, ICHRC, Pt.II, i961, p.50, fn. 1613 2. B.R.Grover, Op.cit,, p.59, Prl 20, 53

ooncemed the Diwan-i-Subah, was the head of the financial affairs and considered as the second officer in the Subah He had its headquarter at the provincial level capital. Though the Piwan was placed at the head of finance depart­ ment we find that the chief Aroil or amalguzar the revenue collector of a province carried the main burden of revenue 2 - 3 administration. Besides, Amll, the Karori and Bjtikchi also helped the Di%*etfi in carrying out their functions at Parqana h and sarkar level.

The revenue administration in the Jaqir granted to the officers and the land holders called zamlndara was conqpletely carried out by the Jaqjrdars. They had coiqplete authority to appoint or dismiss jwil of t-heir respective Jagirs.

The Khalaa land was directly adminis tered by the revenue departments of the provincial government or through revenue farmers.

1. Provincial Government/ P. Saran, p.28 2. Ain-i-Akbari, Vol.II, pp.43-46 3. in 1596, the whole land of the Mughal Biplre except Bengal, Bihar and Gujarat converted into Khalsa, The whole were than divided into districts and each district was expected to yield an average revenue of a karor of tankaa per annum. Those amil who were placed incharge of these districts came to known as Karori. See Khalasat-ul-sivaff, fol 79a. 4. Mughal Administration, pp. 197, 178. 54

Ae far as the revenue syatein was concerned, there were three main system of assessment, ghalla-bakhshi, aabt/ nasaq, which were prevelent in the Mughal times. Ghallah- bakhshi or crop aivision denotes the system of assessing and realizing revenue by sharing the produce of land whether actual division or by estimation, Accorfing to Abul Fazl/ qhalla-bakhshi was replaced by the zabt. The characteristic features of the zabt system was the measurement of land every year and fixing of ral_ or schedule of crop rates. The cultivable land was classified into three, categories of good, middling and bad, the standard yield per big ha (or unit of area) of all three categories was added up and an average struck by dividing it by three and finally l/3rd of this average stated in grain was fixed as the state demand and that called raj. The state demand though stated in grain was eorrmuted according to a price list into cash rates, Irfan Hablb has rightly pointed out that the nasg was not an independent method of assessment but a hand-made of other methods, of both sharing and measurement its essential feature was that there was no periodical assessment. The initial assessment once made whether by measurement or by appraisement used subsequently.

1. Ain-1-Akbari, Vol,II, pp,44-45. 55

The zabt syatem is said bo have prevailed in Punjab during Akbar's reign but the exact territory or number of Mahals which were under zabt system in Punjab is not stated. A careful examination of the revenue figures for each Mahal shows that in Bari Doab of this province at least fourteen Mahals out of fifty-two were Naqdl and thirty-eight Mahals 1 were under the zab^ system.

AS regards to the mode of payment Ain prescribed payment of revenue in cash, the amils were instructed not to be rigid about the mode of paym«it. "Let him not to make it a practice of taking only in cash payment but also in kind." in Punjab it depended on cultivator to pay in cash or in kind. The exception existed in the ease of the valuable crops like indigo/ poppy etc.; in which case they were expec­ ted to pay in cash. Further Ain instructed that the fotdar (treasurer) to receive from the peasants any kind of mohurs, rupees or copper that he may bring and not demand any parti­ cular coin. No discount was to be charged on the current coin except when the coins was deficient in weight in that case only the equivalent of the deficiency in weight was to be 3 taken coins of the former periods were treated as bullions.

1. Provincial Government/ pp.290-91 2. Ain-i-Akbarl, Vol.II, p,47 3. Ibid., p.49 56

RSyHWUE STATISTIC

Xln*i-Akbarl speaks that in 1594, five territorial

divisions were assessed for revenue purpose. The detail of

which is as follows;

"~T~ ! Area in Big has | Revenue in I>ams in gg^^^ t in 1594 t 1594

1) Jullundar Doab 3,279,302 & 17 Biswa 124,365,212 (60 Mahals) 2) Bari Doab 4,58o,002 & 18 Biswa 142,808,183 (52 Mahals) 3) Rechnau Doab 4,253,148 & 3 Biswa 17,047,691 (57 Mahals) 4) Chinhat Doab 2,633,210 & 5 Biswa 64,^02,394 (21 Mahals) 5) Sind sagar Doab 1,409,929 - 51,912,201 (42 Mahals)

Thus the total area of measured land of the Subah of Punjab in 1594 was 61,55,643 Big has and 3 Biswas and the total revenue was 55,94,58,423 dams (Rs. 1,39,86,460-9-2).

1. Ain-i-A)cbari. Vol.11, p. 319 (See also Ain II's i>p.320, 322, 323, 325, 326) 57

THB LAND TgtURES, MAD;g)-I-MAASH GRANTS

It was another Important practice In the field of land revenue administration. Abul Fazl call it as Suvurqhal and in his statistical accounts of twelve subahS/ he pro­ vides us with figures of reveneues alienated through survuqhal in each parganah. Elsewhere he classifies the survuqhal into grants paid in cash (wazifa) and allotm^its of land (milk or madad~i~maash). These were given to four kind of people.

1) Seekers of knowledge and wisdom 2) Those who have renounced the vnrld 3) The weak and poor 4) To people of noble lineage who did not ^gage 1 in any profession.

The receipt was not called upon to perform any duty except the praying for the prosperity and continuity of the kingdom.Under this grant the land was examined from the paym^t of revenue. The grantee ^joyed the revenue from the land without having any fiscal obligations and royal demands. But such grants could be continued only on the 2 pleasant of the anperor. Thejsiperor was empowered to resume them at any time. These were not transferable.

1. Ain-i-Akbari. Vol.I, p.198 2. Agrarian System of Muslim India/ W.H. Moreland* p.99 58

The condition of the holders of Sayurghala in Punjab was quite deplorable 4nd demanded some invnediate relief. Their lands, instead of being cons61idated holdings at one place, were scattered at different places and were open to ^icroachments of the strong. Wen the Exchequer Officers and agents of the life holders did not let any opportunity of oppressing them slip by and subjected them to a great hardship. To remedy all this Akbar ordered that Airoa lands should be kept distinct from the Khalsa and Jaqir land and a particular recipient of madad-i-maash should be given land at one place. Qazi Ali Baghdadi, according to the royal orders / soon set himself to the task of remeasuring the enclosures abolishing the old boundaries and arranging new ones, and succeeded in settling the whole thing inspite of the dishonesty of Shaikh Abdun-Nabi and his 2 subordinates.

In his statistical account of the twelve subahe, Abul Pazl provides us with figures of Savurghal in the province of Punjab, which is as -

1. Akbamama# Vol.Ill, p.343 2. Muntakhab-ut~Tawarlkh, Vtol.II, p,261 . "Shaikh Abdun-Nabi was a resiaeiit o^ Delhi and was one of the grandsons of shaikh Abdul Quddus, Akbar showed him favour and made him Sadr-us-sudur (Chief Judge) and for a period of ten years he was the officer in charge of all Judicial matters of the whole ^ipire." (See Badauni III Persian Text,79,83) 59

Sarkar Suyurghal in Dams

Jullundar Ooab 2^651,788 Barl Doab 3,923,922 Rectaau Doab 2,684,134 Chinhat Doab 511,070 Slnd Sagar Doab 4,680

Thus the total Suyurghal was 98,65,594 dams (Rs. 246,639,137)^ in 1594.

1. Aln-l»A)dDarl> Vol.11, p.319 (See also pp. 320, 322# 323, 325 & 326) 60

SOCIAL REFORMS AND PROMOTION OF EPUCATIOW

Social condition of Punjab was far £rcm satisfactory. The evil practices such as child marriage, Sati etc were preval^it in the society. Guru Nank, and Guru Amar Dass prohibited these practices, but they were unable to eradicate them cotnpletely. AJcbar also discouraged child marriage, and re-

In 1595, Akbar ordered that if one chose to build a church or a syvagogue or idol tenple or Parsi Tower of silence no one was to hinder him. Secondly, if a Hindu child has been made Musalman against his or her will, he was to be allowed to go back to his religion. Thirdly, anyone was to 4 be allowed to go over to any religion he pleased. Further,

1. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh, Vol.II, Lowe, p.356 2. Ibid., p.388 3. Ain-i-Akbari, Vol.II, p.42 4. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarlkh, Op.cit., pp«405-06 61

In 1597, Akbar ordered that one should not have more than one legal wi£e unless he had no child.

How far these social and religious reforms were put into operation is not known to us because no contenporary writer tells us about this aspect.

Akbar was very much inters ted in the learning, he tfnployed scholars for the education and enlightenment of the people of the Punjab. The eminent scholars were asi

Shaikh Daud Chati» He was bom in Multan and brought under the guardian-ship of his elder brother. After many hardship he came to the Parganah town of Satgarah and from there to Lahore. During Akbar's time he remained as one of 2 the scholar of Lahore.

Another sctY>lar of the Subah of Punjab was Shaikh Abu Ishaq of Lahore, He was one of the spiritual successor^ of Miyan Shaikh Daud. in his activity he surpassed all his oonten^poraries. He died some time before the outbreak of pleague in Punjab, Another profoundly learned man of

1. Muntakhab~ut-Tawarikh/ Op.clt. * p.367 2. Ibid. , pp. 47-48 3. Ibid., pp.80-81 6^

Punjab was Shaikh ishaq-l-Kaku. He was the Instructor o£ the most of the fainoua learned men of Lahore such as Shaikh Sadullah. He was died in 1588 at the age of more than 1 hundred years.

Mlyan ;03dullah Nlyazl of Slrhind waa also an eminent - 2 scholar. He was the author of the famous book Ihya and Klnlya • Qazl Sadruddln of Lahore was regarded as the leader of learned men and Qazl NUrtillah waa the author of several able works and he haa written a monograph on the undotted conmentary 3 of Shaikh Faizl. He had also written iR^reaslve poetry.

Another learned man was Shaikhjiansur of Lahore who was profidtfit in all such philosophical learning as la uaually atudied in India. He has a pleasant disposition and a sound understanding which enabled him to read and 4 grasp a subject. He was died in Mecca.

During Akbar'a time the great centres of learning were Lahore, Sialkot* Depalpur, Jullundar, Slrhind« Ambala« Thaneshwar and Panipat« Mnong these the moat Important

1. Muntakhab~ut-Tiawarikh# Op«cit.« pp.86-87 2. Ibid.^ pp, 15,76,17 3. Ibid., pp. 103,194,195 *• Ibid •, pp. 217 63

centre of learning was the Lahore^ where the most renowned sctolars like Maulana Jalal, Mullah Imad-ud-dln spent their time in this city. The reputation of Lahore as a centre of learning further enhanced with the translation of Mahabterata and Raataranani into Persian and coupletion o£ Tarikh-i~Alfi. The noted historian Niaarouddtn Ahmad, the auttor of Tabagat-i-Akbari and able revenue minister of Akbar Raja Todar Mai spent a part of their lives at Lahore.

AKBAR'S RELATIONS WITH SIKH GURUS

Akbar was a liberal and tolerant monarch. He probably had design to unite India and oonsolidate his Bnpire by winning over both Muslim and non-Muslims. He therefore* maintained cordial relation with Sikh Gurus# i.e.« Guru Amar Oas (1552-1574). Guru Rare Das (1574-1581) and Guru Arjun (1581-1606).

Guru Amar Das was bom In 1479 AD. He was propagating the mission of Guru Nanak. Some of Brahmans conplained to Akbar against the teachings of Guru. Akbar heared the

1. Tabaqat-i-Akbari, Vol.11, B.De - p,696 (See also Mathinil-Utoara, Vbl.II« Bev. & Prasad, p. 123 64

religious vleva of the Guru refused tx> Interfere with It/ because Guru was preaching universal love and trying to bridge the gulf between the Hindus and Muslims.

Thereafter Akbar came to Govindwal and was greatly impressed to see the working of the Guru's free kitchen. Akbar also taken food prepared in the kitchen and was so highly pleased with It ttet he ordered twelve villages to 2 be given in Jagir for its maintenance. The Guru however, respectfully declined^ saying that the lanqar solely dep^ided on the offering of the Sikhs, on finding the Guru firm in his refusal, he gifted away the villages to Guru's 3 daughter, Bibi Bhanl. At this time Guru Amar Das offered Akbar with a robe of honour. This visit of Akbar raised

1. Akbar in Sikh History Gurcharan Singh, ICHR, New Delhi, 1992, pp.43-44. "During his eeige of Chlttor (1567 AD) which proved even in the hand of Akbar a hard nut to crack and Akbar felt the need of divine intercession, Lahlr Beg son of Mirza Jaffar Beg, spoke in glorious terms of the great piety and spiritual power of Guru Amar Das. Akbar th«i sent a trusted official, Bhagwan Das Khatri to Guru to pray for his success. Guru was then engaged in the construction of a Baoli (a huge well with 34 steps leading to the surface of water) at Govindwal when request reached him he settle in position after Chlttor conquest. Akbar personally'went to Govindwal to express his gratitudes. 2. The Sikh Religion, Maeullffe, Vol.II, p.93 3. Akbar in Sikh Religion, Gurcharan Singh, p.44 65

the prestige of Gum and made such profound in^resslon on 1 the masses that a number of them converted to Slkhlsm.

Tte other way in which Akbar's friendship with Guru Aroar Das can be traced was that once Guru Amar Das was on his way to Hardwar with a large oarvan of pilgrims* he was asked by the local authorities to pay the Karmi or tax on holy pilgrimages. The Guru refuse^ straightway to oblige. The matter reached to the mpexx>r, who decided in favour of Guru. AS a result of which, all the pilgrims were allowed 2 to pass without paying anything at all.

Another example of his relation with Sikh Guru Amar Das is ttet wh« Akbar encamped in Lahore for about a year with a large army. As a consequence the prices had consi­ derably risen and poor peasantry of Punjab had greatly suffered from the scarcity of grain. Therefore, Guru laid the case of peasantry before the Btperor and asked him to ranlt the whole land tax for the year. The Bnperor was strongly impressed with the Guru's sympathy for the poor 3 and remitted the tax for the whole year.

1. Evolution of Ktelsa, Vol.1, Benerjee, p. 171 2. Akbar in Sikh Religion, Gurcharan singh, ICHR^ New Delhi, 1992^ p.47 3. History of Punjab, Mohd. Latif, p.252 66

Guru Ram Das^ was also favoured by A}ibar, The emperor gave hltn a grant of five hundred Big has of land, containing a natural poor. ;Ocbar also offered him one hundred golden coins.

Another contemporary Guru of the AJcbar was the Guru Arjun/ to whom Akbar paid a flying visit at Govindwal on 24th November 1598« when Akbar reached at his residence he was very much impressed by the handsome appearance/ sweet and melodious voice* fascinating and tihazming manners and 2 princely style of living of Guru Arjun. At this tiroe Guru Arjun offered him presents out of regard for his visit.

Again in 1605, Akbar came for Guru's darsans. During this visit, a complaint was lodged that Adi Granth contained some passages in which the prophet of Islam and the Hindu incarnation had been held in bitter oonteo|>t and ridicules summons were issued to Guru Arjun, who deputed Bhai Buddha and Bhai Gurdas with holy granth to Akbar. Recitations from it only served to excite the interest in Sikh religion. In ;^i Granth nothing was found against

1. The Sikh Religion, Macauliffe, Vol.III, p.252 History and Philosophy of Sikh Religion, Vol.1, Khazan Singh^ p.116. 2, sulan Rai Bhandari, quoted in Akbar in Sikh History, ICHR, New Delhi, p.45 (part II) 67

Islam or Hinduism, He then offered 50 gold mo hare and gave Bhal Buddha and Bhai Gurdas dressee of honour for themselves and a third for Guru Arjun Dev. He told them to give his respectful solutions to the Guru and promised to visit on his return Journey from Lahore where he was th&i proceeding. The Bi^eror true to his word visited the Guru while on his way to Delhi^Gurchazran Singh pointed out that these were not formal visit because ;Ocbar utilized these visits to grasp the quintessence of the teaching of Sikh Gurus.

ARCHITECTURE

Attock Port:

While returning from Kabul in 1581, Akbar gave order to build a fort to guard the future troubles from Afghanis- tans. This fort was oon^leted within two years two months. Akbar named it as Attock Benaras in contradiction to Katak 2 Benaras (The chief fort at the extremity of his entire).

1. Akbar in Sikh Religion, Gurcharan Singh, ICHR, New Delhi, 1992, pp.45-46 2. District and states Gazetteer of Punjab, Vol,I p.51. 68

This fort is a massive structure^ built mostly for the purpose of defencse. It is now in ruin shape. The only remains of the older building is the Mughal Hammam , which is in a good state of preservation. It is near Delhi gate/ connects the upper and lower forts. This contains a large auditorium or launge and various smaller rooms, in the Walls of these rooms may be seen the places# where the water was pr^>ared. The floor is hollow to allow the passage of hot air. At bottom of the steos leading down into the Hammam is the entrance to a tunnel. This tunnel ordinarily led to the old Lahore Gate. It is now blocked at a point about 30 yards beyond its ^itrance.

North of the Hammam is the barbeoon of the old Lahore Gate. The upper portion of this gate is immediately above 2 the magazine. It is set the foundation tablet. The inscription is in Persian and reads as follows t

'Supar Stehwan-i-Alam Shah Akbar Allah Ta'alu* Shanahu Allaha Akbar." - 991

1. District and states Gazetteer of punjab» Op.cit., p.53, 2. Ibid.,p.52. "Magazine was constructed by British in 1857 is in the barbecon of the old Lahore Gate. It costs Rs. 18,112 to build. 69

The translation la as follows t

"Greatest o£ tte King of the earth is the King Akbar. Allah increase his glory t Allah la greatest (Akbar), i.e., 1581 AD).

The Garden of Wah (Attock District)

It is about one mile from Hasan Abdal, and situated on the opposite bank of the Harb. It was built by A)cbar for the use of his journeys to the valley of KSshmlr. Accor* ding to one legend this place takes its name from deligated exclamations Wah ! wah ! of the Biperor when the eyes of his imagination first rested on the beauty of the site.

This garden of Wiah is now in excellent repair and 2 the system of the Mughal can be traced clearly.

Tomb of Mirza Shaikh All

Mlrza Shaik^ All was amir of the Eiiperor Akbar. He was killed in an encounter with Ghakkar. His tomb was built 3 at Helan near Rawalpindi dated 996 Hijri or 1587 AD.

1. District & states Gazetteer of Punjab, Op.cit., p.52 2. Ibid,, p.62 3. Ibid,, p. 194 / u

Ttomb of Haaan Khan

It ia In Ludhiana, built during the time o£ ;Ocbar. It is a brick structure and is still in a fair condition.

Maqbara of Shah Dewina

It was situated one mile west of the village Tehara in Ludhlana. It was built during AJcbar's reign who had 2 given a grant of 190 Biqtes of land for sustenance.

Baolis

There are two large wells at Kharain. Now-a-days these were known as 1) western Baolis / and 2) Eastern Baolis.

The western Baolis was built by the order of Akbar. It was thoroughly rQ>aired by Sardar Lehna Singh. The eastern Baolis is in its original state, built of stones. This Baolis having a massive dome on its top with an ins­ cription. It is siirply record the completion of the »ork in the month of Ramazan, 1018 Hljri in the reign of Akbar, who ordered it to be built by Fatetiillah, son of Haji

1. Ludhlana District Gazetteer, p.227 2. Ibid., pp.234-41 71

Hablbullah^ and that It cost 11,000 Akbarl rupees/ and it concludes with a prayer that the maker's sins be forgiven.

Chokandi

It was built by the Biperor Akbar in 34th R.Y. It was the first halting place after crossing Ch^iab in the 2 royal progress from Delhi to Kashmir.

Fort of Lahore « and dty Vtell

During his stay at Lahore (1584-1598 AD) Akbar eiclosed the city with a brick wall of considerable height and stroigth. Access to the city is guarded by thirteen gateways, on the east-side there is Akbari Gate# namesi after Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar. Very close to this gate 3 ;4cbar founded a market which is known as Akbarl Mandi.

At Lahore Akbar also founded the palace/ which in 4 subsequent times was enlarged by his successors. In the fort the architectural style adoptecl by Akbar are nearly in destroyed for instance^ in Akbari Mahal the throne room has been so altered by modem addition that it is hardly recog­ nizable as an antique building. 1. District & State Gazetteer of Punjab, Vol.1, pp.194-95 2. tomal District Gazetteer, p.213 3. Lahore^ Architectural Remains, p.86 4. Ibid., p.85 5. District & State Gazetteer of Punjab, Op.cit., p.331 12

It is quite evident from the discussion of the preceding chapters that during Akbar's retgcx Punjab became a centre of rebellion and refuge. By Kis extra-ordinary skill and tactics Akbar^ as it appear succeeded in suppre­ ssing these rebellion. The strategic importance of this province always conpellea AW^ar to be extra vigilant in guarding his frontiers. He always used to ^point most trustworthy and experienced nobles as the governor of this province. During last decades of his rule he made Lahore as his Capital (1585-1598) . From here he wedged wars against the frontier tribes and saved his hard earned empire.

From administrative point of view this province was wellorganized under its competent officers. These officers looked after the welfare of the people. Among these officials the kotwal was most iirportant. He performed the duties of the police department and also held oomnand of the fortress which were the essential post of this province. Further^ the province of Punjab had sound Judicial and military adminlS' tration. In the field of land revenue administration, for 73

the first time the land was raeasurecl and divided into five main Doabe, For the purpose of collection of land revenue/ a separate department worked under the supervision of the Pi wan.

Economically Punjab was prosperous and capable to produce large quantity of grains. Artificial means of Irriga­ tion were in vogue. The idea of re-digging the canals was the outcome of Akbar's anxiety to inprove agriculture. The social life shows that there was peace and harmony and Akbar did not interfere In any matter of religion and maintained oordial relations with slkh Gurus. He paid much attention towards the evil practices prevailed in the society and towards the promotion of education. 74

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ARTICLES

Ahnad,Ta8neem, Akbar's Love for Painting In the Light of His Doctrine of Sulah-kul, PHC, 1987, pp.V 3^80.

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Grover, B.R., Nature of Land Rights in Mughal India, lESHR, (1963).

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Gurucharan Singh, Akbar in Sikh History, New Delhi, 1992,

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Irfan Hablb, Cartography in Mughal India, Medieval India - A Miscellany, Vol.IV, Bombay, Asia Publi­ shing House, 1977.

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Jafar, S.M., Religious Views of Akbar and Aurangzeb as Disclosed by Obntenporary Archives/ PPHC/I, (1951), pp.271-75.

Khan, Iqtidar The Middle Classes in the Mughal Sqpire. Alam, Social scientist, Trivandrum, 1976.

The Nobility Under Akbar and the Development of His Religious Policies, 1560-80, JRAS, 1968, pp. 29-36.

wizarat Under Humayun, 1545-55, Medieval India A Miscellany, Vol.1, Department of History, AMU, Allgarh, 1969.

The Mughal Court Politics During Bairam Khan's Regency, Medieval India ; A Miscellany, Vol.1, AMU, Aligarh, 1971.

Kasamuddin Ahmad, Makhzanul Ansab, Raqbabandi documents of Akbar*s Reign, ICHRC.

Mooavi, Shirin, Evolution of Mansab System Under Akbar, JRAS (London), 2 (1981).

Todarmal's Original Memorandum on the Revenue Administration, March 1582, PIHC, Dharwar (1988), pp.237-48.

Naqvi. Incidents of Rebellions During the Rei^i of Hamlda Khatoon, E&|>eror Akbar, Medieval India « A Miscellany, Vbl.ll, Bombay, Asia Publishing House (1972), pp.152-86. 94

Qaisar/ A.J./ Note on the Date of institution of Manaab Under Akbar* PIHC, 24th Session (1961).

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Sainaddar, J.M., Akbar's Illiteracy, BORS, 3(1920), p.443,

Saran, P., Socio-Religious Background at the Advent of AJcbar: A New Approach, JUPHS, 19(1946), pp.109-47.

Satish Chandra, Some Aspects of the Growth of Money Economy During the 17th Century, IBSHR, 3; 4 (1966).

Saxena, B.P., Ideals of Mughal Sovereigns, JUPKS, (1941), pp. 89-104.

Shanna, S.R., Akbar's Religious Policy, IHQ, 2(1987), pp. 302-22.

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Periodical, Literature & Journals

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The Indian Economic and Social History Revl ew.

Journal of Indian History Proceedings of Indian Hlatory Cbngress Indian Historical Quarterly The Proceedings of Indian Historical Records Oomnlsslon Gazetteers

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District and State Gazetter of undivided Punlab Vbl I. II B. R. Publishing oor-p. Delhi. 96

*%*

A Qonplete list of iv^mlnistratlve Division (i.e.. Sartor and their respective ma hale (parqanahs) of subah of Punjab as reoordecl in the contemporary account of Abul Fazl's Aln-l~Akbari.

(1) sarkar of the BetJullunaharDoab containing 60 Mahals. Islimabad pati Dhuniat Bhunga Bqjwara Balon Barwa Palakwa Bachheru Besali and Khattah, 2 Mahals Taiwan Tatarpur Jalandhar Chaurasi Jeora Jason Bala Koti Chanor Hajipur Sarlyana Dadrak (Dardak) Oon tcl • •.. 97

Dasuya Dadlal Dadah Darparah Dardhl Dunnagor Dhankall Rahimabad l^Jpurpatan Sultanpur Sankarbanot Suket Mandl Sopar Siba So ran Shalklpur Sheicfarh Isapur Kothl Garh Diwala Kotla Kotlehar Kharakdhar Oontd**.. 98

Kheunkhera Gangot Khera Ghawasan Loldheri Lalalngl Miani Nunrla Melsi Muhamnadpur Mansawal Malot Mandhota Nakodar Nangai Nakrota Nonangal Nandon Harhana with Akbarabad , 2 Mahals Hadlabad 99

(2) Sarkar of Bari Doab containing 52 Mahals.

Mchhara ;>noiora Abhipur Udar (Utar) Lahore city Balda Phulvari Phulra Panchgrami (panjgirtfn) Bharli Bhilwal Patti Haibatpur Batala Pathan (KOt) panial Biah Bahaduipur Talwara Thandot Chandrau Charbigh Bar hi Chamiari Qontd.... 00

Jalalabad Chatet and Ambalah, 2 Mahals Jatgarh Khanpur Dabhawila Dhamerl (Now Nuipur) Darwa Darwa* Dlgar sankha Arwal slnd huwan Lahore suburbs shatpur Sherpur Ghurbatrawan Kaaur l^lanur Kunhewan Khokhowal Goler Kangra KbUa Karkarion Malik Shah Ocmtd.... 101

Man and Naba ( « Omba ) 2 Mahals

Mahror HDShlar Kacnala Palam Patiyar These four Parganahs, and now abandoned. Bhatti Jarjlya

(3) Sarkar of the Rechnau Doab containing 57 Mahala

Amraki Bhatti Lands of Bagh Rae Bocha Elninabad (has a brick fort) Panchnagar Parsaror Bad ub hand al Patti zaf arwal ( has a fort) Patti Tarmali Bhalot Bhadran, situated on a hill Balawarah Bhutiyal Ban Taral •Ralwandi Chima Chata Obntd.,.. 1C2

Chancianwarak (Var-darak) Chhotadhar Jabudhadl Chiniwot ( has a brick-fort) JammU/ situated at the foot of a hill and a a tone-fort above it. Jasrota (Chari Champa (Oiamba) ( (Hafizabad The land of Ktenpur Daud Bhandal Basti Daulatabad Rupnagar Rinha Sahumali Sid tpur * Sialkot Sahajrao Sohdra Shanzdah Hinjrao Shou (-Kot) Faltu Bhandal Barhl Pazlibad Gobindwal

Cbntc3..«. 1C3

KitlY>ha Gujran Barhi Kalaplnd Kamarl/ ODmmonly called Santa Kharll, Tarll LaXhnor Mangtanwala' Muhamnacl Barl Oukrao Mahior Mengrl Mankot (Includes 4 towne each with a stone fort) wan Hamlnagar Hantlyal (Var Hati^l)

(4) Chlnhat (Jech) Doab containing 21 Mahals Andarhal Akhandor Ainibaran Bhera, (on the bank of the Bhimbar) Bahlolpur (on the bank of the river Chen'ab) Bolet Bhumbar (situated on the bank of the stream) Bhadu Buhati Gondt.... 104

Saila and Dudlyal (2 Mahals) Shorpur shakarpur Gujrat Karlvall Khokhar (has a brick £ort Ghat of river Blhat) Lolor, (separated from Khast^b) Mangll Malot Rae Kedarl, situated on a hill Hareo Hazara# (has a brick fort)

(5) Sindh Sagar Doab containing 42 Mahals Akbarabad Tarkheri Awan Paharhala Bel Ghazi Khan Bala Khattar Paru Khattar Balokld han Zharchak Oatni Suburban, dlst of Rohtas (has a stone fort) Khushab (situated near the river Blhat) (Jhelum) Dan Garl (D Gall) Dhankot (Dlnkot) on the banks of theriver Mlhran viz. Indus has salt mine Darband Oon td • •,, 1C5

Dhrab Dudwat

ROB ten Shamsabad

Fatala Patetpur Kalaurl Kalbhalak Gheb (var Khet, Khes, Khep) Kter Dazvazah Girj hak Kackakot Kahwan Kambat Langahtlyar Marali Malot Nandanpur Nll^b (Indus) Land Included in Attock Benaras Narwi/ on the Slnd Nokoslral Khattar Hazaca Qarlug Haliyar Lang Hazara Gujran Hiinmat Khan Karmum 106

APPENDIX A brief Biographical Sketch of the qovernoirs of the Punjab under Alcbar.

Khlzr Khan (In 1556)

He was one of the Sultans of Kashghar. He had married Gulbadan Begum, half sister of Humayun. AKbar left him in Punjab to deal with Sikandar Sur. He fought a battle with sikandar Sur in which he was defeated. He died after hs attained to the rank of amir'»ul-Umra.

Hussain Khan Tukriya (1556-1557)

People called him Tukriya, for the reason that during his governorship of Punjab he had ordered that Hindus should sew a patch on their gartn^rits near the shoulder, and as in Hindi language a patch is called a Tukri (more correcting a Tukra). Thus he became famous as Tukriya. He was the son-in-law of MaWi Qasim Khan, and was included in the rank of amirs of two thousand 3 horse. He died in the year 983 A.H.

1. Zakhirat-ul-Qawanin, Sh Farid.p* "ISI. 2. Muntakhab-ut~Tawarikh, Vol.11, pp.9-lO 3. Tabaqat-i-Akbari, Vol.11, Tr. B.De, p.67o (See also Zakhirat-ul-Qawanin, p.221) Ui) 107

Farhat Khan Mlhtar (1557-1560)

He was a slave of Humayun. Aln described him as Farhat Khan Mehtar Sakai. During Akbar's rei^ he was 2 an amir of two thousand horse. He governed the Punjab from 1557 till 1560.

Shamsuddin Atka Khan (1560-1566)

In 1560# Akbar appointed shamsuddin Atka as the governor of Punjab. He was the son of Yar Muhammad of Ghaznl, who had entered the service of Mirza Kamran as an ordinary soldier* and was presented at the battle of Qannauj in 1540. Atka Khan distinguished himself in the war against sikandar Shah Sur. In recognition of his services, Akbar appointed him as the governor of Punjab. He was awarded a flag drum and the title of Khan-i-Azam in the same year.

Mir Muhammad Khan-i-Kalan (1566-1568)

After shamsuddin Atka, Mir Muhammad Khan-i-Kalan was appointed the governor of Punjab in 1566. He was

1. Ain-i-Akbari, Vol.1, p.441 2. Tabaqat-i-Akbari, Vol.11, p.671 3. Akbarnama'i, Vol.11, Tr. Beveridge, p. 187 (See also Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh, Vol.11, Lowe, pp.39-40) (iii) 1C8

the elder brother of Shainsuddin Atka Khan. During his governorship two major events took place. One of thero was the reduction of Gakkhar, second was the rebellion of Mirza Muhammad Hakim. In 1568, Khan-i-Kalan along with the other jaqirdars of the Punjab were summoned to the court and the government of the Punjab was made over - 2 to Hussain Quli Khan.

HUssain Quli Khan (1568-1575)

Hussain Quli Khan was the son of Bairam Khan's sister. His father was much attached to Bairam Khan. He governed the province of Punjab very efficiently and received the title of Khan-i-Jahan. In 1575, the governor­ ship of Punjab was taken from him and His Majesty directed him to march to Bengal and conquer and clean that country. Rajah Todar Mai was appointed to accompany him.

Shah Quli Maharam (1575-1578)

In 1575, the governorship of Punjab was given to 4 Shah Quli Maharam. Formerly, he was in the service of Bairam Khan and distinguished himself in the war against

!• Ain-1-A?d3ari, Vol.1, Blockman, pp.338-39 2. Akbarnamaf , vol.II, 487. 3. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh, Vol.11, pp.216-18 4. Tabaqat-i-Akbari, Vol.11, B.De, pp.396-97. (See also Muntakhab- ut-Tawarlkh, Vol.11, Lowe, p. 161) (Iv) 109

Htfnu. He remained loyal to Khan-1-Khana during his adversity^ but was pardoned by the BTperor alongvdth Bairam Khan at Talwara. He rose higher and higher in Akbar'e favour/ towever/ he could not properly supress. the turbuletit people of the Punjab. His administration began to deteriorate on account of his leniency. Criminals and miscreants went unpunished and thus great disorder prevailed in the province, when Akbar was informed about this state of affairs, he issued orders for his recall in 1578.

Sa'id Ktan (1578-1585)

In 1578 Akbar sent him to take over the charge of the province of Punjab. He was the nephew (brother's son of CWli Beg. He was honoured with the govern- m^t of B^gal. He was enrolled in the band of the amirs 2 in command of five thousand horse.

Raja'- Bhaqwan Das ( in 1586)

He was the son of Raja Behara Hal. He was included in the rank of amirs wto were commanders of five thousand

1. Tabaqat-i-Akbari/ Vol.11, B.De, pp. 2. Tabaqat-i-Akbari, Vol.11, B.De, p.657. (See also Ain-iAkbarl, Vol.I/ Blockman/ pp.331-32). (V) no

1 _ _ _ i» horse, in 1586 A.D. Lahore was entrusted to Raja Bhagwan Das as with him was appointed Rae Pal Singh as a cx>-viceroy. As court was there no pi wan and Bakhshi were appointed to 2 assist them.

- 3 Khwala Shamsuddin Khawafi (1598-1600)

He was one of the amirs of Akbar, He was celebrated for his honesty and bravery and knowledge of affairs. In 1598, Akbar appointed him as the governor of the Punjab. He governed the province very efficiently with the help of the capable Kotwal of Lahore, Malik Khairullah. He was also given the charge of the mint of Lahore. He was died in 1600 A.D. His Majesty grievea at nis departure and 5 showed suitable favour to his survivors.

Zain Khan Koka (1600-1601)

He was one of the amirs of five thousand horse. In respect of bravery and other praiseworthy qualities, he

1. Tabaqat-1 -Akbari, Vol.11, B.De, p.658. (See also Bakhirat-ul-Qawanin, p. 103) 2. Akbamamah, Vol.Ill, p.511 3. "The name is derived from " ' " , name of district." 4. Tabac^t-i-Akbari, Vol.11, p.681 ^» Akbarnama Vol.Ill, p.772, (vi) 111

excelloa other m^ of the age. He ia highly distinguished 1 for intellegeice and knowledge and wisdom and all perfections. After the death of Khwaja Shamsuddin Khwafi/ he was appoin- 2 ted a^ the governor of Punjab, but he was soon recalled to Agra and Qulij Khan was sent to assume the governorship of in his place.

Mirza Qulij Khan (ieoi-1605)

He was one of the amirs who has served the state for a long time also hold the appointment of wazir. He 4 has four thousand horse man. He was given the governor­ ship of Punjab in 1601 and remained its governor till the 5 death of Akbar in 16o5 A.D.

1. Tabaoat-i-Akbari, Vol.II, B.De, p.659 (^See also Zakhirat-ul-Oawanlri/ p,l23) 2. Ain-i-Akbari, Vol.p.345 3. Akbamama* , Vol.111, p. 1196. 4. Ain-i-Akbari, Blockman, I, pp.354-55 5. Akbarnamafc, III, pp. 1207, 1254, 1256. 112

The province of Punjab recorded in vedas as "S^t Sindlm" as it included the territory covered by the seven rivers namely/ the Indus (Sindhu)* the Vitasta (Jhelum), the Akesines (Chenab), the Parushni (Ravi)/ the Vipas (Beas)/ the Satdra (SatlaJ) and the Saraswati. During the Greek occupation the Punjab dnubrac03 the whole plain from the Indus to Beas and from foot mountains of Hiipalayas to the Junction of five rivers. in 1333, it includ©a the territory covered by 2 the five rivers.

During Akbar's reign this province was giv«i the name of subah of La ho re # which was situated in the third climate. Its length from river SatlaJ to river Sindh was 180 kos. Its breadth from Bhinibar to Chaukhandi was 80 kos. It was bounded on the east by Sirhind^ on the north by Kashmir^ on the south by Bikaner and AJmer, on the west by Multan. It had:

Rivera; Six principal rivers which all flow from the northern mountains.

1. Ancient Geography of India, Cunningham/ p. 170. 2. The Rehla of Ibn-i-batuta, Mehdi Hasan, pp.1/2/5, 113

(1) The Satlajt The ancitfit name of which is Shattudar and whose source is In the Kahlor hills. Rupar Hachchiwarah and Ludhiana are situatef3 on its bank, and it receives the Biah at Bauch ferry.

(2) The Biah (Beas); was anciently called Blpasha (Sank Vipasa). Its source was named Biahkund in KUllu mountains In the vicinity of which the town of Sultanpur stands above the river.

(3) The Ravi; The ancient Iravatl rises in the Bhadral hills. Lahore the capital city Is situated on its bank.

(4) The Chenabt anciently Chandarbhaga from the Summit of Klshtawar range issue two sweet water streams/ the one called Chandar, the other Bhaga which unite near Khatwar and are known by above name whence they flow by Bahlolpur Sudharah and Hazarah.

(5) The Bihat (Jhelum)t anciently called Bidasta has its rise in a lake in the Parqanah of Ver in Kashmir^ flows through srlnagar and ©iters Hindustan. Bherah lies on its (left) bank.

1. Aln»l«.Akbarl, Vol.11, p.315. 114

(6) The source of the Slndh (Indus) is placed by some between Kashmir and Kashghar, vhile other locate it in China. Tt flows along the borders of the Sawad territory by Atak Benaras and Chauparah into Baluchls tan.

Doabs:

Punjab of Akbar's times conprised of five main Doabe (tracts laying between the two rivers). The Belt J'Ullundur Doab extending from the river Beas to the river Sutlej covered an area of 5o Icos. The Bari Doab laying between Beas and the Ravi stretched over a distance of 17 kos, and the third was the Rechna Doab, which bounded by the Ravi and Chenab, stretched over a plateau of 30 kos. The fourth was the Chin hat Doab fringed the Chenab and Jhelum extended over an area of 20 kps. The Sind Sagar Doab laying between the river Indus and the river Jhelum exteided over an area of 68 tes.