Costituzionalismo, Islam E Democrazia. Un Puzzle Alla Prova Dei Fatti

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Costituzionalismo, Islam E Democrazia. Un Puzzle Alla Prova Dei Fatti Rivista elettronica del Centro di Documentazione Europea dell’Università Kore di Enna Costituzionalismo, Islam e democrazia. Un puzzle alla prova dei fatti di Lucia Corso Professore associato di filosofia del diritto dell’Università Kore di Enna Abstract: Il saggio è volto a verificare se le categorie elaborate dalla teoria politica e dalla dottrina costituzionalistica resistono alla prova dei cambiamenti istituzionali e a testare la compatibilità fra il concetto di democrazia e la religione islamica. Parole chiave: costituzionalismo; democrazia; islam 1. Costituzionalismo in periodi di cambiamento I momenti di transizione da un regime autoritario ad un assetto democratico sono i momenti adatti per testare le teorie sul costituzionalismo e sulla democrazia che circolano nei sistemi giuridici liberal democratici. Questo spiega non solo la crescita esponenziale degli studi comparatistici specie nell’ambito del diritto pubblico1 nell’ultimo ventennio, ma anche la fioritura di numerosi studi sul rapporto fra costituzionalismo e democrazia che non a caso 1professore associato di filosofia del diritto, Università degli Studi di Enna, Kore. TUSHNET, The Possibilities of Comparative Constitutional Law, in 108 Yale Law Journal, 1999, 1225. 1 cominciano a diffondersi in coincidenza della caduta dei regimi comunisti dell’Europa orientale2. Il costituzionalismo di transizione è particolarmente interessante da un punto di vista teorico quando i processi di cambiamento vengono innescati dal basso, dalle pressioni esercitate dalla popolazione nel suo complesso3 e non sono dovuti né allo sgretolamento interno del gruppo dirigente per l’azione di un numero esiguo di riformatori, né al successo di un’opposizione democratica che riesce a sfruttare le limitate libertà concessele dal regime autoritario, né alla cessazione di un supporto – militare, finanziario – esterno al regime4. Le rivoluzioni che hanno radici nelle mobilitazioni sociali infatti danno l’opportunità di testare se gli assunti antropologici, prima ancora che teorici, dei concetti di costituzionalismo e democrazia abbiano validità universale5. A distanza di vent’anni dalla caduta del blocco sovietico, le Primavere Arabe che hanno interessato innanzitutto Egitto e Tunisia nel 2011 hanno nuovamente solleticato l’entusiasmo dei governi democratici occidentali. Anche in questo caso, il collasso dei regimi, in assenza di riformatori interni all’élite di governo e di un’opposizione compatta, è avvenuto sotto la 2 La letteratura è piuttosto ampia; cfr. ad esempio, GREENBERG ET AL. eds, Constitution & Democracy. Transition s in the Contemporary World, Oxford – New York, 1993; ELSTER & SLAGSTADT, eds., Constitutionalism and Democracy, Cambridge, 1993. 3 HUNTINGTON, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century, New Yorjk, 1991, pp. 37-38; SORENSEN, Democracy and Democratization: Process and Prospects in a Changing World, New York, London, 3d ed. 2008, pp. 13-15; FRANCISCO, The Politics of Regime Transitions, London, 2000, pp- 65-69. 4 SNYDER, Paths out of Sultanistic Regimes: Combining Structural and Voluntarist Perspectives, in CHEHABI & LINZ eds., Sultanistic Regimes, 1998, 59; Id., Explaining Transitions from Neopatrimonial Dictatorships, in Comparative Politics, 24, 1992, 379. 5 Ad esempio, a seguito della caduta dei regimi comunisti, il modello occidentale appariva senza dubbio vincente: sicché la letteratura di gran lunga predominante, ad esempio, negli Stati Uniti era pervasa da un pathos democratico che oggi sembra mancare. Si pensino alle considerazioni di Stephen Holmes e Cass Sunstein secondo cui le popolazioni delle società post- comuniste erano state a lungo tenute in uno stadio infantile, e che pertanto solo un assetto costituzionale che conferisse loro un buon grado di responsabilità politica poteva consentire la trasformazione di costoro da sudditi a cittadini. Per questo motivo Holmes e Sunstein, proprio con riferimento ai paesi dell’Europa orientale, si dichiararono sfavorevoli ad un assetto costituzionale che conferisse troppo potere alle nuove Corti Costituzionali, con l’argomento che un controllo di legittimità troppo esteso avrebbe bloccato il processo di maturazione politica dei cittadini. Al contrario, gli autori sottolinearono quanto fosse urgente per individui tenuti per decenni in scacco da regimi autoritari avere la percezione di poter far sentire la propria voce nelle questioni pubbliche. 2 pressione di dimostrazioni di massa6. Gradualmente, però, quell’entusiasmo che ha salutato le prime rivoluzioni arabe si è sopito per lasciar posto ad uno strisciante scetticismo. Le vicende che ci accingiamo a descrivere, quelle cioè relative alla Rivoluzione egiziana iniziata il 25 gennaio del 2011 (d’ora innanzi la “Rivoluzione”), hanno seguito un andamento altalenante che sembra confermare la diffidenza dell’osservatore esterno nei confronti degli eventi. L’ascesa dei Fratelli Musulmani alla prima presidenza dell’era post- rivoluzionaria, il braccio di ferro fra il primo governo in carica e la magistratura, ivi inclusa la Corte Costituzionale, l’intervento del Consiglio dei Militari, la messa fuori legge del presidente Morsi, il nuovo governo di transizione guidato dal presidente della Corte Costituzionale Adly Mansour, il processo al presidente deposto Morsi, sono tutti eventi che sembrano dar manforte al disincanto, tutto occidentale, per le mobilitazioni di massa e per l’idea secondo cui l’assetto istituzionale può essere definito dal basso. Nelle pagine che seguono non si pretenderà né di formulare previsioni sull’evoluzione degli eventi n Egitto, né tanto meno di avanzare proposte per una soluzione più veloce ed opportuna della transizione post-rivoluzionaria. Piuttosto l’obiettivo è quello di discostarsi dall’analisi degli eventi attraverso i modelli più diffusi sui processi di transizione, provenienti per lo più dalla letteratura internazionalistica e comparatistica, e proporre per l’interpretazione dei fatti egiziani, tre concetti classici del pensiero filosofico politico e giuridico, utilizzati indipendentemente dal fatto che ci si trovi durante un fase di passaggio da un regime ad un altro. Il primo attiene ai criteri di legittimazione del processo costituente che dovrebbero poi, a cascata, garantire la legittimità del nuovo testo costituzionale. Nonostante gli eventi degli ultimi mesi non siano rassicuranti, si proverà comunque a sostenere che il concetto di momento costituzionale può offrire un’utile lente attraverso cui leggere il processo di transizione egiziano. Il secondo attiene al concetto di democrazia e specialmente alla dimensione partecipativa che essa implica e si proverà a verificare un assunto piuttosto diffuso fra gli opinionisti secondo cui la dimensione partecipativa sia del tutto inadeguata per 6 MADY, Regime Transition Approaches, in AL KUWARI & MADY eds., Arab Transition to Democracy: A Comparative Analysis, Beirut, Center for Arab Studies Publishing, 2009; Id., Popular Discontent, Revolution, and Democratization in Egypt in a Globalizing World, in Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, 20, 2013, 313. 3 il popolo egiziano. Il terzo punto riguarda una veloce esplorazione della tesi, anch’essa piuttosto in voga, dell’incompatibilità fra Islam e democrazia. Data la vastità dei temi non se ne potrà che fare una trattazione superficiale. Non si potrà fare a meno, tuttavia, di affrontare, seppure brevemente, tre classiche questioni di filosofica politica e giuridica: quale sia la fonte di legittimità di un documento costituzionale; cosa debba intendersi per democrazia; ed infine se l’Islam costituisca semplicemente una minaccia per il costituzionalismo e la democrazia. 2. La rivoluzione egiziana dal gennaio 2011 ad oggi Che la Rivoluzione egiziana sia partita dal basso è fuori di dubbio7. In soli diciotto giorni, gli egiziani si sono liberati dall’oppressione dell’ultratrentennale regime di Hosni Mubarak cui ha fatto seguito lo sgretolamento del corrotto Partito Democratico Nazionale8. I dimostranti di piazza Tahrir e di altre parti d’Egitto hanno posto al centro delle proteste una serie di questioni socio politiche, fra cui le leggi di emergenza, la brutalità della polizia, la mancanza di elezioni democratiche e di libertà fondamentali, la corruzione9, l’esiguità dei salari minimi, l’inflazione e l’alto tasso di disoccupazione. La maggior parte degli slogan dei rivoluzionari menzionano le libertà fondamentali, la dignità e la giustizia sociale10. Gli eventi che sono seguiti alla caduta del regime di Mubarak sono stati scanditi da due dinamiche parallele. Da un lato le azioni dei militari e degli organi costituzionali rimasti in piedi nonostante la costituzione sia stata sospesa, ma dall’altro un continuo coinvolgimento della popolazione sulle scelte politiche di fondo. Dopo settimane di dimostrazioni, il Consiglio Supremo delle Forze Armate (“CSFA”) è diventato uno dei principali attori politici del processo di transizione. Il CSFA ha esercitato i 7 Ibidem, 314. 8 SHEHATA, The Fall of the Pharaoh: How Hosni Mubarak's Reign Came to an End, in Foreign Affairs, May-June 2011, 26-27, 29-32. 9 AL-ALI & DAFEL, Egyptian Constitutional Reform and the Fight against Corruption, in International IDEA & The Center for Constitutional Transitions at NYU Law: http://constitutionaltransitions.org/consolidating-arab-spring/. 10 MADY, Popular Discontent, Revolution, and Democratization in Egypt in a Globalizing World, cit., 313. 4 poteri costituzionali transitori attraverso “dichiarazioni costituzionali”: nel febbraio 2011 ha sospeso la
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