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Home , Hampi, Purandara Dasa, Western Ghats

Site to be managed

CHAPTER 2: SITE TO BE MANAGED

2.1 WORLD HERITAGE SITE AS INSCRIBED

Country and State Party:

State:

Name of the World Heritage Property: GROUP OF MONUMENTS AT HAMPI

Important Dates: First nomination by the State Party: 1982 Inscription on the World Heritage List: 1986 Inscription on the List of World Heritage in Danger: 1999 Removal from the List of World Heritage in Danger: 2006

Criteria for Inscription: Cultural Criteria I, III and IV

Justification for Inclusion in the World Heritage List as a Cultural Property: “The most magnificent, extensive and varied ruins of a metropolis []. A richly constituted military, civil, religious, residential and secular remains amidst the most picturesque hills and river setting. Architecture, sculpture, painting and stucco are all integrated in the remains.” (Source: http://whc.unesco.org/p_dynamic/sites/passfile.cfm?filename=241&filetype=pdf&category=nominations, pg 8, as downloaded on 11 July 2006)

Statements of Authenticity and Integrity: There are no Statements of Authenticity or Integrity available since the time of the inscription.

Threats to the Property Causing its Endangering: “The inclusion of the Groups of Monuments at Hampi on the List of World Heritage in Danger was

By Prof. Nalini Thakur, Dept. of Architectural Conservation, School of Planning & Architecture, New Delhi 1 Integrated Management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site May 2007

prompted by the construction of two suspension bridges which dominate the natural environment and threaten the World Heritage Site's integrity. The construction of a road towards one of the bridges will result in a major increase in heavy goods traffic and has already resulted in the dismantling and reconstruction of an important historic monument – a mandapa (a pillared stone rest house) within the borders of the site. This dislocation signifies serious problems in the implementation of cultural heritage policies and regulations.” (Source: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/241, as downloaded on 11 July 2006)

Justification for Removal of Hampi from the List of World Heritage in Danger: “Reductions in motor traffic and the decision to change the location of a planned shopping centre enabled the [World Heritage] Committee to determine that the Group of Monuments at Hampi, inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1986 and on the Danger List in 1999, was no longer under threat” (Source: http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/264 uploaded 11 July 2006, as downloaded on 11 July 2006)

NOTE: Henceforth, the IMP adopts the following benchmarks for management purposes:

1. Hereafter, the inscribed site of Hampi shall be referred to as ‘Hampi World Heritage Site’ (or HWHS) in lieu of ‘Group of Monuments at Hampi.’

2. The extents of the property as identified in Map 2 shall be considered towards the scope of the implementation of the IMP since the same was endorsed by the ASI in the August 2005 meetings and by Mr Francesco Bandarin, Director, UNESCO World Heritage Centre, in his correspondence dated 6 September 2005.

2 Prepared for Archaeological Survey of India Site to be managed

2.2 SITE IDENTIFICATION

2.2.1 Location of Hampi World Heritage Site

Hampi World Heritage Site is spread over the two districts of and Koppal in the South Indian State of Karnataka.. In particular, it falls within the taluk of and Gangawati taluk of . Refer Map 1.

Table 1: Geographical Co-ordinates for Hampi World Heritage Site (Source: http://whc.unesco.org/archive/periodicreporting/cycle01/section2/241.pdf, pg 3, as downloaded on 11 July 2006) Reference on Site Monument Latitude Longitude Centre Point Mahanavami Dibba 15º18’52” N 76º28’18” E 2nd Coordinate Virupaksha Temple 15º20’12” N 76º27’12” E 3rd Coordinate Pattabhirama Temple 15º18’30” N 76º29’15” E

2.2.2 Extents of Hampi World Heritage Site

The extents of Hampi World Heritage Site/ Core Zone/ the inscribed site are presently identified as per the 1988 Gazette notification of the Government of Karnataka.1 Refer Map 2 2. The same is identified as the Core Zone under the Hampi World Heritage Area Management Authority Act, 2002 (HWHAMA Act, 2002), a Karnataka State Act especially formulated for management of this site as a heritage area under the Hampi World Heritage Area Management Authority (HWHAMA or Authority) established for these purposes. In accordance with Articles 103 and 104 of the Operational Guidelines, the HWHAMA Act, 2002 provides for a buffer to the Core Zone that is sub-classified into Buffer and Peripheral3 Zones. Refer Map 2. This Act further declares the entire area under the Core, Buffer and Peripheral zones collectively as Hampi World Heritage Area (HWHA) for conservation and management under the Authority. The present demarcation of boundaries, as per Map 2, is rationalized along individual property lines for grounding on site. However, it does not coincide with local governance and administrative jurisdictions on site, thus creating a disparity that adversely affects establishment

1 Under Subsection 3 of Section 19 of the Karnataka Ancient and Historical Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1961 (henceforth KAHMASR Act, 1961) vide notification No. ITY 137 KMU 84. 2 The present official base map is not geo-referenced and is highly inaccurate. 3 The Operational Guidelines do not recognize any nomenclature as Peripheral.

By Prof. Nalini Thakur, Dept. of Architectural Conservation, School of Planning & Architecture, New Delhi 3 Integrated Management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site May 2007

and functioning of effective management mechanisms on the ground. To overcome the above, the IMP Volume 1, submitted in August 2005, had recommended rationalization of boundaries along village administrative divisions as per planning principles.4 However, in the August 2005 meeting of the UNESCO Mission, it was decided to limit such a rationalization action to the buffer boundary only and to leave the Core Zone boundaries unchanged. Accordingly, the HWHAMA has carried out this exercise and is presently in the process of notifying the new rationalized limits for management purposes. Refer Map 3. Once notified, this Map should be submitted to WHC as soon as possible.

2.2.3 Area of Hampi World Heritage Site

Table 2: Area Calculation for Hampi World Heritage Area, Map 3 (Source: Hampi World Heritage Area Management Authority Act 2002, pg 11) Core Zone/ HWHS/ Inscribed Area 41.8 sq kms Buffer Zone 53.0 sq kms Peripheral Zone 31.0 sq kms TOTAL 125.8 sq kms

After the new boundaries of HWHA are notified as per Map 4, the buffer area shall increase to 194.66 sq kms and the total area of HWHA to 236.46 sq kms. (Source: Draft Master Plan for Hampi Local Planning Area, Provisional Report 2006, pg 4).

2.3 SITE DESCRIPTION

The inscribed site of Hampi represents the erstwhile capital and metropolis of the Vijayanagara5 Empire (14th-16th century CE) that was known by the same name. The site, popularly known as Hampi after the highly revered Hindu Goddess Hampadevi/ Pampadevi, remains one of the most outstanding places in the world with widespread archaeological remains of the erstwhile metropolis within a spectacularly beautiful natural setting characterized by boulder landscape and the meandering river Tungabhadra. Refer plate 1.

4 Besides being appropriate for planning, this rationalization afforded a better expression and comprehension of the OUVs, Authenticity and Integrity of the inscribed property in consonance with Articles 99 and 100 of the Operational Guidelines.

4 Prepared for Archaeological Survey of India Site to be managed

2.3.1 Currently Inscribed Information

The Description and Inventory Section of the inscribed information gives a building level account of the following monuments, deemed of high architectural and sculptural values, thus proclaiming them as World Heritage. These include the Pampapati Temple/ Virupaksha Temple6, Hampi Bazaar, as ‘an important thoroughfare of the ancient city of Vijayanagara’ 7, Hazara Temple, Pattabhirama Temple, Vitthala Temple and the Citadel Area with fortifications and civil constructions. The Citadel area itself includes the Queen’s Bath, the King’s Palace Enclosure, the Lotus Mahal, the Mint, Dandanayakl’s Enclosure, The Zanana Enclosure, The Water Pavilion and the Stables. Refer plate 2 Refer Issue 1: ‘Anomalies in the Inscribed Information’ in Chapter 3. The focus on individual monuments as reminders of the accomplished Vijayanagara metropolis is insufficient to provide a comprehensive explanation of the OUVs, Authenticity and Integrity of the site as laid down in the Justification, and therefore, contrary to the spirit of Articles 85, 88 and 89 of the Operational Guidelines.

2.3.2 Studies by the IMP Team 8

The foremost conclusion after conducting the site studies in 2003 was that there was a need to redefine the site in accordance with Articles 85, 88 and 100 of the Operational Guidelines to be able to explain its OUVs, and attributes of Authenticity and Integrity comprehensively for management purposes. Refer IMP Volume I – Integrated Management Plan for Hampi; IMP Volume II – Laying the Foundation, for summaries of surveys and studies carried out by the Team on site; and IMP Volume III – Cultural Resource Redefinition and Its Management Implications for the details of the entire range of cultural resources on the site that have been identified by the Team. This was based on the realization that the Vijayanagara metropolis of the 16th century CE had left behind a much greater range of heritage resources, tangible and intangible, spread over a very much larger area. Collectively, these resources give a comprehensive understanding and holistic vision of the glorious Vijayanagara metropolis that was, which is the basic premise of Hampi’s inscription as a World Heritage Property. Further, it was clear that a satisfactory

5 English translation ‘City of Victory’. 6 Ownership status not clearly established, and under litigation. 7 Ownership status not clearly established but DAM Protection Boards visible at the end of Bazaar Street. 8 Information incorporated: the 3rd Sem Studio of the 2003-2005, M. Arch. (A Cons), SPA, New Delhi, India.

By Prof. Nalini Thakur, Dept. of Architectural Conservation, School of Planning & Architecture, New Delhi 5 Integrated Management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site May 2007

explanation of the Cultural Criteria for the Inscription of Hampi, cannot be achieved without reference to these resources, for they are integral to the site’s Authenticity and Integrity. Besides contributing to the OUVs of the site in their unique ways, it was realized that the wide range of heritage resources at Hampi, both tangible and intangible, represent national, regional and local values, which also have to be given due consideration in this Management Plan. Therefore, the scope of the IMP was expanded to include redefinition of the site for holistic and value-based management. This becomes all the more essential since most of these resources are not protected as heritage by statute.

2.4 REDEFINITION OF THE SITE

It is realized that a comprehensive understanding of the Vijayanagara metropolis cannot be achieved without reference to the following:

2.4.1 The Geographic Setting

The primary geographic phenomenon marking peninsular India is the , deemed as one of the most stable landmasses in the world and bound by two mountain ranges – the Western (also known as Sahyadris) and the along its western and eastern edges respectively. Hampi sits right in the midst of this great plateau towards the foothills of the and its regional setting comprises of hill ranges some of which are spurs of the Central Sahyadris, like the Sandur hill range to the west and southwest of Hampi. Refer plate 3 The river Tungabhadra, which runs through Hampi, emerges from the confluence of two tributaries, Tunga and Bhadra, also originating from the Central Sahyadris. The river flows in the east, northeast direction across the plateau and drains the terrain creating very fertile plains towards the foothills of the Sahyadris, such as the in the districts of Raichur and Koppal. The soil is similarly fertile at Hampi. Besides being charged from upstream, the river has a unique watershed in this . The surface drainage from the surrounding hills collects in many small pools on the plateau on its way to the river, thus dotting the landscape with several lakes, ponds et al. that act as localized sources of water supply. Refer plate 3 and 4.

6 Prepared for Archaeological Survey of India Integrated management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site

Plate 1. The site and its setting

Plate 2. Select ASI Protected monuments

By Prof.. Nalini Thakur, School of Planning and Architecture for Archaeological Survey of India Integrated management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site

Plate 3. The regional setting of Hampi; note its location at the foothills of the Western Ghats within the river plains; also note the numerous water bodies dotting the region on account of its landscape

By Prof.. Nalini Thakur, School of Planning and Architecture for Archaeological Survey of India Site to be managed

The immediate setting of Hampi comprises of several small hills of highly weathered and fractured rock formations. Refer plate 5. While the average elevation of Hampi ranges from 400 metres to 440 metres above sea level, the elevation of some of the known hills are: A. Anjanadri Hill: 542 metres above sea level B. Matanga Hill: 520 metres above sea level (Source: Survey of India Map, Sheet No. 57-A/7 dated 1975) The tempestuous river, known to incur heavy flooding, especially during the , comprises several river islands that get submerged during the floods. Flowing eastwards, the river takes sudden northward turns within the inscribed area1.

2.4.2 The Mythical Associations with Hampi

The mythological associations with this region are extremely strong and beyond the limits of time and historicity. They are known to be a driving force in shaping the nature of development on the site over time. Dating to the pre-Vijayanagara period, the relevance of such an aspect lies in the fact that it indicates strong religious and spiritual associations with the site that was well understood by the Vijayanagara rulers and influenced their choice of city planning and layout, architecture and sculpture, amongst other cultural aspects. This association was further evolved during the Vijayanagara period, and is manifest in the presence of numerous temples, shrines, sculptures, rock edicts et al., spread all over the site. This religious and spiritual association has only evolved further with time, and continues to reflect in many symbolic references, tangible and intangible manifestations, and the living culture that is evident on site. The site is associated with two very significant mythological contexts. One is Pampakshetra that is associated with Lord Virupaksha and his consort Pampadevi; the other association is as , the mythical kingdom of the monkey kings, Bali and , from epic of magnanimous proportions, the . Hampi is associated with many sects and cults in and . The site of Nava Vrindavana near is deemed the most sacred place of pilgrimage for the Madhava cult in Hinduism. All natural features – the river, the hills, the rock shelters and the smaller water bodies have their special symbolic values and association with some ancient sacred legends, making Hampi a ‘Sacred Landscape’. For example, the northward turn of the river Tungabhadra at

1 This aspect is of immense religious significance at the national, regional and local levels.

By Prof. Nalini Thakur, Dept. of Architectural Conservation, School of Planning & Architecture, New Delhi 7 Integrated Management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site May 2007

Chakratirtha accords the highest degree of auspiciousness to Hampi, which is sometimes also known as the ‘Kashi of the South’ on account of this phenomenon. Matanga, Rishyamukh, Anjanadri and Malyavanta hills are associated with legends from the Ramayana whereas Hemkuta Hill is associated with the legend of Lord Virupaksha. Pampasarovar is deemed as one of the five sacred sarovars or ponds in India by the . Tangible evidences are available in the form of temples, shrines, , et al., scattered over the site, some of which like the temples along the western edge of Manmatha Tank, a few temples on Hemkuta Hill and the sanctum of the Virupaksha Temple, are understood to pre-date the Vijayanagara period. Even during the Vijayanagara period, the religious aspects of the site were acknowledged, followed and expanded manifold as is reflected in the layout of the suburbs and the numerous temples, shrines, mandapas and sculptures scattered over the area. Intangible associations, such as rituals, festivals, pilgrimages, the aforementioned myths and legends, and the highest reverence towards Virupaksha Temple by the people in the region indicate its continued religious significance over time. Refer plates 6, 7, 8 and 9.

2.4.3 The and its Capital City

The Capital City of the Vijayanagara Empire at Hampi is unique the way it represented the might and grandeur of a Hindu empire that suddenly originated in the 14th century after the demise of Tughlaq rule in the region; an empire that grew from strength to strength within a short period of time to envelop the whole of peninsular India and achieve international recognition, and then ended as suddenly. The capital city portrays a similar cycle of origin, eminence of the highest order and total destruction, all within a time span of 200 years.

2.4.3.1 Vijayanagara Empire: From origin to fall

The foundation of the Vijayanagara Empire is attributed to a group of Sangama brothers, the most notable being I or Hukka, the first ruler of the empire, and Bukka. Established in 1336 CE, the empire saw four ruling dynasties – Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidus. It struggled to survive after the Battle of Talikote in 1565 CE and finally came to an end in 1674 CE. The first capital city of the empire was established at Anegundi (1336-1368 CE), a settlement to the north of river Tungabhadra that has pre-Vijayanagara origins, although the

8 Prepared for Archaeological Survey of India Integrated management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site

Plate 4. The river Tungabhadra and the immediate setting

Plate 5. The immediate setting

By Prof.. Nalini Thakur, School of Planning and Architecture for Archaeological Survey of India Integrated management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site

Plate 6. Matanga hill and the temple

Plate 7. Tablets installed by devotees near Manmatha tank

Plate 8. Idol sculpted on boulder Plate 9. Devotees headed to Virupaksha temple

By Prof.. Nalini Thakur, School of Planning and Architecture for Archaeological Survey of India Site to be managed

earlier rulers are known to have established their bases at other places across as well. The area south of the river, especially around the present Virupaksha Temple and Hemkuta Hill, was known as a sacred area and a place of pilgrimage, and is dotted with several temples. As the empire grew gradually from strength to strength, it brought the major part of South India under its unified rule, and a larger and much grander capital city of Vijayanagara was established with its imperial centre to the south of the river. Some scholars claim that this capital city of Vijayanagara was founded some time between 1357 and 1368 CE and that a continuous rule from here can be traced only from 1368 CE. The city, so established, was a vast metropolis, the total area of which can be discerned to be around 1200 sq. kms. Many contemporary travelers1 had recorded and reveled in the grandeur of this metropolis that was deemed unparalleled in the contemporary world. After the defeat of the Vijayanagara rulers at the hands of the Sultanate Confederacy of in the Battle of Talikote in 1565 CE, the city is believed to have been pillaged, looted and burnt by the victorious army and vagabonds alike for a period lasting several months. This resulted in vast devastation and the abandonment of the city by its inhabitants. Refer map..(peninsular series w/ text). The Vijayanagara rulers shifted their base to other parts of South India, such as followed by Chandragiri, Srirangapattana and Vellore2, but the glory of the Vijayanagara capital city could not be emulated. Meanwhile, the abandoned capital city continued to languish further into the ruins that today provide excellent and expansive archaeological evidence of the glorious 16th century metropolitan culture that was. The same has been inscribed as World Heritage.

2.4.3.2 City Layout and Structure

The capital city of Vijayanagara developed into a vast metropolis with a well-developed city structure comprising an urban core, various suburban settlements and a vast rural hinterland. Refer map…cultural landscape w/ twxt Besides the religious significance of the site, the advantages offered by the natural setting appeared to be the most appropriate place for the Vijayanagara rulers to erect their new capital city. The surrounding hills provided them security; the river was a perennial source of water

1 Contemporary travellers like Domingo Paes and Fernao Ninuz from Portugal, Nicolo Conti, Ludovico Di Varthema and Cesare Frederici from , and Abdul Razzaq from Persia have given glowing accounts on different aspects of the Vijayanagara Empire and its capital city that provide very useful insights for understanding the city, its structure, aspects like lifestyle, etc.

By Prof. Nalini Thakur, Dept. of Architectural Conservation, School of Planning & Architecture, New Delhi 9 Integrated Management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site May 2007

supply along with numerous smaller water bodies scattered across the region; and the highly fertile plains were suitable for agricultural activity. While building their capital in this locality, they were wise enough to utilize the opportunities afforded wherever possible, yet they were careful not to disturb the natural systems adversely. The city had a series of fortifications that sat well within the geographic setting, utilizing hills as a natural defence system wherever possible and bridging the gaps between them with fortification walls, defence outposts and gateways. The outermost fortification comprised of the region’s hills, that were handled similarly. Refer Plate 10. The urban core was demarcated with fortification approximately elliptical in shape and comprised the royal quarters and other associated structures; residences for the nobility; ceremonial spaces and platforms; stables; temples and shrines; and many other structures, both secular and religious in nature. Refer Plate 11. To the north of the urban core, lay an agricultural valley running through which are two of the many canals developed by the Vijayanagara rulers. Refer plate 12. North of the irrigation canals lay what is presently called the Sacred Centre along the banks of the river. This comprised of several temple townships also known as puras. The spine of a pura was a linear bazaar street, also known as pete, oriented in the east-west direction. Refer plate 13.The main temple was the focus of the street and located at its western end. The residential area spread organically around this spine depending on the immediate natural setting. The Vijayanagara puras included: A. Virupakshapura, or the present settlement of Hampi B. Achyutapura, the only pura along a north-south axis C. Vitthalapura D. Krishnapura. Besides Anegundi, other settlements that were established within the city were: A. B. Varadadevi-ammanapattana (city of Varadadevi) located about 750 metres to the northeast of Kamalapura. The suburban townships included: A. B. Anantashayanagudi

2 The descendants of the royal family returned to Anegundi after the fall of the empire and continue to reside in the village to date.

10 Prepared for Archaeological Survey of India Integrated management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site

Map [number?]. Vijayanagara: from origin to fall

By Prof.. Nalini Thakur, School of Planning and Architecture for Archaeological Survey of India Integrated management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site

Map [number?]. Layout and extents of the 16th century metropolis of Vijayanagara

By Prof.. Nalini Thakur, School of Planning and Architecture for Archaeological Survey of India Integrated management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site

Plate 10. A composite defence system: fortifications erected to plug gaps in hills and boulders

Plate 11. The excavated urban core

By Prof.. Nalini Thakur, School of Planning and Architecture for Archaeological Survey of India Integrated management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site

Plate 12.. Achyutapura and the agricultural valley beyond

Plate 13. Vitthalpura: comprising Vitthala temple, bazaar street, and other ancillary structures, residences enclosed within surrounding hills

By Prof.. Nalini Thakur, School of Planning and Architecture for Archaeological Survey of India Site to be managed

C. Nagalpura D. A settlement at the present location of the city of Hospet E. Tirumaladevi-ammanapattana (city of Tirumaladevi) located near the present . Refer maps (map at cultural landscape level , core)

2.4.3.3 Water Systems

The water systems developed during the Vijayanagara period were well integrated with the natural systems in the region. The river, the smaller water bodies dotting the region and the high groundwater table was utilized effectively as is qualified by the locations of the bunds, wells, canals, etc., that were constructed. This represents a high level of understanding of the natural systems of the area and the capacity to utilize them for development purposes without affecting them adversely. The Vijayanagara rulers were sympathetic to the requirements of agriculture, which was the primary occupation, and constructed several canals in the region that remain important sources of water supply for irrigation purposes, to date. Refer plates 14, 15 and 16.

2.4.3.4 Transport and Linkages

Roadways and water transport were the two predominant transportation systems during the Vijayanagara period. The city of Vijayanagara had an elaborate road network that can be discerned from the remains of several gateways, defence posts and mandapas (resting places) all over the site. The roads ranged from radial to ring to linear and allowed for commercial, military and ceremonial movements within the city. Refer Map… Studies by scholars indicate that there was a definite hierarchy to the road network as per social stratification, which is most visible in the architecture of the entrance gateways that range from highly ornate to quite plain. Refer plate 17. The pathways and routes in Vijayanagara were laid in consonance with the natural setting and topography of the region. They availed the best possibilities to explore the natural landscape running through the valleys with steps carved through boulders and sheet rocks. Refer plate 18. Many of these routes continue to be in use. The other mode of travel was through locally made, round boats called coracles, used especially to cross the river. These boats are round and modest-sized and evolved in response to the presence of boulders in the river that ruled out travel and transportation through larger boats and ships. Refer plate 19.

By Prof. Nalini Thakur, Dept. of Architectural Conservation, School of Planning & Architecture, New Delhi 11 Integrated Management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site May 2007

2.4.3.5 Architecture

An examination of the pre-Vijayanagara historic layers of this region establishes that Hampi lay at the borderline of political domains and diverse cultures with the mighty river Tungabhadra acting as the dividing line between the north and the south of India. This resulted in an infusion of diverse identities and cultures, which merged and influenced the architectural developments during the Vijayanagara period. The cultural resources on site exhibit the pure North Indian Gupta style, the Chalukyan style, the South Indian Dravidian architectural style and a hybrid form where features of both northern and southern styles have been used. The standing building typologies range from temples, shrines, palaces, smaller residential quarters, ceremonial platforms, etc. of varying scales and sizes. While the temples and sacred Hindu structures followed South Indian Hindu architecture, secular buildings emulated a more hybrid style that incorporated both Hindu and Islamic features. Refer plates 20 and 21. The Vijayanagara style of architecture, as it is called, survives in the rest of South India as it spread through the patronage of displaced Vijayanagara rulers after 1565 CE. The Raya Gopura, first introduced in the Vijayanagara temples and attributed to Raja , is a landmark all over South India. The stone in front of the Vitthala Temple is another significant development of the Vijayanagara period that is testimony to a religious ritual. The introduction of the Islamic style in secular buildings distinctly shows the general architectural penchant towards tolerance and an acceptance of universal trends.

NOTE: The aforementioned description is just a nominal one, for the purposes of this Management Plan and touches briefly upon select aspects only. Numerous scholars, national and international, have done extensive researches on the Vijayanagara period, including less common aspects like archaeo- astronomical investigations that seek the relationship between particular monuments and the heavenly bodies. It is beyond the scope of the IMP to identify and elaborate on all such aspects, as it is a matter of ongoing research and requires inputs from all the concerned scholars.

12 Prepared for Archaeological Survey of India Integrated management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site

Plate 14. Aqueducts to transfer water for use

Plate 15. Bunds for tapping water

Plate 16. Wells tapping the high groundwater table

By Prof.. Nalini Thakur, School of Planning and Architecture for Archaeological Survey of India Integrated management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site

Plate 17. A ruined gateway Plate 18. Steps cut into rocks to create paths

Plate 19. Indigenous resources, traditional boats calle coracles that negotiate the rocky course of the river

By Prof.. Nalini Thakur, School of Planning and Architecture for Archaeological Survey of India Integrated management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site

Plate 20. Vitthala temple: a Dravidian Vijayanagara expression, as used in sacred Hindu architecture

Plate 21.Lotus Mahal: a secular expression, hybrid of Hindu and Islamic architecture

By Prof.. Nalini Thakur, School of Planning and Architecture for Archaeological Survey of India Integrated management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site

Map [number??], Prehistoric occupation in Peninsular India

Plate 22. Pre historic burial huts nears Hiriye Benekal

By Prof.. Nalini Thakur, School of Planning and Architecture for Archaeological Survey of India Site to be managed

2.4.4 Study of other layers Primary evolutionary studies of Hampi beginning from prehistoric times indicate the following:1

2.4.4.1 Prehistoric occupation

Studies indicate that the larger region of Central Karnataka has been under active human occupation from prehistoric times. Scholars account for the occurrence of Stone, Copper and Iron Age material cultures and have identified several Palaeolithic2 and Neolithic3 sites, rock shelters,4 iron-ore smelting sites et al. in this region. The immediate environs of Hampi are also home to many such evidences, in the form of rock shelters, rock paintings, including some in Hampi village; Neolithic ash mounds, one recorded at Nimbapura by Morrison (2000); and microlithic burial huts at Hiriye-Benekal in Koppal. Refer plate 22. Refer map ..prehistoric things : peninsular India

2.4.4.2 Growing Religious and Spiritual Significance of Hampi in Pre-Vijayanagara Times

Historical studies of the period before the foundation of the Vijayanagar Empire, spanning almost 15 centuries, notwithstanding the historical facts, can be summarized as follows. In consonance with the prehistoric trends, the larger region saw significant tangible developments from the Mauryan period (3rd century BCE). Refer map: Pre-Vijayanagar layers:peninsular,cultural landscape The regional setting of Hampi, including the Raichur Doab, was recognized for its highly fertile soil that was suitable for agriculture. Simultaneously, the Sandur region was known for the availability of rich iron ore deposits. Thus, this region was highly coveted and contended for by several rulers over a long period of time. The river Tungabhadra often acted as the political divider for the region due to its turbulent, uninhibited nature. Studies indicate that even though the inscribed site does not display evidences of large-scale occupation and development during the pre-Vijayanagara historical period, the area, especially around Hampi village, is understood to have gained increasing significance as a , or a sacred centre for pilgrimages. Refer plate 23 and

1 Refer IMP Volume 1, Chapter 2: Outstanding Universal Values of HWHA. 2 Some of the known Paleolithic sites are at Paddayya at Hunsgi (), Halakundi village, Bedar Belagallu, Gadiganur hill, Joga, , Badanhatti hill, Angur, hill, Hire-Kuruvatti, , et al. 3 Some of the known Neolithic sites and ashmounds are at Nimbapura, Budhihal, Piklihal , Peacock hill (Kapagallu), Utnur, Face hill (Bellary), et al. 4 Some of the known rock shelters at Gundun, Koppal, , and North Canara.

By Prof. Nalini Thakur, Dept. of Architectural Conservation, School of Planning & Architecture, New Delhi 13 Integrated Management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site May 2007

24. Some of the architectural endeavours attributed to this period by various scholars include: several Chalukyan (7th-11th century CE) temples and at least one Rashtrakuta (8th-9th century CE) Temple at Hemkuta Hill in Hampi village; and Chalukyan and Hoysala (11th-14th century CE) temples to the west of Manmatha Tank in Hampi village. Even the existing Virupaksha Temple of the 16th century, Vijayanagara period, is understood to have been developed around a 9th century core structure. Michell (1991) further dates three of the 14th century CE temples on Hemkuta Hill to pre-Vijayanagara times.The settlements of Anegundi and Kampili are also known to have been established during the Hoysala period in the pre-Vijayanagara times. In summing up, it may be said that the peninsular region was spatially the site for a number of prominent rules.

2.4.4.3 State of Cultural Flux and Socio-Political Division of the Site along the River Tungabhadra during the Post-Vijayanagara Historical Period

Pillaged and abandoned after the Battle of Talikote in 1565 CE, the site of the erstwhile capital city of Vijayanagara does not provide evidences of any subsequent major building endeavour until recent times. It is understood to have remained largely neglected and divided between different rulers over the course of time. Although the site was united during the Mughal rule under Aurangzeb (1658-1707 CE), records suggest that it was continually divided politically along the river Tungabhadra. The southern part often changed hands and was under various rulers such as the Marathas of Central India and of , until it was included in the under British rule in the mid-19th century. Post vijayanagara maps, peninsular The area north of the river was a part of the Nizam of ’s territory for most of this time until the reconstitution of states in independent India after 1947 CE. The present state of Karnataka was consolidated gradually, with the district of Bellary acceded to it from the State of Madras in 1953 and Koppal district (then a part of Raichur district) from the Nizam’s territory in 1956. This is indicative of the socio-cultural diversities and economic disparities along the river that are the outcome of such an influx and are evident even today on site.

2.4.4.4 Hampi today

The present layer of Hampi provides components of living heritage that provide for a distinct cultural ethos that shows evolution and continuity of many traditions from the past, like

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Map [number??], Pre-Vijayanagara kingdoms in the Peninsula

By Prof.. Nalini Thakur, School of Planning and Architecture for Archaeological Survey of India Integrated management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site

Plate 23. Pre-Vijayanagara period temples west of Manmatha tank

Plate 24. Pre-Vijayanagara period temples on Hemkuta hill

By Prof.. Nalini Thakur, School of Planning and Architecture for Archaeological Survey of India Integrated management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site

Map [number??], Political developments in the peninsula in the post-Vijayanagara period

By Prof.. Nalini Thakur, School of Planning and Architecture for Archaeological Survey of India Integrated management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site

Plate 25. Vernacular housing in Hampi

By Prof.. Nalini Thakur, School of Planning and Architecture for Archaeological Survey of India Integrated management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site

Plate 26. Intangible heritage in Hampi

By Prof.. Nalini Thakur, School of Planning and Architecture for Archaeological Survey of India Integrated management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site

Map [number??], Hampi in its regional context today

By Prof.. Nalini Thakur, School of Planning and Architecture for Archaeological Survey of India Site to be managed

Chart 2.1. Cultural resources in Hampi

By Prof. Nalini Thakur, Dept. of Architectural Conservation, School of Planning & Architecture, New Delhi 15 Integrated Management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site May 2007

• The geographical setting had a significant role in selecting the site for the capital city of the Vijayanagara Empire. The surrounding hills provided an effective defence against invasion by intruders from Central India; the unique watershed of the region with the river Tungabhadra and many smaller water bodies allowed for regular water supply for habitation; and the high fertility of the soil encouraged agriculture to emerge as the primary occupation – a tradition of the past that flourishes in the present as well.

• The Vijayanagara metropolis of the 16th century CE covered an area much larger than that currently inscribed. The entire area is rich in archaeological evidence, though most of it remains unexposed.

• The Vijayanagara metropolis has left behind a much larger cultural legacy than currently comprehended. There are many more resources on the site, tangible and intangible, hitherto unacknowledged and unprotected, that individually do not hold Outstanding Universal Value but together are indispensable for a comprehensive understanding and holistic vision of the glorious Vijayanagara metropolitan city and lifestyle, which is the justification for inscription of Hampi. Besides, these resources are of immense national, regional and local values. The resources defined in the inscription represent additional unique features of Vijayanagara, like city planning and layout, all of which, when seen holistically instead of as individual

• The currently inscribed archaeological resources, other than the 56 ASI-protected monuments, and natural heritage are not being protected and managed as World Heritage on ground.

• The currently inscribed archaeological resources, other than the 56 ASI-protected monuments, and natural heritage are not being protected and managed as World Heritage on ground.

2.5 VALUES AND SIGNIFICANCE OF HAMPI

The Outstanding Universal Significance of the property as a 16th century metropolis can only be understood as a ‘Site’ and not as a ‘Group of Monuments’.

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2.5.1 Other Resources that Qualify as Elements of World Heritage Site

Other resources, that may not hold OUVs individually but collectively are integral to the Authenticity and Integrity of the site, and thereby qualify as elements of the World Heritage Site, include:

2.5.1.1 The remaining archaeological resources of the Vijayanagara period present within the inscribed limits of the property:

The Justification mentions the ‘… extensive and varied’ ruins of the Vijayanagara metropolis at Hampi. Therefore, all archaeological resources of the Vijayanagara period apart from the 56 ASI-protected monuments also qualify as elements of the World Heritage Site. The State Department of Archaeology (DAM) and Museums, GoK is in the process of listing these and to date around 1600 of such resources have been identified on site. These resources may or may not possess values individually but collectively hold very high archaeological value, contributing towards the overall understanding of the inscribed site. For example, Vitthala Temple is a World Heritage monument but the Vitthala Bazaar, other smaller temples, mandapas, tanks, footprints of historic housing and other structural remains near the main temple together enable a holistic vision of Vitthalapura, a suburb of the 16th century Vijayanagara capital city.

2.5.1.2 The natural setting.

The Justification mentions the natural setting of the site towards defining its OUVs, the primary motive being maintenance of the visual integrity of the site. Therefore, the natural elements also, as identified in IMP Volume III, should be considered as elements of World Heritage Site. These include:

A. The river Tungabhadra and its banks B. Smaller water bodies and tanks scattered over the site C. The hills D. The unique boulder formations like the ‘Two Sisters’ E. Caves and caverns F. The vegetation.

By Prof. Nalini Thakur, Dept. of Architectural Conservation, School of Planning & Architecture, New Delhi 17 Integrated Management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site May 2007

The natural setting of the site contributes to the OUVs, Authenticity and Integrity beyond visual appeal. As has been established, the natural setting played a crucial role in the location and development of the Vijayanagara metropolis; and was integral to its defence mechanisms, water systems, roads and linkages as well as several other aspects.

2.5.2 Elaborating the Cultural Criteria for Inscription

2.5.2.1 Criteria I – Masterpiece of Human Genius

There are four different facets that make Hampi a unique work of human genius. These may be enumerated as follows. A. The most visible masterpiece recognized is the magnificent Vitthala Temple, a landmark in Dravidian temple architecture of the 16th century. It stands alongside the best examples like Brihadesvara in Tanjavur and Kandariya Mahadeva in Khajuraho, both World Heritage Monuments. It is an absolute representative of that period complete with its bazaar, stone chariot (rath) and the Kalyanamandapa. The mandapa, situated close to the temple and overlooking the river Thungabadra, is associated with the famous singer saint . The Royal Weighing Balance demonstrates the Vittala Temple’s closeness to the Emperor, who weighed himself against gold that was to be given away in charity. B. Hampi represents the high point of integration of man-made systems within the existing natural systems during the Vijayanagara period (14th-16th Century CE). Refer IMP Volume 3. The ingenuity of the planners and builders of the Vijayanagara Empire to understand the watershed of this drought-prone region and develop a city of metropolitan proportions, complete with extensive water systems is remarkable. That these water systems serve the people to date is a tribute to the genius of these builders. C. The integration of the man-made and the natural setting is of Outstanding Significance. The planning of the city, the location of the royal enclosure, the suburbs or puras, etc., is in complete harmony with the existing geographic context and utilizes the potential of these natural features to the maximum. The hills form an integral part of the fortification; and the outermost fortification of the Vijayanagara metropolis comprises only of the mightier regional hills.

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D. The enormous size and complexity for a capital city of the 15th-16th century is such that recent research terms it ‘a metropolis’ is another unparalleled ingenuity. The extents, its spread and the population it supported at that time is eulogized in the accounts of several foreign travellers of the times. They proclaim it to be a city of extreme grandeur unparalleled anywhere in the contemporary world. The physical remains that survive are a silent witness and proof of this.

2.5.2.2 Criteria II – Exceptional Testimony to a that has disappeared

Hampi/Vijayanagara was the only Hindu Empire with unparalleled prosperity in India in the 15th-16th centuries when Islam was at its height in the rest of the country. It has already been mentioned that this metropolitan city met with an abrupt end when it was plundered and looted after the Battle of Talikote in 1565 CE. Today it poignantly remains as an archaeological site. It is well known that Hampi has touched people who visited it in the past. Therefore it is essential to ensure that the visual quality passes to the future generations. It is thus imperative to maintain the tremendous significance of the site as a ruined capital, which is an important criterion for its Inscription.

Cave and Cavern

Typology of Cultural Resource Riverside Feature Complexes 4, 0% 13, 1% Temples 52, 6% 1, 0% 100, 11% Mosque 2, 0% Shrine 23, 2% Mandapa

42, 5% Memorial Structures 202, 22% Streets of special functions

Residential Complexes for religious and 81, 9% pilgrimage Walls

Gateway 1, 0% Defense Check Post 9, 1% 1, 0% 61, 7% Stable

90, 10% Water Structures 5, 1% 6, 1% Sculptures 13, 1% Fragment 26, 3% Unique Feature 190, 21% Rock Painting Unknown Chart 2. Typology in the World Heritage Site (percentages have to be checked and revised)

By Prof. Nalini Thakur, Dept. of Architectural Conservation, School of Planning & Architecture, New Delhi 19 Integrated Management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site May 2007

Nevertheless, a very large range of resources, both living and dead, are identifiable on the site today and belong to the height of the Vijayanagara period. More than 1,600 archaeological sites and remains belonging to this period have been identified. Moreover, the range of typologies is very diverse – from the royal quarters and quarters for the nobility; ceremonial grounds and platforms; temple complexes and ancillary structures; gateways and guard posts; to entire footprints of the suburban settlement pattern of the puras; stables etc. All these resources are in fair condition and together contribute to a holistic understanding of this flourishing metropolis of the 16th century CE. Refer Annexure 3: Detailed Site Situation for condition of these resources.

2.5.2.3 Criteria III – Outstanding Example for a Type of Building or Architectural Ensemble that Illustrates a Significant Stage in Human History

To quote a local person: “Hampi – the capital of the great Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagara, represents the diversity and composition of the living monuments and the landscape richly demonstrates man’s spirits and achievements in the medieval times of South India.”

The Vijayanagara style of architecture, as it is called, survives in the rest of southern India spread through the patronage of the displaced Vijayanagara rulers. The Raya Gopura, introduced first in the Vijayanagara temples and attributed to Raja Krishna Deva Raya, is a landmark all over South India. The stone chariot in front of the Vitthala Temple is significant development of the Vijayanagara period that is testimony to a religious ritual. Another significant contribution is the linear Street of which Virupaksha Bazaar is a living example. The Islamic architecture for secular buildings distinctly shows the general architectural trends of tolerance and acceptance for universal trends.

2.5.2.4 Other Values of the Site – at National, Regional and Local Levels

Given below are the other values1 of the inscribed site that hold true at national, regional

1 There is a need for more comprehensive research into all these aspects before a final classification of the level at which any particular value is considered as important.

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and local2 levels as can be discerned from the site description above.

A. Geological Value: The rock formation at the site is bouldered and unique, and believed to be one of the oldest rock formations in the . B. Prehistoric Value: The site has prehistoric cave paintings and remains of microliths as testimony to the same. C. Historical, Archaeological and Architectural Value Apart from the Vijayanagara Period: Architectural remains of periods prior to the Vijayanagara period are seen as well. D. Hampi as a Sacred Landscape and a Tirtha: Hampi is associated with the Hindu mythological landscapes of Pampakshetra (associated with Lord /Virupaksha and Devi /Pampa) and Kishkindha (associated with the epic, the Ramayana). The landscape is highly revered and visited by Hindus from all over the country. The region is also highly revered by the Jainas. This represents an interface between the natural environment – the river and the hills have symbolic relevance – and man- made expressions (tangible and intangible) – temples, shrines, ratha streets, etc., that are associated with religious practices, rituals and pilgrim circuits of movement seen all over HWHA and beyond. This holds a high significance especially at regional and local levels and is manifest in a large range of resources. E. Intangible Heritage and Traditional Knowledge Systems: These have evolved over time and add to the overall cultural value of the site. F. Hampi as a Living Cultural Landscape that has evolved since the Vijayanagara Period

2.6 PROPOSED STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

NOTE: The IMP has to look beyond the information provided at the time of inscription to explain better the OUVs of the site for which it is inscribed. Therefore, the IMP proposes a more elaborate Statement of Significance. This is based on new findings but follows the essence of the Original Justification. This is essential to facilitate a common understanding of the property as of today, for the effective protection and management of the inscribed site.

2 There is a need for greater dialogue with local communities to identify the local values comprehensively and systematically.

By Prof. Nalini Thakur, Dept. of Architectural Conservation, School of Planning & Architecture, New Delhi 21 Integrated Management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site May 2007

The entire area of the site of Vijayanagara, the metropolitan capital city of the 16th century, represents a synthesis of a time frame spanning from prehistoric times to the height of its glory, as the most magnificent capital of its time, during the Vijayanagara period. Continuity, since then has added a new layer of agricultural and rural beauty. This large area is scattered with remains from all these eras and small, fortified villages living on subsistence agriculture. The spectacular archaeological and architectural remains of the core of the capital strewn over a spread of 25 sq kms, with large temple complexes and their bazaar streets, gigantic platforms, and other structures located within the valleys of the most outstanding landscape of boulders with the river Tungabhadra flowing through it, makes it a perfect picture. This spatial entity with its myriad heritage components, temple complexes, villages, building typologies, structures, single items of archaeological and historical value and fragments re-form into a number of historic knowledge systems such as the water systems, the defence systems, the road network systems, etc. The cultural value is further reinforced by the living traditions that have evolved over time, including local building traditions and occupational trends. The exercise in ‘Redefinition of the Heritage Resources at Hampi’ and the interaction with the local population indicates that Hampi is more than a dead archaeological site. There is a need to recognize and protect the vast remains of the Vijayanagara Empire as a very large margin is available to improve the definition of heritage at Hampi both quantitatively and qualitatively. And seen together, they paint a more vivid picture of the grand Vijayanagara metropolis. The local people continue to have a symbiotic relationship with the natural and built heritage, which is especially evident in the reverence of Hampi as a Sacred Landscape. Further, there are several intangibles, such as the rituals, traditional skills, occupations, arts, crafts, et al., that have continued to evolve and are representative of the culture of the Vijayanagara period. The local people continue to use many of the ancient resources to date; e.g. the water systems established by the Vijayanagara rulers, which is crucial for irrigation purposes in this region even today. Therefore, Hampi is an ideal Living Cultural Landscape and should be seen as one that is a living representation of the glory of the Vijayanagara period.

2.7 PROPOSED STATEMENT OF AUTHENTICITY

Hampi retains authenticity in a variety of aspects. A. Authenticity of Location and Setting: The original setting, comprising of the river Tungabhadra and the boulder hills are retained in their entirety to date.

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B. Authenticity of Form and Design: Although the buildings were pillaged after 1565 CE, the original form and design of several monuments and archaeological resources like the Vitthala Temple can be easily discerned. C. The form of the original city planning and suburban settlement pattern, the Pura, is also clearly evident. D. Authenticity of materials and substance: The large untouched archaeological resources are ample evidences of authentic materials and construction. E. Authenticity of Traditions and Techniques: There is a discernable continuity of several religious rituals and associations, traditional skills and occupations. F. Authenticity of Language and other forms of Intangible Heritage: There is a discernable continuity of several performing arts like puppetry, bayalata and Kollata. G. Authenticity of Feeling: Despite the Vijayanagara Empire being lost to pillage and destruction, the presence of large untouched archaeological evidence coupled with the continuation of several living traditions and religious rituals portrays a fair picture of the Vijayanagara culture that was.

2.8 PROPOSED STATEMENT OF INTEGRITY

Although the integrity of the original metropolis was severely damaged during the destruction following the Battle of Talikote in 1565 CE, the integrity of the inscribed site as a

Integrity of the Cultural Resource

2, 0% 25, 3% 54, 6%

Cultural Resource which has lost its total integrity

177, 19% Cultural Resource which has lost its integrity partially

Cultural Resources which has integrity only in the form of traces and fragments

403, 44% Cultural Resources which has total integrity

Cultural resources with total integrity but have lost its context

// Unknown

261, 28% chart 3. Integrity of resources in the World Heritage Site (percentages have to be checked and revised)

By Prof. Nalini Thakur, Dept. of Architectural Conservation, School of Planning & Architecture, New Delhi 23 Integrated Management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site May 2007 ruined metropolis is more or less intact and reflects in the large number of archaeological resources, nearly 1600 in numbers, as evident on site. The integrity of the inscribed site reflects in the various cultural systems and resources on site and their inter-relationship that is more or less intact.

System Natural Water Bio Defence Royal Sacred Network Living system system system system system system system heritage system Natural - I I II - IV II - IV II I II system Water I - I III - IV II-IV II III II system Bio I I - IV IV III IV III system Defence II - IV III- IV IV - II- IV III- IV II- IV III - IV system Royal II - IV II- IV IV II- IV - II - IV III - IV II - IV system Sacred II II III III - IV II - IV - III II system Network I III IV II III III - III system Living heritage II I II III - IV II - IV I III - system

Table 1. Overlap of Systems

Various degrees of inter-relationship are

I: Totally dependent on each other – This relationship implies that one cannot exist without the other. For instance without distinct topography and the river on the site, there would not have been water system, which is so unique to Hampi. For example, water system and the network systems are completely dependent on the natural system.

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II: Integral part of the other system – This relationship implies that although they are a part of the other system it is more of a symbiotic relationship. For instance the Network and the Defence system, where the roads use the gateways of the defence system and the gates have been located where the roads are.

III: They are related to the system mentioned – this relationship implies that one system may have been the cause of a certain system to be laid out on site in a certain way for example the Sacred and the Network system. The temples and the temple districts may have caused the roads to be laid out in a certain manner not vice versa.

IV: No relation with the mentioned system – this reflects that there exists no relationship between two systems such as the network system and the bio system.

II – IV, III – IV: This reflects changed relationship. In the current context the Defense and the Royal system have lost their relevance in terms of utility hence their interrelationships also have changed. Hence we can understand how the relationships have transformed over a period of time. However, historically and culturally they are extremely significant for the cultural landscape.

It is important to mention here that the living heritage systems show highest degree of relationship with the water system and the sacred system. This reflects that these two systems are still living and thriving in various degrees on the site. The sacred system is completely based on the living legend of the Kishkinda in the Ramayana. This legend is the basis of the mythological layer on the site. At present, the site and its integrity is under threat from uncontrolled developments, unplanned civic works, occasional quarrying as well as misdirected conservation efforts, all of which contribute towards issues in management of HWHS.

2.9 EMERGING SCOPE OF THE MANAGEMENT PLAN

It is understood that the Management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site has to address the complex interface of dead archaeological areas superimposed with living pockets of expansive development for effective protection and management.

By Prof. Nalini Thakur, Dept. of Architectural Conservation, School of Planning & Architecture, New Delhi 25 Integrated Management Plan for Hampi World Heritage Site May 2007

It is also understood that Hampi is more than the present, officially recognized area and the entire site needs to be recognized and brought under the purview of heritage management that also contributes to the OUVs of the site. There is a need to re-nominate the site as a Cultural Landscape.

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