Masaryk University Faculty of Social Science
Beauty Unlimited
The perception of physical appearance and attitudes towards cosmetic surgery in South Korea: A Question of sociocultural values and media exposure
Diploma thesis
Kristina Kolovrátková
Brno 2015
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I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.
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Brno, 5. 1. 2015
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I want to express my gratitude to my advisor Tae-sik Kim, Ph.D. for helpful comments and recommendations that guided me throughout the writing process as well as for his willingness to help me better understand and explore culture of South Korea and his uncritical perspective on a foreigner tending to critically sometimes even harshly assess his own culture. Further, my great thanks belong to all participants for whom it may have been sometimes difficult topic to discuss and confide. The most importantly, I shall thank to my friends that provided me on my on my journey of understanding Korean culture and were willing to search between the friends in order to find respondents. My thanks go especially to Lee Hee Jun with whom I spend hours of valuable discussions and who did not hesitate to challenge my opinions.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ...... 6 Anotace ...... 6 I. INTRODUCTION ...... 7 II. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ...... 11 1. Concept of Beauty ...... 11 2. Historical, Cultural and Economic Background behind the Concept of Beauty and Cosmetic Surgery in Korea ...... 16 2.1 Women‘s Bodies in Korean Culture: Cultural Transformation of Korea ...... 17 2.2 All You Need Is Beauty: Beauty Capital in a Consumer Society ...... 21 2.2.1 Physiognomic Assumption and Better Self ...... 21 2.2.2 Beauty as Social Status and Success ...... 22 2.2.3 Employment ...... 23 2.2.4 Romantic relationships, marriage ...... 24 2.3 Public Attitude: Cosmetic Surgery as Necessity in a Consumer Society ...... 26 2.3.1 Parental and Peers Attitude ...... 27 2.4 Conformity ...... 28 2.5 Seeking Self: Cosmetic Surgery as Individual Decision ...... 29 2.6 Gendering Cosmetic Surgery ...... 30 2.7 Beauty Industry and Body Commodification ...... 31 3. Media Representation of Beauty and Cosmetic Surgery ...... 32 3.1 Powerful Media or Freedom of Interpretation ...... 33 3.2 Realism: Reality and Fiction Discrepancy ...... 36 Hyperreality ...... 38 4. Media and Beauty Cultivation ...... 39 4.1 Social comparison theory ...... 41 4.2 Resonance ...... 44 4.3 Beauty stereotypes and societal benefits ...... 45 4.4 Body maintenance and cosmetic surgery ...... 46 4.5 Conclusion ...... 47 III. METHODOLOGY ...... 49 5. Research Design ...... 49
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5.1 Purpose of Research ...... 49 5.2 Research Questions ...... 50 5.3 Research Methods ...... 52 5.4 Research Sample ...... 54 5.5 Data Collection ...... 56 5.6 Limitations ...... 57 IV. RESULTS ...... 60 Theme 1: 3 Paradoxes of Beauty ...... 60 A) Subjective versus objective – beauty is in the eye of society ...... 60 B) Beautiful, but natural ...... 63 C) Cosmetic surgery but natural and individual and modest ...... 65 Theme 2: The Treasure Hunt ...... 66 A) Person‘s biggest power is beauty ...... 66 B) Beauty at the workplace ...... 69 C) Beautiful me, beautiful s/he ...... 73 D) For the sake of children ...... 76 E) Teachers and beauty ...... 80 F) Friends´ Talk ...... 81 G) A good example ...... 82 H) Time to renovate yourself ...... 83 I) Beauty industry hunting for teenage consumers ...... 84 Theme 3: The Media ...... 85 A) Enjoyments and pitfalls of teen life ...... 85 B) Like a movie star ...... 88 V. DISCUSSION ...... 93 VI. CONCLUSION ...... 103 VII. REFERENCES ...... 107 VIII. LIST OF TABLES ...... 112 IX. NAME INDEX ...... 113 X. SUBJECT INDEX...... 115 XI. APPENDIX ...... 117
Total word count: 41 572
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Abstract
This diploma thesis presents an ethnographic study focused on the phenomenon of cosmetic surgery in South Korea. The study aims to reveal the social aspects that affect the perception of beauty and possibly lead to purchase of cosmetic surgery. The historical transformation of the concept of beauty, increased societal pressure focused on physical appearance, and the commodification of beauty are discussed in the context of social and economic transformation of South Korea. The work subsequently clarifies the effect of mass media on the concept of beauty and cosmetic surgery. Fieldwork consisted primarily of interviews with Koreans, reflecting on their experiences and the current state of Korean society with regard to the perception of beauty and cosmetic surgery.
Key words
South Korea, beauty, physical appearance, cosmetic surgery, media representation of reality, media realism, research study, qualitative research, ethnographic research
Anotace
Diplomová práce předkládá etnografickou studii zaměřenou na posilující fenomén kosmetických operací v Jižní Koreji. Tato studie si klade za cíl odhalit společenské aspekty, které ovlivňují vnímání krásy a případně vedou ke kosmetické operaci. Konkrétněji, studie se zaměřuje na historickou transformaci konceptu krásy, zvýšený společenský tlak zaměřený na fyzický vzhled, a komodifikaci krásy. Tyto fenomény jsou popisovány v kontextu sociální a ekonomické transformace Jižní Koreje. Následně práce vymezuje vliv masmédií na koncept krásy a kosmetické chirurgie. Cíle práce je dosaženo primárně skrze rozhovory s Korejci, reflektující své prožitky a současný stav Korejské společnosti s ohledem na vnímání krásy a kosmetické operace.
Klíčová slova
Jižní Korea, krása, fyzický vzhled, kosmetická operace, mediální reprezentace reality, mediální realismus, výzkumné studie, kvalitativní výzkum, etnografický výzkum
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I. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, developed countries have witnessed a dramatic increase in the number of cosmetic procedures being performed, particularly among young people (Swami, 2009). For instance, the American Society for Plastic Surgery (2013) reported that in 2013 in total 15.1 million cosmetic procedures were done in U.S.1 Cosmetic surgery has been becoming more frequent as a way of enhancing appearance. Unusual high levels of cosmetic surgery in South Korea2 for both women and men regularly hits headlines both in Asia and the ‗West‘ (Holliday & Elfving-Hwang (2012). The local rates of cosmetic surgery have risen sharply in the past decade, mirroring rates in other East Asian nations, and the country was coined as ―a nation described as having cosmetic surgery fever‖ (Swami et al., 2012, p. 220). According to the official statistics 20% of population underwent cosmetic surgery in 2008. However, Holliday and Elfving-Hwang (2012) assert that the real number is even higher since many surgeries are unrecorded, taking place at the private clinics, and the industry is poorly regulated.3 Moreover, cosmetic surgery is generally understood as a ‗feminine‘ practice (ibid), yet a Korean study from 2009 revealed that 44 percent of male college students were contemplating some form of aesthetic surgery (Kang & Cho, 2009). The debate about the reasons for the popularity of cosmetic surgery is broad and intensive. First of all, ideals of physical beauty have played an extremely important role in most human cultures (Swami et al, 2010). Face, in particular, captures our prime attention. Within a few days of birth, infants gaze at the face in preference to any other stimuli (Rumsey & Harcourt, 2005). The role of human beauty and related pre-existing stereotypes have been reinforced in our minds from childhood through the stories about beautiful princesses or poor yet beautiful girls who earned the heart of their handsome and masculine heroes. As a result, we are increasingly preoccupied with our own appearance
1 Out of them 1.6 million cosmetic surgical procedures, 13.4 million cosmetic minimally-invasive procedures (e.g. botox, laser hair removal, chemical peeling), and 5.7 million reconstructive procedures. TOP five cosmetic surgical procedures are Breast Augmentation, Nose Reshaping, Eyelid Surgery, Liposuction and Facelift. Female made 91% of all cosmetic procedures. (American Society for Plastic Surgeons, 2013). Americans spent more than $12 billion on cosmetic procedures in 2013 (American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 2013). 2 Further in the text the expression Korea will be used instead of South Korea. 3 Another study showed that 30 percent of women between the ages of 20 and 50 underwent some form of more or less invasive cosmetic treatment (Fackler, 2009 in Holliday & Elfving-Hwang, 2012). 7 and ―most of us respond to the urge to check out our reflection in shop windows or mirrors when the opportunity arises‖ (ibid, p. 1). Countless numbers of merciless mirrors serve as pervasive surveillance making us constantly aware of our appearance while concerned about unwanted and uncontrolled changes in our appearance. In order to reach and maintain our society‘s ideals of beauty, we influence our appearance by clothing, hairstyle, make-up, or cosmetic surgery. Scholars of various fields have sought to reveal and understand the determinants that lead some individuals (but not others) to consider undergoing cosmetic surgery. They have identified numerous demographic, individual and social factors associated with greater willingness to consider cosmetic surgery (Swami et al., 2012). Several studies have revealed associations between consideration of cosmetic surgery and body dissatisfaction that is influenced by individual factors such as respondent‘s overall body appreciation (e.g. Swami et al., 2012), gender4 (e.g. Bae & Park, 2004; Agliata & Tantleff-Dunnn, 2004; Eisend & Möller, 2006; Swami, 2009; Lee & Kwon, 2010; Swami et al., 2012), self- esteem (e.g. Lee, 2011), body weight (e.g. Lee, 2011; Frederickson & Roberts, 1997) or greater investment in appearance (Sarwer et al., 2005). Social determinants of attitude towards cosmetic surgery have been recognized as an increased emphasis on physical appearance, paternal and peers attitudes and greater appearance-related teasing (e.g. Swami et al., 2012). Significant association has been found in case of greater media exposure and related issue of internalization of media messages about appearance (e.g. Swami et al., 2012; Sarwer et al., 2005), exposure to reality cosmetic surgery television programmes (Sperry et al., 2009) or celebrity worship (e.g. Swami, 2009). In general, the popularity of cosmetic surgery is conditioned by more positive attitudes toward cosmetic surgery as a means of appearance enhancement, advances in surgical procedures, higher disposable incomes of patients, and lower procedure cost (Henderson-King & Henderson-King, 2005).
4 Overall, higher body dissatisfaction and positive attitude toward cosmetic surgery was found among girls more than among boys. However, men were also found to be strongly suggestible. A study by Agliata & Tantleff-Dunnn (2004) revealed that men „exposed to ideal image advertisements became significantly more depressed and had higher levels of muscle dissatisfaction than those exposed to neutral ads‖ (p. 7). Other studies found that despite the body dissatisfaction caused by media exposure (e.g. Eisend & Möller, 2006) or friends influence (e.g. McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2003) boys are less likely to engage in body changing behaviour.
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Looking at the case of Korea, there may be several plausible reasons for the high number of cosmetic surgery procedures. First of all, this study will address the importance of physical appearance in contemporary Korean society where physical appearance has become crucial capital in the field of employment as well as romantic relationships. Another topic elaborated here will be the historical, cultural and economic transformation of Korea with respect to female body perception. The topic of identity seeking will also be addressed in subsequent chapters, especially in light of the historical transitions that took place in Korea since the Korean War and changes in political and social systems that are ―no longer anchored by their traditional references‖ (Kim, 2003, p. 97). Additional factors are higher cosmetic surgery attainability since prices for procedures are compere to Western countries relatively low, the attitudes of peers, parents, the public, and the government. It‘s not contentious to say that the contemporary urge to constantly enhance bodies is beneficial for beauty industry. Another powerful source of beauty perception and attitude towards cosmetic surgery, are media (Kim, 2003). Media oversaturate our everyday lives with countless number of images of men and women considered to be beautiful according to given societal standards (Han, 2003). With respect to the aforesaid, Korean media, television and advertising in particular, not only reflect society‘s obsession with beauty, but has taken a leadership role in promoting the ideal body image. Most of the performers appearing in Korean television or advertisements have undergone some kind of cosmetic surgery. Surgery clinics have become a necessary step before entering showbusiness. Korean television dramas are a showcase for pretty (by societal standards) faces. Record labels adorn stages with perfect faces. In these ways, Korean popular culture has become the representation of universalized beauty with ‗enhanced‘ features. Such practices cultivate viewers‘ perception of beauty and create a significant discrepancy between real and fictional social reality as the performers in media can be hardly considered a realistic representation of actual people. However, as Agliata and Tantleff-Dunn (2004) argues, the audience may have difficulties in differentiating between reality and fiction, and consequently consider themselves an ‗ugly exception‘ which needs to be fixed. After creating these high, naturally unattainable standards, the beauty business offers a solution that should satisfy the desires implanted into consumers‘ minds – a wide selection of body enhancement procedures. These are also promoted by media through the film industry by picturing of these procedures in a romantic and entertaing way, such as in movie The 200
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Pound Beauty5 (Holliday & Elfving-Hwang, 2012). More explicit support is provided by TV reality shows displaying the miracles of cosmetic surgery. These topics will be intensively discussed in chapter 3 and 4. Last but not least feature of Korean beauty industry, beside the high number of procedures, is its focus. Korean beauty standards are heavily standardized and resembling Caucasian features. A set of specific features Koreans desire has been defined. This phenomenon will be addressed with respect to concept of conformity (e.g. Kim, 2003; Yoon, 2013). The study will shortly explore also the common assumption that character of Korean cosmetic surgery is based on the Western cultural influence, as cosmetic surgery often suppress natural Asian features such as shape of eyes, flat nose or round face. On that note, the author such as Kim (2003) or Holliday and Elfving-Hwang (2012) provide a reasoning why cosmetic surgery shall not be framed merely as a result of Western influence or of patriarchal society. Despite the increasing number of cosmetic surgeries in Korea, little research has been done about Korean perception of cosmetic surgery 6 (Swami et al., 2012) and perception of beauty7. Most of the previous research used quantitative research methods in order to uncover individual perception of body image and individual reasons for body dissatisfaction and cosmetic surgery, primarily focusing on psychological factors. Moreover, the previous studies neglected the very uniform feature of cosmetic surgery in Korea. Yet, in order to understand the underlying nature of cosmetic surgery in Korea, it is necessary to explore the very nature of the perception of beauty in the society, the specific sociocultural and historical context of country as well as perceived effects of media representation of physical appearance. Therefore, purpose of this qualitative ethnographic study is, primarily, to explore experiences and perception of beauty and cosmetic surgery by Korean university students in order to understand societal dimension of this phenomenon characteristic for contemporary Korea. The main research question is as follows: What is the Koreans‟ perception of beauty, its importance in society and malleability with respect to media representation and other sociocultural factors?
5 Release date: 2006, director: Kim Yong-hwa 6 Most of the studies focus on Western sample, primarily American population, thus there is a lack of studies on acceptance of cosmetic surgery in non-Western settings (Swami et al., 2012). 7 In fact, author of research could not find any research regarding perception of beauty or qualitative study on physical appearance in Korea. 10
II. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
1. Concept of Beauty
The initial question that needs to be addressed is: What it is beauty? Many scholars are concerned with diverse issues related to beauty, yet many of the studies do not address this basic question. Beauty8 is ambiguous term carrying many meanings. In general, beauty refers to supreme aesthetic value, i.e. it is the subject-matter of aesthetic judgement. According to Plato, beauty is, beside the truth and goodness, another an ultimate value that we pursue for its own sake, and therefore it should be compared to truth and goodness. However, according to Scruton (2009) ―the status of beauty as an ultimate value is questionable‖ (p. 3) since beautiful object does not necessarily assure its moral goodness. There are several disputes with respect to beauty. Firstly, some describe beauty in terms of character while others as a quality of outer appearance. Here are several quotations of the first type:
―Beauty is not in the face; beauty is a light in the heart.‖ Khalil Gibran, The Prophet
“A woman whose smile is open and whose expression is glad has a kind of beauty no matter what she wears.‖ Anne Roiphe
―The beauty of a woman is not in a facial mode but the true beauty in a woman is reflected in her soul.‖ Audrey Hepburn
The quotations have one common message, saying that beauty covers not only physical appearance, but also the inner self. On the note, Wen (2013) suggest that ―although there has been huge changes regarding the conceptualizations of beauty, most people still place the superiority of inner character over outer appearance‖ (p. 64). In fact, the word beautiful is sometimes used to describe the moral aspect of people, i.e. their beautiful soul. However, even with regard to the body, beauty does not need to refer to the superficial judgement of physical appearance. According to Scruton (2009) ―the distinctive beauty of
8 The term beauty in this work refers mainly to the human physical beauty. Among scholars, term body image is also widely spread. However body image may be conceived rather as a mental image of the body or ―in terms of a more visual sense of the image others have of oneself‖ (Featherstone, 2010, p. 194).
11 the human body derives from its nature as an embodiment. Its beauty is not the beauty of a doll, and is something more than a matter of shape and proportion‖ (p. 48-49). The second dispute concerns subjective versus objective nature of human physical beauty. Shakespeare once said that ‗beauty is bought by judgement of the eye‘9. Likewise, in Kant‘s view, aesthetic judgements are subjective, ―grounded in the immediate experience of the one who makes them, rather than in any rational argument‖ (Scruton, 2009, p. 32). In other words, beauty is the matter of individual taste that naturally differs and that does not need to have a rational foundation. Therefore we cannot argue that one kind of face and body feature is objectively superior or inferior to another. Moreover, the judgement that something is more enjoyable or attractive ―focus[es] on the state of mind of the subject, rather than a quality in the object‖ (ibid, p. 7). But, according to relativist advocates no taste can be criticized, ―since to criticize one taste is simply to give voice to another‖ (ibid, p. x). Furthermore, Charles Darwin (1871) asserted in The Descent of Man, ―it is certainly not true that there is in the mind of man any universal standard of beauty with respect to the human body‖ (p. 353). But, Darwin continues: ―It is, however, possible that certain tastes may in the course of time become inherited‖ (p. 353-354). The statement implies that while human beings do not have any uniform default conception of beauty in their minds, there are, however, ways to share unified beauty standards. Though Darwin refers to inheritance, that could be understood also in terms of social and cultural values through which the members of society learn to appreciate a certain predefined set of beauty attributes. Also Rhodes (2006) argues that the conception of beauty is culturally determined and therefore arbitrary. We pass the standards of beauty to the next generations culturally, through narrations, tradition, etc. As a consequence, our preferences reflect arbitrary standards of beauty set by cultures. It means that ―beauty is a concept that is fairly agreed upon throughout society‖ (Goldman & Waymer, 2014, p. 2). Moreover, people have been constantly trying to achieve some kind of agreement over matters of aesthetic judgement (Scruton, 2009). Bashour (2007) argues that there is ―a need for creation an objective system for measuring facial attractiveness‖ (p. 46) - the need to rationalize, specify, standardize, measure and evaluate these standards10. Why are people so eager to define standards of beauty? One of the obvious answers could be to have some the clear
9 In Love's Labour's Lost, Act 2, Scene 1 10 The standardization is pursued through various studies, Beauty pageants contests or the media 12 goal to seek. A standardized system of gauging beauty would enable one pursue goals that would bring the expected advantage. Bashour (2007) also points out that facial cosmetic surgery ―would greatly benefit from such a system‖ (p.46). This leads us to the third ambiguity which poses the question whether there are universal beauty standards or whether they differ across cultures. Thousands of years ago, Plato tried to codify facial attractiveness and, since then, researchers of beauty have found that symmetry, facial averageness and certain sex-related features have universal appeal regardless race and cultural background (Alibhai-Brown, 2010; Rhodes et al., 2001). Research by Rhodes et al. (2001) revealed that Causasians as well as Japanese people prefer the perfectly symmetric versions to the original faces. These findings support the idea that certain preferences might be biologically based. Despite that, a large body of literature as well as historical evidence exists to prove that ―human societies have differed enormously concerning their ideals of beauty‖ (Jones, 2010, p. 6). Also Darwin (1871) asserted that even if there were certain inherited values, ―each race would possess its own innate ideal standard of beauty‖ (p. 354). Moreover, he claims that ―the men of each race prefer what they are accustomed to behold; they cannot endure any great change‖ (ibid). Therefore, Europeans admire oval faces, and straight and regular features, while ―men accustomed to a broad face, with high cheek-bodes, a depressed nose, and a black skin, admire these points strongly developed‖ (ibid). With reference to the previous paragraph, every culture has some arbitrary physical preferences, to which their members have become accustomed throughout the centuries. Yet, despite the historical diversity ―research over the past twenty years has revealed that judgment of facial human beauty appears to be based on a universal set of standards. People from all cultures and backgrounds rank and rate faces for attractiveness the same‖ (Bashour, 2007, p. 46). Scholars conclude that the most persuasive explanation is the phenomenon of globalization that successfully disseminates and reinforces universal, primarily Western, ideals of beauty. Anderson-Fye (2011) claims that when industrialization and modernization occurred around the world, ideals of body size and shape tended to shift toward Western ideals. Respondents‘ evaluation of physical attractiveness, thus, might be influenced by already widespread global beauty standards. The notion of globalized beauty standards have been supported by multiple scholars. For instance, Alibhai-Brown (2010) cites 21 year old Indian women: ―Fifteen years ago the American influence was absent and women would dress in their traditional clothes, look great. Now it is all about Western clothes.‖ A similar trend occurs
13 in other developing nations. In Africa large women were admired because it meant they were living well, whereas today, gyms are crowded by women trying to live up to Western ideals of beauty by becoming slim. Traditionally, AIDS has been known as the 'slim disease' across the African continent. Now another slim disease has arrived (ibid). China also faces global beauty ideals, and according to Kit Wah Man (2012) the traditional appearance is losing in this battle. Compere to past, ―one has no more knowledge of the particular females being represented, when they are all shown in the monotonous language of globalized cosmetic products and fashion‖ (p. 381). Jones (2010) agrees that the globalisation provides compelling evidence of the ‗flattening‘ of the world in terms of beauty ideals, regardless of cultural traditions or ethnicity. The phenomenon contributes to the homogenization of cultures as well as beauty ideals, often in line with Western ideals. Moreover, Alibhai-Brown (2010) states that we could argue that every age has its own beauty prototypes. However, even until the late nineties, the idea of beauty was not squeezed into one thin tube. Stars could still come in different shapes and sizes. The dissemination of Western values and perception of beauty threatens cultural identity, especially of developing countries (McQuail, 2010). Therefore this phenomenon may be considered as a part of cultural imperialism.11 One of the crucial disseminators of the homogeneity of beauty ideals are undoubtedly media (Han, 2003). That side of the issue will be discussed in detail in chapter 4. At this point, let me conclude this topic with Munshi‘s (2013) description of Indian film industry: "Up until the 1980s it was fine to be well rounded and voluptuous and films and advertisements of the time reflect this. But come the 1990s, and Indian cinema and adverts reflect the arrival of the perfectly sculpted body to meet exacting international standards‖ (p. 85). Consequently, the audience is ―caught in a globalisation process as they swing between their Indian traditions and an internalised transnational identity more in keeping with global lifestyles‖ (p. 81). This thought must be considered also in case of Korea. Finally, the last point will concern the dispute between natural beauty and artificial beauty. 12 With the upswing in cosmetic surgery, a new phenomenon appeared called
11 Cultural imperialism means introducing western values ―at cost of a breakdown of traditional values and the loss of authentic local cultures‖ (McQuail, 1987, p. 100). Physical features are also part of traditional culture. 12 As artificial beauty is coined (mostly) woman who has enhanced her appearance through cosmetic surgery (Wen, 2013). 14
‗artificial beauty‘. As the human body became the object of artificial modification, many questions have been raised. One of them is whether artificial beauty may ever replace the value or even be superior to natural beauty. Wen (2013), the author of a book on the boom in cosmetic surgery in China, writes that the shift from natural beauty to artificial beauty is not welcomed well by many in Confucian society of China. Artificial beauty is seen as surpassing nature. Some people even claim that ―the emphasis on physical beauty obtained from cosmetic surgery may obscure real beauty, which is a matter of character, and degrade women‘s position in society‖ (Wen, 2013, p. 64). The pursuit of absolute or ideal beauty may distract us from more urgent business, from other important values. In fact, Scruton (2009) stated that an outsized emphasis on beauty might be self-defeating. On the other hand, for others, artificial surgery is seen as a way how to let inner beauty shine through one‘s outer appearance or as a pragmatic mean to achieve good life13. Before opening the next chapter, let‘s examine an interesting titbit of Korean culture concerning artificial beauty. Despite its general acceptance, ―South Korean celebrities tend to deny they have had surgery, yet their features have shown subtle ‗enhancing‘ changes over time‖ (Holliday & Elfving-Hwang, 2012, p. 62). The reason suggested by that natural beauty is still recognized as superior. However, at the same time new distinctions are being drawn between ‗natural‘ and ‗surgical‘ beauty, so that surgically created beauty must erase its processes of construction to emulate natural, ‗non made-up‘ beauty. In order words, surgery can still create natural beauty. Interestingly ‗natural surgical‘ beauty is defined as enhancing Korean features while, unsuccessful ‗unnatural surgical‘ beauty is seen as producing Western‘ appearance (ibid). In general the cosmetic surgery should enhance patient‘s feature while still appearing natural.
13 See chapter 2.2 15
2. Historical, Cultural and Economic Background behind the Concept of Beauty and Cosmetic Surgery in Korea
The purchase of cosmetic surgery is framed in two perspectives, i.e. as free decision of individuals who seek to express their individuality, to reach self-improvement, and better self, or conversely, as a result of societal pressure that evokes in individuals the desire to conform with commonly perceived norms of ideal appearance (Lee & Kwon, 2010). The pressure may draw from the oppression of patriarchal dominance, as numerous feminists suggest, from Western cultural hegemony, or from the beauty requirement in consumer society. Following question could ask in the extreme dichotomy: ‗To what extent are the women who have cosmetic surgery passive victims of the ―beauty myth‖ constructed by patriarchy or capitalism, and to what extent are they transforming themselves as powerful actors by taking control over their own bodies to achieve their sense of self?‘ It is expectable that the answer is not one-sided, since such a conclusion would be too simplistic and strict. Moreover, the way people with cosmetic surgery understand their behaviour may differ from the opinions of their surroundings. With regard to the objective of this study, the necessary historical background of cultural and economic transformation of Korea will be introduced and discussed in the context of the concepts of beauty and cosmetic surgery. First of all some basic facts about cosmetic surgery in Korea will be given. There were no plastic or cosmetic surgery techniques available in Korea around 1945. However, medicine in Korea took a new direction with the entry of Western doctors to Korea after the country gained independence from Japan. Plastic surgery, then, fully commenced during Korean War when American doctors performed eyelid surgery on Korean patients. Later, illegal medical practices such as rhinoplasty and breast augmentation were introduced from Japan (Korean Society of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgeons, 2006). Nowadays, cosmetic surgery popularity has swept across Korea. According to global-scaled statistics from 2011, Korea ranked 7th in the total number of
16 procedures per year, with 649,938 surgical and nonsurgical procedures.14 Nonetheless, with regard to the number of surgeries relative to the population, Korea took the 1st place with 1.29% procedures per capita (International Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 2014). Furthermore, Holliday and Elfving-Hwang (2012) emphasize that the official statistics on the numbers of people who have undergone an aesthetic surgery are not entirely reliable ―since most surgeries take place at private clinics and the industry in Korea (as elsewhere) is poorly regulated‖ (p. 58). Fractions of surgeries are actually recorded, because clinics offer discount for cash transactions which are rarely documented (ibid). The most popular cosmetic surgical procedures performed in Korea are blepharoplasty, i.e. eyelid surgery which creates visible fold to the upper eyelid and widen the eye, and rhinoplasty, i.e. nose surgery which augments the tip and dorsum of the nose and constructs a desirable ‗pointy‘ (as opposed to wide and flat) tip of the nose. Also, jaw reshaping which reduces the angular prominence of the lower jawbone is becoming increasingly popular and affordable. Breast augmentations and liposuction are also common (Holliday & Elfving-Hwang, 2012).
2.1 Women’s Bodies in Korean Culture: Cultural Transformation of Korea
Holliday and Elfving-Hwang (2012) asserted that researchers should avoid the reducing of cosmetic surgery phenomenon on the issue of submission to patriarchal ideology or Western hegemony practices. The diverse factors must be considered since ―the meanings and practices of aesthetic surgery represent a process of negotiation between multiple discourses concerning national identity, globalized and regionalized standards of beauty, official and non-official religion, traditional beliefs and practices […] as well as the symbolic practices of coming of age, caring for the self, marking social status and seeking success‖ (p. 59). This chapter describes the traditional cultural beliefs and practices in Korea.
14 The first countries on the list were, following in chronological order, the U.S., Brazil, China, Japan, Mexico and Italy. 17
A woman‘s body have had important meaning in Korea, and its perception has undergone significant transformation. For 500 years, Korea adopted Neo-Confucianism as its official ideology. This tradition asserted collectivisms in all aspect of life, i.e. in perception of body as well. Neo-Confucian scholars considered women as inferior to men, regarded as subjectless bodies, „that is, their corporeal body was not their own but belonged to the family and was to be devoted to the reproduction, maintenance and improvement of the family body‖ (p. 109). There were no boundaries to determine a distinction between the family and self. Since women were regarded as subjectless bodies, ―their main means of self-improvement centred on the body and resulted in perfection of and through the body‖ (p. 107). In other words, woman was most valued for her body that she should cultivate. Therefore, efforts were made to maintain strict control over women‘s bodies. These bodies were subject of protection and concealment so that they practically became invisible. Women were mainly bodies, but invisible bodies. The beginning of the 20th century found Korea confronted with a series of disorienting changes. Korean society that has not changed its way of living for centuries has suddenly undergone a major economic and political transformation. During a few decades Korea has changed rapidly from underdeveloped country in highly technological nation driven by strong capitalism and influenced by American individualism. These changes have inevitably affected culture. Mirzoeff (2002) argues that the representation of the body has been always shaped by crises of political and cultural identity. Korea is the evidence. For instance, Kim (2003) argues:
The country has undergone ―a rapid and extreme change of its identity and near eradication of its culture. The swiftness of change in this once sheltered nation has left many Koreans feeling insecure about their culture, society and identity as Koreans. The world as Koreans once knew it was shattered … and the collapse of the old political and social order were making them feel displaced from their past and no longer anchored by their traditional references‖ (p. 97).
The search for national identity has become an essential necessity. Kim (2003) assumes that in the new capitalist environment beauty helped to define who I am. It has become ―the new standard of a woman‘s value, and Korean women have gone to great lengths to enhance or create this beauty by reshaping their physical bodies‖ (p. 103). However, the author also points out that the contemporary manipulation of women‘s bodies is not mere
18 result of capitalism, but the combination of traditional Neo-Confucian norms described above, and capitalism, respectively Americanization. According to Kim (2003), three particular factors have led Korean women to become susceptible to surgical body modification - the Neo-Confucian women‘s subjectlessness facing capitalism, the perception of Korean bodies as imperfect, and lastly, belief in possible alterations, rearrangements and re-creations of the body in order to re- order the disordered Korean body. Firstly, industrialization caused that women‘s bodies were pulled out of the domestic sphere and became extraordinarily visible, free to be observed and appreciated in public space. Later, with the rise of consumer capitalism in the 1980s, women have become more important as consumers rather than as factory workers. This means that the body has become a prime object of consumption. Kim (2003), therefore, concludes that ―contemporary women have re-channelled the Neo-Confucian drive for selfcultivation into a new form of self-improvement that centres on the physical body and is achieved through ‗proper‘ consumption practices‖ (107). In other words, the Neo-Confucian techniques of control of the women‘s bodies were not eradicated, but replaced by capitalist control. Moreover, the concept of shared family body was weakened ever since Korea was introduced the idea of the individual self. The process of individualization was reinforced by intensive urban migration and separation from family. However, Westernization, respectively Americanization,15 did not bring only consumerism and individualism, but also Western beauty ideals along with doubts about Korean physical features. Here we will make a brief digression in order to explain transformation of ideal body features in Korea. In Korea round faces and chubby bodies have been traditionally regarded as ideals of beauty and considered to bring fortune (Han, 2003). However, the ‗chubby‘ perception of beauty has disappeared in recent years. Korean women, and in same case also men, instead focus on achieving a combination of extremely thin body, a lean face known as V-
15 When we talk about ‗westernization‘ of Korea it mostly refers to the Americanization since most of the western influence comes from the United States who have a close relationship with South Korea. United States deliberated South Korea from Japanese occupation in 1945 and since then American military division has been staying in the country. Later, United States provided material and intellectual support during Korean modernization and rebuilding the society. The idea of Western countries was for many years limited only to United States. For long time Americans where almost only foreigners in South Korea. Seong Won Park (2009) argues that consequently, Koreans are following American lifestyle to internalize US values, (p. 54)‖ especially through watching the media. The author even concludes that ―Koreans prefer US cultural materials.‖ (p. 55) 19 line shape, big eyes and more prominent nose (Lee, 2012). That being said, the one evident question, perforce, evokes. Are Koreans on their beauty quest trying to achieve Caucasian appearance? As was stated earlier, the ‗world of beauty‘ has been ‗flattening‘, and many countries adopted what could be described as contemporary Western beauty ideals.16 Wen (2013), for example, argues that ―it cannot be denied that cosmetic surgery now flourishes in a climate heavily influenced by ‗Western‘ beauty ideals‖ (p. 8), that is, by beauty ideals that were not necessarily (but could have been) symbols of beauty in past. In the context of Korea, Agliata and Tantleff-Dunn (2004), for instance, point out that the local women have embraced the ‗culture of extreme thinness‘ that permeates Western society.17 Likewise, Western media often frame Korean cosmetic surgery as a sign of the Westernization of oriental appearance; particularly double eye-lid procedure is regarded as supressing ethnical features (ibid). However, authors such as Kim (2003) or Holliday and Elfving- Hwang (2012) strongly oppose to the oversimplified assumption of Westernization of Korean appearance. The second duo of authors argue that especially the eyes surgery have local significations such as youthfulness and active desire, and that Western women also routinely undertake similar surgeries. Also, women‘s cosmetic surgery can be understood as liberation from the role of mother since traditionally was round face associated with fertility. Moreover, Holliday and Elfving-Hwang (2012) emphasize that ―the aim of cosmetic surgery is to maintain the ‗Koreanness‘ of the subject who undergoes surgery‖ (p. 71), rather than completely supress these features.18 This ambiguity must be considered when speaking about Korean cosmetic surgery. Lastly, as was already mentioned, Westernization is by Kim (2003) seen as a reason that Koreans perceive their bodies as imperfect. An important source of this idea are reportedly the media, who represent the new codes of proper body management and presentation, and are as meticulously followed as Neo-Confucian codes used to be.‖ (ibid, p. 107).19 Furthermore, American influence has changed also beliefs about the possibility to modify the body. Through rules of capitalist consumption women are being learned ―that their bodies are fluid and plastic objects that can be transformed and recreated to adhere
16 See chapter 1 17 Han (2003), for instance, points out that all of participants in the Miss Korea Pageant were reported to be in the underweight range. 18 For further discussion on this topic see Kim (2003) or Holliday and Elfving-Hwang (2012) 19 See chapter 4 20 with the appearances and shapes that are culturally recognized as desirable‖ (Kim, 2003, p. 109). The Korean disordered body can be put rearranged; its apparent flaws concealed or eliminated through the tricks of fashion, or even with the help of cosmetic surgery. In conclusion, historical fusion of two ideologies, the Neo-Confucianism and capitalist consumerism along with the Westernization, or, in the case of Korea, rather Americanization, have led the country to a unique combination of values and beliefs. Although it may appear that women have deliberated themselves from the strict control of Neo-Confucian tradition that made women‘s body invisible, subjectless and unalterable, the contemporary consumerism represents a continuation of this control. Yet, it would be too shallow to assert that Westernization simply supplanted Neo-Confucian norms. On the closer inspection, its seems to be a consequence of an overall consumer culture in Korea, and moreover, the expression of Neo-Confucian cultural notions through the new medium of global consumerism. The identity of woman is still restricted mainly to her physical body which is still the primary way of self-improvement. Moreover, subjectlessness of woman‘s body continues in the way ―women are pressured to make their bodies conform to media and social codes as to the proper woman‘s body‖ (Kim, 2003, p. 108). Body alternation is nearly an issue of fashion. ―Body becomes an object of ―work‖ (Anderson- Fye, 2011, p. 248) or as Kim (2003) concludes ‗the capitalist body‘. Rather than about Westernization, we shall speak about capitalism and consumerism as of modern value that set the rules of propriety. This will be the topic of the next chapter.
2.2 All You Need Is Beauty: Beauty Capital in a Consumer Society
2.2.1 Physiognomic Assumption and Better Self
According to Rumsey and Harcourt (2005) we live in a society where people judge others and are judged on the basis on physical appearance. One reason is that, as mentioned above, it is believed that the person‘s character can be ‗read‘ from the facial features. This view is based on the physiognomic assumptions that the body which is in traditional Korean culture highly respected. Accordingly, some young men and women believe that this ‗face reading‘ ―has a very real influence on social and career success, with
21 physiognomy often indistinguishable from ‗employment cosmetics‘‖ 20 (Holliday & Elfving-Hwang, 2012, p. 76). Consumer society tends to associate beauty with moral goodness, and on the contrary, ‗uglinness‘ with immorality, even evil.21 Despite the evidence to the contrary, people keep the learned association in their minds, and, sometimes, try to alter and improve their appearance in order to achieve more ‗positive look‘. It is assumed that a bad outer appearance may limit individuals in showing their true personality, and so, ―people with an enhanced appearance will be able to enjoy a body and face which are more congruent with their ‗true‘ selves‖ (Featherstone, 2010, p. 195). Indeed, cosmetic surgery may be considered to be the way to balance the perceived discrepancy between the inner and outer self. That was, for instance, the case of Hao Lu, ‗the first Chinese artificial beauty‘,22 who argues: ―Whether naturally or artificial improved, I want to reach a state of harmony‖ (Wen, 2013, p. 66). Featherstone (2010), however, points out that despite certain media narratives, cosmetic surgery may not result in being happier with one‘s body. Especially in case that those media stories replete with success and happy endings increase the expectations towards effects of cosmetic surgery that may not be fulfilled.
2.2.2 Beauty as Social Status and Success
Featherstone (2010) argues that as a consequence of the physiognomic assumption the status and social acceptability in consumer culture depend on how a person looks. In this regard, we should remind the Bourdieu‘s notion of „symbolic capital‟. Symbolic capital represents ―the acquisition of a reputation for competence and an image of respectability and honourability that are easily converted into political positions…‖ (Bourdieu, 1984, p. 291). In other words, symbolic capital means the amount of honour, prestige or recognition
20 The concepts is based on the practice of purchasing cosmetic surgery in order to increase a chance to an employment 21 In particular, humans attribute various part of human body with the variety of characteristics; size of head or symmetry of face with intelligence, length of nose with honesty or in general higher facial attractiveness with person‘s sociability, mental health, selfishness or even political inclination. Body asymmetry was associated with criminals and classic example is the portraying of Jews as evil because of their hunched figures and enormous hooked noses. Furthermore, many racial prejudices are based on physical appearance (Rumsey & Harcourt, 2005). Media and especially television greatly contributes to the perpetuation of the myth linking appearance and personality. For instance, ―physical depiction of characters in Disney cartoons for example, varies markedly depending on whether the character are ‗goodies‘ (large eyes, symmetrical faces, slim figures) or ‗baddies‘ (heavy facial features and sometimes scarring)‖ (ibid, p. 7). 22 dubbed by media as first Chinese artificial beauty after she won China‘s Miss Artificial Beauty Pageant in 2004. It was the first beauty pageant in the world exclusively for women with cosmetic surgery. 22 a person holds within a certain set of social structures. This recognition is obtained by fulfilment of social obligations that are embedded with potential for prestige. Symbolic capital can be also understood the socially recognized legitimization of the other capitals, such as „beauty capital‟. According to Rumsey and Harcourt (2005) we live in „scopic economy‟23, where the status of an individual depends on certain physical attributes. In Korea, historically, certain physical appearance signified a class and status. White, baby-soft skin was a sign of upper class. The appearance became even more important after the liberation from Japanese forces. At that time, a desire to distinguish oneself from Japanese people was born (Holliday & Elfving-Hwang, 2012). Later, along with the adoption of consumerism Korea also embraced the assumption that cosmetic surgery may be „the key to a new positive self-image, exciting lifestyle and better quality of life‖ (Featherstone, 2010, p. 197). Indeed, Kim (2003) argues that Korea, in particular, rewards beautiful people with well-paying jobs and improved marriage, as will be discussed in the next chapters.
2.2.3 Employment
Featherstone (2010) describes that, with increasing competition in the labour market, people have begun to seek any competitive advantage. Therefore, physical appearance has become a factor that could significantly enhance the chances of success for both women and men. Furthermore, there were also suggestions that physical attractiveness could favourably affect other aspects of employment including actual job status or earning power. Yet, Rumsey and Harcourt (2005) argue that ―other factors, most notably social skills and actual ability have subsequently been shown to mediate these judgements‖ (p. 17). However, Jones (2010), points out that in United States ―workers of above-average attractiveness get paid more than those considered less attractive, […] suggesting that there is a ―beauty premium‖ comparable to race and gender premium‖ (p. 8). Whether there is a true in that statement or not, a several studies has revealed that people believe in ‗beauty capital‘ regarding employment. For instance, a study by Engeln-Maddox (2006), which revealed, that college women in United States associate a greater beauty with ―greater
23 Gleeson and Frith (personal communication) have coined the term „scopic economy‟ to refer to a contemporary societal economy that relies on being ‗scoped‘ by others, and in which some physical attributes (including slimness, a youthful appearance and symmetrical facial features), are valued more than others. (Rumsey & Harcourt, 2005, p. 3) 23 employment/economic opportunities‖ (p. 263). A corollary to the outlined situation, some people may have begun to ―attend to their body image in an instrumental manner‖ (Featherstone, 2010, p. 193) in order to increase chances in competitive capitalist society. Contemporary Korea faces a similar situation. During the period of rapid economic development in the second half of the 20th century Korea has embraced capitalism as its main ideology. Consequently, ―the consuming struggle for economic success according to capitalist standards became the new ideal for South Koreans‖ (Kim, 2003, p. 97). Korea has been experiencing what Wen (20) describes on the case of China, that is, the sharp increase in the higher education enrolment24 and subsequent sharp increased competition in the labour market. Wen (2013) explains that in China ―with millions of graduates flooding the job market every year, students try to get an edge in the job market by any means‖ (p. 85). Various trends that emerged among young students include ―the craze for cosmetic surgery‖ (ibid). Moreover, Wen points out that the flourishing of the cosmetic surgery market and the increased flow of graduates into the job market started in the same period. Similar statement were not found in case of Korea, however, there are evidences supporting the fact that beauty and cosmetic surgery have association with employment. For instance, a study from 2006 showed that Korean high school students perceive appearance to be of more importance than abilities or skill (Holliday & Elfving-Hwang, 2012). Moreover, the terms ‗employment surgery‟ or „employment cosmetics‟ (ibid) were introduced in Korea in order to describe the practice of purchasing a cosmetic surgery in order to assure a greater chance to find and maintain a job.
2.2.4 Romantic relationships, marriage
Beside employment, beauty is also inevitable factor in personal relationships, especially romantic ones. Plato argued that ―the sentiment of beauty is a central component in sexual desire‖ (Scruton, 2009, p. 39). Our eyes are captivated by the beautiful boy or girl, therefore ―we have come to believe that appearing attractive to others is in our own self- interest, as we will have better access to desirable social resources such as friendships, lovers and long-term relationships‖ (Rumsey & Harcourt, 2005, p. 2-3). In terms of
24 Out of the 49.95 million population, there were 2 871 649 undergraduate and graduate students enrolled in 2013. The tertiary Gross Enrolment ratio was 103%. At this rate, South Korea has the highest tertiary gross enrolment ratio of any country in the world (Clark & Park, 2013). 24 romantic relationships, especially women are more likely to be judged on appearance than men (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). Correspondingly, there are numerous studies confirming that women are prone to the judgements of their physical appearance and to the higher body dissatisfaction.25 Consequently, woman‘s preoccupation with the body image is better accepted since it is assumed that woman‘s body signifies her elite status, therefore ―women‘s focus on their appearance, which was previously thought of as vanity, can be looked at as women‘s strategy for helping to determine how others will treat them‖ (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997, p. 179). Beauty provides them entrance ticket to society while ugliness closes the door. Moreover, the current vogue for speed dating in which the decision whether to proceed with date are made in the first few minutes of an encounter proves the importance of optimizing the physical appearance (Rumsey & Harcourt, 2005). Likewise, dating applications such as recently popular mobile matchmaking application Tinder, which is based merely on physical attractiveness, are an example of the importance of appearance in today‘s romantic relationships. In the context of Korea, blind dating is highly popular, therefore the first impression is important. As was stated earlier, Korean women were traditionally mainly appreciated for their bodies Kim (2003), an also nowadays, the author argues that „beauty in Korea has become a requirement of decorum for women rather than a vanity‖ (p. 107) and „the more beautiful a woman is, the more her value increases in both the marriage and employment market‖ (p. 108). However, authors such as Featherstone (2010), Holliday and Elfving-Hwang (2012) or Agliata and Tantleff-Dunn (2004) would oppose that the pressure on appearance is not anymore peculiar only to women. Likewise, a numerous magazines article address the increased interest and pressure in the case of the appearance of Korean men.26
25 For instance, a Korean study showed that girls ―were more affected by sociocultural factors than boys because they were more internalized societal standards of ideal body images‖ (Lee & Kwon, 2010). For other studies see e.g. Bae & Park, 2004; Agliata & Tantleff-Dunnn, 2004; Eisend & Möller, 2006; Swami, 2009; Swami et al., 2012 26 E.g. article „Nose Jobs, Hair Implants Entice Koreans Seeking Love, More Pay‟ (Kang & Cho, 2009) or „Men, Be Beautiful for Spring, Summer‟ (Lee, 2009). Also, the topic of ‗gendering cosmetic surgery‘ is further elaborated in the chapter 2.6.
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2.3 Public Attitude: Cosmetic Surgery as Necessity in a Consumer Society
The distinct aspect of competitive society is that people have to put a lot of effort into their appearance in order to deserve better life condition (Yoon, 2013) since ―society rewards those who managed their bodies appropriately and apply real sanction to those who did not‖ (Kim, 2003, p. 108). Beauty is compulsory but not everyone was born with features that meet the beauty norms given by the society. Therefore, cosmetic surgery has become more acceptable as means of appearance enhancement even for ordinary people. Several studies support the increasing acceptance of cosmetic surgery, outside and withinn Korea. According to Sarwer et al. (2005) two thirds of interviewed female college students in the United States reported knowing someone who had received cosmetic surgery, and in overall, they ―held relatively favorable attitudes about surgery‖ (p. 931). In the context of Korea, a poll conducted in 2000 showed that 60% of respondents approve of cosmetic surgery as a means to improve one‘s prospects (Kim, 2003). Correspondingly, Swami at al. (2012) assumes that cosmetic surgery among Koreans may be understood as an investment in improving the social and economic position of an individual, therefore it has become ―a mean to pursue social benefit that is universally as accepted‖ (Yoon, 2013, p. 20). In that regards, Holliday and Elfving-Hwang (2012) point out enhancing someone's physical appearance is perceived by public as a worthwhile and understandable investment in the body, rather than a sign of vanity as it is often understood in the West. These statements also suggest that choosing to alter one‘s body is not anymore the decision of the individual, today it ―is a necessity rather than an option‖ (Kim, 2003, p. 108). Multiple studies from Korea environment support the assumption.27 For instance, Lee and Kwon (2010) made a survey among Korean high-school students who, as was revealed, consistently believed there is positive aspect in terms of societal benefits when they have
27 The study by Woo (2008) confirmed that perception of pragmatic value of appearance was the main predictor for decision for cosmetic surgery. Another Korean research found out that the level of uncertainty avoidance was found to significantly influence the relationship between self-esteem and cosmetic surgery perception (Yoon, 2013). This suggests that people with low self-esteem tend to be more insecure and worried about being excluded from beneficial resource of society. 26 cosmetic surgery. In fact, the study showed that ―societal standards affected behavioral responses more than people's individual satisfaction or decisions‖ (p. 423), especially in the case of young girls.28 With regard to the gender, another research in Korea found out that cosmetic surgery may be more acceptable for women because it ensures them greater access to wealthier romantic partners (Swami et al., 2012). Additionally, a supportive argument for instrumental approach towards cosmetic surgery in Korea may provide a study by Lee (2011) that, unexpectedly, revealed that there is no necessary connection between attitude and behaviour in terms of cosmetic surgery. College students in the study had in overall negative attitude towards cosmetic surgery, yet they accept it.29 To conclude, a plastic surgeon Lee Won Suk confesses that one of the five patients asks him ―to operate on them based on what they believe would bring good fortune in the future‖ (Seoul Beats, 2013). However, such an attitude may be associated with great expectation, which, though, „can lead to greater scrutiny of the body and face in the mirror and comparisons with others‖ (Featherstone, 2010, p. 207).
2.3.1 Parental and Peers Attitude
According to Holliday and Elfving-Hwang (2012) some women in the United States see cosmetic surgery as a reward for hard work. The concept of cosmetic surgery as a gift is not unfamiliar in Korea either. In fact, ―the practice of high school students receiving double eyelid surgery as a graduation present is so common that it has been likened to a rite of passage‖ (Kim, 2003, p. 105). Kim (2003) states that up to 70%t of cosmetic surgery patients are high school students. This number indicates a high level of parental consent or support. On the other hand, parents can also present factor restraining individual to undergo cosmetic surgery. For instance, Wen (2013) states that in China many people ―refer to preserving the original bodily features as a way of showing respect to parents‖
28 Study confirmed that girls are more affected by sociocultural factors than boys because they were more internalized societal standards of ideal body images 29 Study also showed that there is a struggle in minds of students, who greatly appreciate beautiful physical appearance that they desired but they still prioritized natural beauty. Furthermore, author of study stated that attitude is influence by previous experience with certain consumer behaviour, for instance when we buy a product that is not good as we expected, we do not by it again. Yet, cosmetic surgery is not easily returnable act, therefore it requires risk taking. However, as Yoon (2013) suggested with the increase of media coverage of cosmetic surgery procedures the perceive risk decreases.
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(65). Parental attitude is very important and influential for the child, particularly in Korea, since Confucian philosophy promotes the authoritative position of parents and filial piety. Peers attitude may play a significant role as well. For instance, a study among adolescents demonstrated that a feedback from the participant's best male friend in case of boys and female friend in case of girls were important predictors for body-change strategies (McCabe and Ricciardelli, 2003). Furthermore, a study by Englen-Maddox showed that beauty is highly associated with having a positive, non-romantic, social attention, such as more friends and better social life. Similarly, peers attitude towards cosmetic surgery may be a strong factor, particularly in a country with a high level of conformity.
2.4 Conformity
Kim (2003) argues that while many women in the United States have been justifying their choice to pursue cosmetic surgery in terms of individual empowerment and individual choice, in Korea the choice is attributed more to conformity rather than individuality. Korean cosmetic surgery is to a great extent uniform. In fact, it has become a way how to look like others rather than to differentiate. The high level of conformity is associated with collectivist tradition30 and lower willingness to stand-out in behaviour as well with attitudes. Western cultures tend to operate on principles of individualism and see the body as property and responsibility of an individual. In contrast, in more sociocentric societies such as Korea, a body is part of collective management practices. People think of themselves as a group, not as isolated individuals31 (Anderson-Fye, 2011). Kim (2003), for instance, argues that the practice is the continuation of tradition of subjectless women‘s bodies. Woman‘s self is still not accustomed self. Despite the changes, a feeling of shared body is still partly rooted in the society, and the idea of bodies that ―are not their own makes fashion and beautification an
30 Hofstede et al (2005) differentiate two cultural dimension, individualism and collectivism. Individualism can be defined as a preference for a loosely-knit social framework in which individuals are expected to take care of only themselves and their immediate families. Conversely, collectivism represents a preference for a tightly-knit framework in society in which individuals can expect their relatives or members of a particular in-group to look after them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. 31 For example research on Fiji revealed that if someone in family is getting thinner it is problem to solve for whole family. ―The family and other loved ones of that person held the responsibility for the problem—and also the cure—of that person‘s undesirable loss of weight‖ (Anderson-Fye, 2011, p. 245). 28 act of obeying the new rules of propriety and fashion‖ (p. 109-110). Furthermore, Yoon (2013) states that collectivist cultures are more obedient to collective values (such as beauty values). He further supposes that in case of Korea where value of collectivism is still highly appreciated people are presumably more dependent on recommendation of others. Accordingly, the research by Jeong, Kim and Lee (2009) showed that university students‘ opinion toward cosmetic surgery is affected by coverage of public opinion polls. Moreover, according to Neo-Confucian ethics the conformity is a virtue that measures social success by approximation to an elite class image which can still be seen in the extremely limited and in the attepmt of common people to resemble faces and bodies of celebrities (Holliday and Elfving-Hwang, 2012). In conclusion, Kim (2003) states, that:
―the result is that the female bodies seen in the streets of Korea are nearly identical to the bodies depicted in media portrayals. Few or no personal modifications are added to the ensemble to give the look an individual touch. Individual expression is not the main purpose here, following the rules is‖ (p. 107).
2.5 Seeking Self: Cosmetic Surgery as Individual Decision
‗First Chinese artificial beauty‘, Hao Lu, and another women with cosmetic surgery, are sometimes being described by Chinese media as ― as being finally bold enough to take control of their bodies in the quest for beauty‖ (Wen, 2013, p. 3). Indeed, the opponents of claims that cosmetic surgery is the subjugation to the social pressure argue, on contrary, that cosmetic is individual decision and a form of empowerment. The practice is seen as ―helping women to form a new self-identity through enhancing the self-esteem and confidence‖ (p. 67). Wen (2013) points out that most of the Chinese women she interviewed, argued that they did it for themselves and consider cosmetic surgery as a means of self-improvement and self-fulfilment. Furthermore, in China it is even regarded by some women as liberating experience and expression of freedom their ancestor did not enjoy in past during Maoist era. In that sense, Korean cosmetic surgery could be also understood with the respect to traditional invisibility and strict control of the woman‘s body that has changed with consumerism (Kim, 2003). Also, Holliday and Elfving-Hwang (2012) argue that the contemporary desired features may be seen as the rejection of traditional role of women. Another related feature drawn on Chinese environment is that the increasing demand for beauty and cosmetic surgery may be a result of China‘s economic growth. 29
Women have become more independent and economically secured, so now they can freely expressed and fulfil their dreams. Korea experienced similar cultural and economic transformation, which may imply a similar attitude of local women. (Wen, 2013) Finally, Wen (2013) asserts that although these women claim that it is their personal choice to undergo cosmetic surgery, and they may truly believe in it, ―it is hard to deny that often the options for them have already been determined. It appears as if women are controlling their own bodies, whereas in fact their bodies are trapped by different sorts of power‖ (p. 71).
2.6 Gendering Cosmetic Surgery
The existing research on cosmetic surgery has primarily addressed women. The reason is that the body image appreciation is greatly associated with the concept of male gaze and patriarchy. The pursuit of beauty through cosmetic surgery is seen by some feminist authors as women‘s submission to a superficial priority placed on appearance, and to the male gaze. For instance, sociologist Zhou Xiaozheng claims that ―to some extent we are still living in patriarchal society in which men produce the notion of beauty and women unthinkingly conform to it‖ (Wen, 2013, p. 67). Moreover, according to feminist Naomi Wolf so called ‗beauty myth‘ is the last but strongest control over women in a patriarchal society. More precisely, she calls it ―the conspiracy of patriarchy and capitalism‖ (ibid, p. 67). However, Holliday and Elfving-Hwang (2012) challenge the idea of cosmetic surgery as expression of patriarchy hegemony by pointing to the increasing number of aesthetic surgery among Korean men. Men are ―drawn into the consumer culture body image game and are becoming more critical and vulnerable about their bodies‖ (Featherstone, 2010, p. 202). Similarly, Agliata and Tantleff-Dunn (2004) state that ―the emphasis on appearance that has long plagued women has been increasingly directed at men‖ (p. 8). In general, males are subjected to a culture of muscularity rather than thinness; however in South Korea the desires took slightly different direction. The aim is to create a muscular but smooth – hairless – body with boyish facial features that resemble boy-heroes in popular Korean manhwa, Japanese manga cartoons and anime and more recently in Korean television dramas (Holliday & Elfving-Hwang, 2012). Simply put, manly, but cute.
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2.7 Beauty Industry and Body Commodification
It is adequate to agree that ―beauty has become a huge industry which affects the daily lives of almost everyone‖ (Jones, 2010, p. 9). The beauty industry is now ―one of the most prosperous sectors in today‘s developed economies‖ (Eisend & Möller, 2006, p. 101). In fact, cosmetics, fashion, sports and leisure industries are all greatly concerned with the building and maintenance of ―norms, which they then service through a range of products‖ (Newell, 2000, p. 1). Consumers invest considerable amounts of their income in clothing, cosmetics, and treatments to preserve or renew their attractiveness. According to Jones (2010), consumers around the world spend 330 billion USD a year on fragrances, cosmetics, and toiletries. Beauty is one of America‘s most profitable industries, just behind pharmaceuticals and software. It has become commodity which can be easily attained with the help of consumer products rather than disciplinary measures taken upon oneself (Kit Wah Man, 2012). Although many cosmetic products are of little effect, our will to reach the ideal appearance and angst of become ugly keep us spending generously for these products. In fact, the acceptance of cosmetic surgery ―may be more related to fears about becoming unattractive than to hopes of becoming more attractive‖ (Henderson-King & Henderson-King, 2005, p. 137). That would suggest that beauty industry manipulate its consumers through fear and worries about not meeting established societal norms. It builds angst and then come with a cure. Capitalist market to some extent controls individuals‘ lives and bodies since bodies have become the finest consumer object (Wen, 2013). Furthermore, the role of state cannot be neglected since state has according to Wen (2013) the power in controlling an individual‘s body management and representations. Korean government is relatively supporting cosmetic surgery. The reason is simple, cosmetic surgery industry is important source of GDP and considered as ‗national interest‘. Cosmetic surgery industry is has been increasing in South Korea; and Korean government in invested in 2008 £642 million in advertising Korea as a leading destination for aesthetic surgery tourism. Finally, the industry continues be unregulated, unlike in Western countries, with many procedures being carried out at lower cost by surgeons without the recommended qualifications (ibid; Swami et al., 2012). Furthermore, cosmetic surgery is presented by clinic websites as something unpainful, even enjoyable. Numerous cosmetic surgery and skin treatment clinics are now ―commonplace in urban shopping malls, viewed much like nail and beauty salons in the UK‖ (Holliday & Elfving-Hwang, 2012, p. 59).
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3. Media Representation of Beauty and Cosmetic Surgery
Gerbner argues that ―most of what we know, or think we know, we have never personally experienced. Much of our knowledge, we have never personally experienced. We live in a world erected by the stories we hear and see and tell‖. These stories, once told only face to face, are now they mass-produced and profit-driven (in Shanahan, Gerbner & Morgan, 1999). Mass media provide us every day with countless amounts of stories that cultivate our perception of social world. 32 Particularly television serves as a centralized system of storytelling and broadly shared images and messages. Its ―drama, commercials, news, and other programs bring a relatively coherent world of common images and messages into every home‖ (Gerbner et al., 1986, p. 18). Moreover, through television everyone can become part of a shared culture (ibid). In that sense, the media have the socializing function and the ability to unify otherwise heterogeneous population. Media serve as a stabilizing element in society by being a crucial source of standards, models and norms which are needed for shared public life (McQuail, 2010). To some extent media may also affect our actions by presenting behaviours or styles of life as desirable or undesirable, proposing ways to obtain or avoid them, and the price to be paid for attainment or failure (Shanahan, Gerbner & Morgan, 1999). The socializing power of media is in the coherent and repetitive pattern of mass-produced messages and images that form ―the mainstream of a common symbolic environment‖ (Gerbner et al., 1986, p. 18) across the variety of media (Burton & Jirák, 2001). Through the continuous repetitive display of certain characters (their attributes and prescribed roles), institution, behaviour pattern and various practices media constitute their representation.
32 Throughout the history of 20th century there were several turn out about media effects. During the first phase of media research it was believed in all powerful media. Media were supposed to have strong direct (stimulus-response) effect on people‘s belief and attitudes that can be easily changed by the power of media and those who control them. In the 1930s the strong media effect theory was challenged as several researches refute the media ability to evoke especially planned effects. It was assumed that have minimal effects on audience since media serve as mediator not direct cause, and to the process of persuasion enter further factors. With the onset of television as a new medium the belief changed in favour of strong media effects especially in social and political persuasion. Attention turned to long-term change. Since late 1970s the negotiated media influence was agreed among scholars responding to social constructivism. According to this approach media construct meanings and provide them in a systematic way to audiences where they are incorporated (or not), on the basis of some form of negotiation, into personal meaning structures that are often shaped by prior collective identifications and by contemporary societal context (McQuail, 2010). 32
In this chapter, we will explore the role of media in shaping worlds of individuals and society. This study will focus mainly on televised messages. It is, however, essential to point out that in the contemporary developed countries, and especially in Korea, diverse communication technology is widespread and used broadly to watch television channels and programmes through mobile phones or other devices. Therefore when we discuss television programs viewing these technologies must be considered as well.
3.1 Powerful Media or Freedom of Interpretation
Throughout the history of the 20th century there were several turn out about media effects. During the first phase of media research it was believed in all powerful media. Media were supposed to have strong direct (stimulus-response) effect on people‘s belief and attitudes that can be easily changed by the power of media and those who control them. In the 1940s, the strong media effect theory was challenged as several researches refute the media ability to evoke especially planned effects. It was assumed that media have minimal effects on the audience since they serve as mediator not direct cause. Also, it was asserted that to the process of persuasion enter further factors. With the onset of television as a new medium the belief changed in favour of strong media effects especially in social and political persuasion. Attention turned to long-term changes. Since the late 1970s the negotiated media influence was agreed among scholars responding to social constructivism. According to this approach media construct meanings and provide them in a systematic way to the audiences where they are incorporated (or not), on the basis of some form of negotiation, into personal meaning structures that are often shaped by prior collective identifications and by contemporary societal context (McQuail, 2010). Accordingly, the degree of audiences‘ freedom of selection, attention, and interpretation of media messages has varied ―from that of a passive recipient of powerful messages to that of a much more active and selective user of media content (Jensen & Rosengren, 2005, p. 55). The one of the objectivistic-oriented approach adopting the powerful role of media idea is the cultivation theory proposed by Gerbner. This theory draws on the idea that mass media cultivate dominant images patterns by providing ―uniform and relatively consensual version of social reality and their audiences are acculturated accordingly‖ (McQuail, 1987, p. 99). It further suppose that both the ubiquity and consistency of television portrayals in society ―have made it the primary source of information about the social world‖ (Shrum & Bischak, 2001, p. 188) and therefore mass media, television especially, cultivate 33 individual‘s view of the world which is in consequence more consistent with the reality presented in the media rather than social reality. The heavy television users are believed more likely to perceive the real world in accordance with what they had viewed on TV (Gerbner et al., 1986) and greatly rely on what they see on television as representations of reality. Moreover, ―since television reality is exaggerated and fictitious, they come to have a distorted ―social perception‖ of the world‖ (Eisend & Möller, 2006, p.102). Even though Gerbner acknowledges that various ―layers of demographic, social, personal, and cultural contexts also determine the shape, scope, and degree‖ (Gerbner et al., 1986, p. 23) of television cultivation, cultivation theory is frequently criticized for neglecting other influential external variables, type of genre, character of viewing (e.g. engagement in or purpose of viewing), or the personal characteristic (McQuail, 2010). The implication of the cultivation theory for this study could be that the level of the role of mass media on beauty perception may be dependent on ―the extent to which mediated imagery dominates the viewers' sources of information‖ (p. 30). In case of our study, it would mean that if the television programs are prime source of information about role and standards of physical appearance, viewer will be more vulnerable to embrace media image of beauty. On the other hand, personal direct experience may also amplify cultivation. When one's everyday environment is congruent with and reinforces television's messages, this phenomenon is called resonance (concept further developed in chapter 5). It means that, for instance, those who experienced that the better physical appearance led to some advantages or whose older sibling have cosmetic surgery, may be more affected by media image. In other words, there is a significant role of social comparison (concept further developed in chapter 5) with real life experiences. Lastly, Gerbner et al. (1986) suggested that even light viewers should be affected since they ―live in the same cultural environment as most others and what they do not get through the tube can be acquired indirectly from others who do watch television‖ (p. 21). Later, along with the weakening power of text the interpretative approach toward media effects has been adopted. Unlike critical theory, cultural studies attribute the recipient greater freedom in term of media interpretation. Particularly Stuart Hall‘s theory of encoding and decoding proposed that audience consists of active participant involved in process of decoding – the interpretation – of meaning. This approach therefore sought to understand how various audiences made sense of the text in comparison to their everyday lives (Reinhard, 2007). Similarly, according to Fiske active recipient audiences have the
34 power to decipher the message and construct their own opinion. In overall, culture studies theorists see audience publics as ―active participants in the social production of meaning, often challenging media constructions of reality‖ (Jensen & Rosengren, 2005, p. 63). The interpretation is considered to occur in the context of broad social and cultural practice (Jensen & Rosengren, 2005). One way in which audience interpretation can be understood is through reception theory, reception analysis respectively, the method widely adopted by qualitative media research. Reception theory ―speaks of media messages as culturally and generically coded discourses observation‖ (Jensen & Rosengren, 2005, p. 60) and define audiences as agents of meaning production. Meaning is constructed by viewers as they watch, process, and interact with the text.33 The results of this analysis are then interpreted with reference to the surrounding socio-cultural system. For instance, „if the text deals with a particular topic that the viewer can relate to, s/he is then more likely to remain engaged during the viewing process and thus, elicits a certain type of reception‖ (Yoo & Buzinde, 2012, p. 224). Yoo and BuzindeChyba! Záložka není definována. (2012) also stress that this process is constrained by cultural positioning – diverse audiences bring their own interpretive frameworks. In short, the meaning making process is inevitably informed by the viewer‘s socio-cultural background (e.g. understanding of beauty concept in society, its importance in society, public attitude towards cosmetic surgery, parental and peers pressure, and so on) as well as the viewer‘s expectations and life experience. The aim of reception analysis is then to ―understand how (various audiences) made sense of the text in comparison to their everyday lives‖ (Reinhard, 2007, p. 10).
33 Ideally, reception analysis studies include a comparative empirical analysis of media discourses with audience discourses – content structures with the structure of audience responses regarding content (Jensen & Rosengren, 2005). Due he the lack of resources as well as character of the study, the current study adopted only audience oriented part of analysis. 35
3.2 Realism: Reality and Fiction Discrepancy
It has been acknowledged that ―the reality of a work of fiction … is not necessarily or primarily a reality of circumstance or detail or commonplace routine‖ (Wellek & Warren, 1949, p. 220). Television is not a window to the world nor a reflection of the world, it is itself the world (McQuail, 2010) and the messages displayed by media is not the true actualization of certain social group or issue, but representation of certain view of that group or issue (Burton & Jirák, 2001). Especially, the continuous standardization and routine of media messages leads (consciously or unconsciously) to the selective and asymmetric reality depiction. Such a representation of reality is fragmentized and distorted, and far from social reality (McQuail, 2010). McQuail (2010) argues that there is much of discussion about reality depiction as if media should naturally reflect the reality. Indeed, we cannot expect media to depict social reality in the undistorted image. Problematic is that members of audience have been losing the ability to recognize the discrepancy of media reality and social reality, so they consider the media as providing facts about reality. First reason is that media in order to achieve realism pursue to be perceived as ‗realistic depiction‘ of life, or better said the illusion of reality, in story since realism is often considered as essential in order to enhance spectator‘s experience. At least to some extent audience assess the mediated content depending on its realistic nature. Moreover, according to Burton and Jirák (2001) viewers tend to more easily pick up ideas that are incorporated in products characterized by greater illusiveness, therefore greater credibility. If the story is accepted as enough realistic audience is more able to identify with presented prevailing values and attitudes, consider them as correct. In fact ―many critics point out that it is this mechanism by which media help to ensure the certain prevailing values became truly dominant values‖ (p. 211). This statement suggests that realism and ideology are closely linked. It means that if the viewer immerse himself fully to the television story (such as soap opera) and find it believable, he will more likely absorb given dominant ideas about ‗standard‘ physical appearance. The realism is supported by credible behaviour of the characters or by credibility of storyline. The second reason is the cumulative effect of media. Realism is historically and socially conditioned and ―relates always to the particular recipient‘s experience‖ (Burton & Jirák, 2001, p. 208). The most powerful experience comes from the real life of spectator. It means that if viewer has different direct personal experience, he may be less relying in his judgment on media content. However, our former experience may be obtained also through 36 media. According to Gerbner et al. (1986) the media and television in particular has acquired such a central place in a daily life that its messages about reality substitutes personal experience and other means of knowing about the world. The susceptibility and willingness to believe to media representation may increase especially with prolonged exposure. This is further reinforced by intertextuality, in other words, certain representation occurs across all media (Burton & Jirák, 2001). Thereby, the realism can be supported by previous consistent and repetitive media messages. Even though the media images are distinctive and deviant from reality viewers, as a result of persistent exposure, eventually adopt this view of society as consensual and true especially if they do not have any or low real life comparison (McQuail, 1987). For instance, viewer often does not have opportunity to see work of specialized professions such as doctors, police officers or journalist. Dramas situated into these environments give him certain idea and belief. If we apply the concept on case of beauty, young viewer may not have experience with romantic relationship or job interview, therefore if he or she sees that certain physical appearance is rewarded while other neglected, it may give him or her idea of desired appearance. Furthermore, with longitudinal exposure to media with consistent messages, audience‘s perception of beauty may eventually correspond with the media representation of physical attractiveness, even despite potential discrepant real life situation. Sometimes media intentionally provide certain shift away from realism. Such an intentional discrepancy may reflect audience expectations and desire to watch a fairy-tale, a fantasy, an alternative reality in order to escape from their ordinary lives (McQuail, 2010). However, even these stories tend to incorporate certain level of realism or familiarity so that viewer may identify with story or character at least partially, and perhaps feel at least small chance that the story may happen in his or her life. Korean dramas can be a hardly consider realistic in terms of storyline. It is characterized by typical attributes of soap opera genre, thus by the great stylization, improbabilities and accumulation of unrealistic situations, great emotions, overacting and exaggerating. All of these features indicate low realism. However, physical appearance is not usually prime focus of these dramas, but rather a subconscious message expressing a value of physical beauty. Furthermore, there may also be more realistic perception of this genre in the context of Korea.
37
Finally, certain fiction-real world discrepancy does not mean that the presented stories are necessarily completely false, but it must be remembered that ―they are synthetic, selective, often mythical, and always socially constructed‖ (Shanahan, Gerbner & Morgan, 1999, p. ix), as such they must be researched. Particularly in order to explore how they shape people‘s knowledge and attitudes, as well to examine the potential reasons that those who control the messages may have with respect
Hyperreality
A different approach to the issue of media representation and reality can be drawn on Baudrillard‘s concept of ‗hyperreality‘. According to sociologist Jean Baudrillard mass media are the accelerators of the process of transformation of reality into hyperreality through the creation of simulacrums which are the semiotic units that pretend to be reflection of reality, but, in fact, ―it has no relation to any reality whatsoever; it is its own pure simulacrum‖ (Baudrillard, 1994, p. 6). Displaying of reality in media is nowadays no longer governed by reality of social world, but by previous representations. Models of reality do not follow reality, but only the other models. Once there is a portrait of certain beauty, other media follow this portrait. They rather follow the reality of previous beauty representation than the real world representations. Simulation is thus disguised liquidation of reality. The hyperreality is pseudoreality that replaced the reality; in fact it is even more real and more important than social reality. Moreover, the intertwining of the pseudoreality with the reality is so tight that it is no longer possible to distinguish between them. They blended together so there is no clear indication of where the former stops and the latter begins. Eventually, mass media displace reality and replace it with a newly constructed hyperreality. The hyperreality then effectively penetrates social space and eliminates therefore the possibility to compare itself with something else, not hyperreal (Baudrillard, 1994).
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4. Media and Beauty Cultivation
If an alien came to the earth and want to know what the ideal beauty is in a particular society, he could simply watch television, since prevailing standards of the ideal physical appearance are most visible in the mass media (Han, 2003). Images of thin models and actresses with attractive and flawless faces bombard viewers on everyday basis.34 On TV, billboards and magazines, we see 'beautiful people' all the time, more often than members of our own family, making exceptional good looks seem real and normal, and if we do not meet these standards we may consider ourselves as deviant (Alibhai-Brown, 2010). The persistent exposure to these figures cause viewers to become accustomed to rare and uniform standards of beauty. Kim (2003), for instance, claims that media images tend to have an extremely normalizing influence on women, and Hendriks and Burgoon (2003) found out that women who are exposed to heavy amounts of thin ideal media are likely to accept this as a norm. Media provide us with ―information which reinforce and shapes our cultural conceptions of beauty, attractiveness and normality‖ (Rumsey & Harcourt, 2005, p. 11). Indeed, historically, figures of art were romanticized as unattainable. On the contrary, media today tend not to distinguish between glorified fiction and reality, and present the images of beautiful people as standards, norms of physical appearance that are reachable through use of specific products and services (Heinberg, Thompson, & Stormer, 1995). The reasons behind this may be diverse, but one is more evident. Kim (2003) claims that ―women are given an ideal of beauty constructed through consumption of beauty industry products and services… This creates a flourishing beauty industry‖ (p. 109). Unsurprisingly then, Featherstone (2010) asserts that it is consumer culture that asks people to measure up to the ideal bodies presented in media. Likewise, Turnbull35 (2012) points out, „the real winners in this war are not men, nor women, but rather the beauty, cosmetic surgery, advertising and mass media industries that make vast profits from propagating an ideology of an unceasing dissatisfaction with oneself.‖ Beauty industry is profitable industry.
34 For instance, according to Han (2003) the majority of TV sitcoms feature an actress that are thin, have smooth skin, long beautiful hair, and a youthful look. 35 James Turnbull is a writer and lecturer on Korean feminism, sexuality and popular culture; co-author of the book The Korean Popular Culture Reader and author of web www.thegrandnarrative.com. 39
It must be, however, acknowledged with respect to chapter 4.1, that media do not reflect reality but provide its distorted image. In fact, a research in U.S. found out that discrepancy between body shapes portrayed as ideal in the media and actual body shapes found in the general population is increasing. For instance, the average American woman's weight has increased (Spitzer, Henderson, & Zivian, 1999). Also Korean media show a rare physical, especially facial, features in number that significantly exceeding the social reality, distorting viewer‘s perception of the average appearance in society. The discrepancy in South Korea is even more evident with consideration of fact that as Kim (2003) noted since 199436 Korean women‘s magazines have been inundated with pervasive Euro-American models and celebrities, Korean domestic products use in advertisement foreign models or at least Korean models ―that have already been reconstructed to meet the prevailing standards of beauty which, if not totally white, are at least a melding of Asian and Western features‖ (ibid, p. 103) creating increasingly popular ‗Eurasian‘ look. Moreover, many of the articles and beauty tips in magazines built on the assumption that the Korean body characterized by short legs, big face. The yellow skin is flawed while the white body is the standard norm. In other word, these flaws are imperfections because they ―are features peculiar to Koreans and absent in white models‖ (ibid, p. 104). The problematic is that audience regards media images as realistic representations of actual people rather than carefully manipulated images (Agliata & Tantleff-Dunn, 2004) and identify media as sources to ―turn to for information about their physical appearance‖ (Vonderen & Kinnally, 2012, p. 51). This may be dangerous especially in case of Korea since ―the feeling of being uprooted made (and makes) Korea particularly vulnerable to the manipulations of mass media, which have become an important source of identity‖ (Kim (2003, p. 109) and left ―South Korean women are at greater risk of developing appearance dissatisfaction‖ (Swami et al., 2012, p. 220). The last point to mention in the context of Western look is the study by Swami et al. (2012) that revealed lack of significant associations between acceptance of cosmetic surgery and body weight, of which most likely explanation is that East Asian beauty standards are more likely to emphasize facial features than bodily characteristics such as
36 In June 1994, changes in laws allowed the Korean advertising industry to use foreign models and celebrities which quickly led to a sharp increase in the use of foreign models to sell domestic products (Kim, 2003). 40 shape and weight. ―This may translate into specific aesthetic priorities among East Asians when it comes to cosmetic surgery—namely, they may be more interested in procedures focused on altering the appearance of the face rather than the body‖ (p. 227).
4.1 Social comparison theory
Another aspect of judgements of beauty is that they tend to be comparative. According to Knobloch-Westerwick and Crane (2012) there are three motives for social comparisons, self-evaluation, self-enhancement (to feel better about oneself through downward comparisons with those who are worse off), and self-improvement (to perform better through information derived from upward comparisons with those who are better off). In this sense, media exposure entails primarily upward social comparison. The imagery in print, films, advertisements and on television offers ―a particularly powerful point of social comparison through a constant barrage of messages about how we should look and behave‖ (Rumsey & Harcourt, 2005, p. 11). Korean media, specifically, appear to be full of thin characters and to provide "qualified" upward comparison targets for viewers. They tell them what person must look like to be considered ―beautiful‖ and are s (Han, 2003). Indeed, as was noted above, individuals tend to considered media images as appropriate comparison targets. However, it has been shown that those who accept these body shapes as the norm and judge themselves accordingly, become less satisfied with their own appearance, especially if their appearance does not match the portrayed (Vonderen & Kinnally, 2012). In particular, there is large body of researches confirming that media reinforce internalization37 of sociocultural attitudes toward appearance (e.g. Swami et al., 2012; Lee, 2011) and subsequently increase body dissatisfaction 38 (e.g. Heinberg, Thompson & Stormer, 1995; Agliata & Tantleff-Dunn, 2004) and more favourable attitudes toward cosmetic surgery (Sarwer et al. 2005). For instance, Eisend and Möller
37 Internalization can be understood as a part of socialization process during which the objectivated social world is retrojected into consciousness, and internalized by individual as subjective reality. Only when a person has achieved the degree of internalization is an individual a member of society (Berger, Luckmann. 1966). 38 On contrary, study by Knobloch-Westerwick and Crane (2012) revealed that prolonged media exposure eventually increased body satisfaction. The reason can be that upward comparison may motivate individuals to engage in body-shaping behaviours and consequently to higher satisfaction. However, the study measured body satisfaction 3 days after media exposure which may be insufficient time interval to reveal a long term consequences. Nevertheless, also cosmetic surgery is supposed to bring about greater satisfaction. 41
(2006) tested cultivation hypothesis with respect to body satisfaction and consumption behaviour, and their findings confirmed that TV viewing increased the biases social perceptions of own body image for both male and female39, and in case of women also led to consumption behaviour in order to achieve ideal bodies. A study among Korean college females revealed that exposure to thin images in magazines ads indicated a greater level of upward comparison with thin models, and higher upward comparison further induced body image dissatisfaction (Han, 2003). Authors of another Korean study even concluded that appearance social standards transmitted through media are stronger that real life comparison (Lee & Kwon, 2010). The power of media upward may be result of the fact that such a ―comparison is rather an automatic and unconscious process. Thus viewers may not realize their engaging in such comparison while viewing thin media images‖ (Han, 2003, p. 68). In addition, those exposed to idealize image not only judged themselves but also others based on the perceived ideals. Another study showed that males after watching TV show with attractive females found later the average woman to be less attractive and rate their current relationships as less favourable (Kenrick & Gutierres, 1980). The exposure to social world may have effect of a downward comparison in case we accept the assumption that media portray a rare concentration of higher physical attractiveness which does not appropriately correspond with social environment. Therefore, downward comparison may help to realize media display a beauty myth. An experiment among American women found out that exposure to idealized images without social comparison induction led to more dieting behaviour among all participants, but in the group where participants were also exposed to social comparison, only the ones with high BMI started dieting but not low-BMI individuals who may have felt closer to the presented comparison standards (Knobloch-Westerwick and Crane, 2012). Festinger‟s social comparison theory postulates several hypotheses. Here we will elaborate three of them. First hypothesis states that people seek to evaluate their opinions and abilities by comparing them with those of others. More specifically, they try to compare with others whose opinions and abilities are more close to their own ones. As a proverb states: ‗birds of a feather flock together‘. It means that people tend to not expose themselves intentionally toward opinions that are far inconsistent with their opinions, or to
39 There was found stronger effect in case of women. 42 compete with someone with significantly higher ability (Festinger, 1954). To apply it on beauty, concept would suppose that individuals who do not agree with beauty glorification or cosmetic surgery will not watch TV programs promoting them, and vice versa. Also, those whose physical appearance is far from prevailing beauty standards will not expose themselves to beauty ideal images. However, in case of cosmetic surgery, there is one significant factor, which is attainability. This relates to the second hypothesis that assumes that people take action to reduce discrepancies in abilities by improving their own ones. The drive for improving oneself is given by competitive need for self-evaluation in comparison to others (ibid). Similar situation can occur with respect to beauty capital. Although beauty is not ability, it represents a premium that is useful in society same as an ability. Moreover, beauty is improvable, not only through make-up or fashion but today also surgically. Attainability is great factor influencing the social comparison. Knobloch- Westerwick and Crane (2012) claims that attainability of displayed physical appearance ―may influence whether upward comparisons have a self-deflating or inspiring impact‖ (p. 83). In fact it may even affect whether viewers try to reconcile their opinions and ‗ability‘. If I knew, as in history, that a face or body are given by nature and unchangeable, I may not even admit any comparison, or keep it as fantasy. Possibly I would not even bother too much or be dissatisfied by myself because wouldn‘t make sense. However, new technologies provide new opportunities for comparison and greater dissatisfaction. Holstrom supports this assumption by positing that dissatisfaction arises when heavy viewers begin to see this thin-ideal not only as realistic, but also physically attainable (Vonderen & Kinnally, 2012). It is difficult to be ‗only one‘ without enhanced appearance when ‗everyone‘ has it. Here we approach to third hypothesis suggesting that people take action to reduce discrepancies in attitudes, whether by changing others to bring them closer to oneself or by changing one's own attitudes to bring them closer to others. That may be issue in South Korea in particular with respect to higher level of conformity. In case that majority of population has rather accepting attitude toward cosmetic surgery, it is possible that deviant opinion will adjust if a person want to feel as member of community, or the resistance will actually occur within the boundaries of ideology.
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4.2 Resonance
As was stated multiple researcher argued that media are not prime factor in beauty perception forming. Real world social environment has perhaps even higher significance, especially peer and parental attitude and assessment. The social environment play also role during social comparison. With reference to above, in history, an individual would see a beautiful painting, afterwards he return back to his usual activities and environment where appearance of people only rarely resonate with the one on painting. When a viewer‘s personal experiences involve beautiful faces and cosmetic surgery heavy viewing of television programs depicting certain facial features and cosmetic surgery may result in a ‗double dose‘ of the television message and significantly boost cultivation (Shrum & Bischak, 2001). In fact, there may not be necessarily needed heavy viewing. Moreover, with the high number of facial cosmetic surgery, it is highly predictable that there is ‗enhanced‘ person in one‘s surroundings. In that case downward social comparison in social environment may not occur. Concept of resonance suggests that ―those people whose life experiences are more congruent with the experiences of the television world will be most affected by the television message‖ (ibid, p. 191). These experiences may be personal but also transmitted from their peers and parents especially. Especially parental influence is one of the most important factors associated with body attitudes during a child‘s development. It has been suggested that ―parental influence is a primary influence on body dissatisfaction‖ [and …] if parental attitudes toward body shape and weight resonate with those of the media, they may also be linked to internalization of the thin ideal‖ (Vonderen & Kinnally, 2012, p. 45). Thus their emphasis on appearance may leave the child insecure and vulnerable to media images. In addition, resonance broadens the reach of existing body image stereotypes on television. It also reinforce existing attitudes, such as the idea that certain specific appearance is a necessary attribute in order to achieve success and social desirability in case that viewer or someone from his social environment experienced the situation or at least have same attitude.
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4.3 Beauty stereotypes and societal benefits
Media influence the perpetuation of appearance related stereotypes for the majority of the general population. In fact, mass media are considered as „the most influential force in forming, strengthening, and activating stereotypes concerning physical beauty‖ (Agliata & Tantleff-Dunn, 2004, p. 9). The attractive people are link with beauty but also with happy life, and so we may compare not only our physical appearance but also life options. The stereotypical portraits in media tell us that smart and successful people are lean or must try to be (Alibhai-Brown, 2010), or that beauty comes along with happiness and luxury since pretty people are ―invariably presented as relaxed, smiling and full of youthful energy, surrounded by the latest consumer goods in luxurious settings‖ (Featherstone, 2010, p. 197). The formation of link between beauty and good life serves to beauty industry because it induces consumers‘ comparison and consumer behaviour. Moreover, media work more subconsciously by associating physical appearance with positive storylines and better life changes. As was mentioned earlier in chapter 3.2, stories tend to associate beauty with good and ugliness with evil, which induces stereotypes, that good looking people cannot be bad in their true nature40. Decades ago, Adorno (1957) wrote that ―many television plays could be characterized by the sobriquet a pretty girl can do no wrong‖ (p. 485). Showing on example, when pretty girl behaves toward her farther in an incredibly inhuman and cruel manner, she is only slightly punished, if at all. As a result, ―the spectator is given to understand that pretty heroine really gets away with everything just because she is pretty‖ (p. 485). This portrait supports beauty myth in society that beauty is rewarded, that assessment of attitude towards person should be or may be based on its physical appearance. As a result, viewers may internalize that certain physical appearance lead to positive reactions from the social environment and also compare situation of media character with their own (Eisend & Möller, 2006).
40 The association of distortions of physical appearance with evil and fear is evident in books, films, cartoons and comic caricatures. For example seven years old children assessed photography of people with facial disfigurements based on negative prejudices and stereotypes heavily influenced by comic books and television programmes (Rumsey & Harcourt, 2005). 45
4.4 Body maintenance and cosmetic surgery
The upward comparison may create pressure of having a body like the media character (Han 2003, p. 67). The behaviour including dieting and fitness activities was largely documented, however with cosmetic surgery a new direction of body enhancing technique occurred. The possibility to transform surgically bodily and facial features has opened new opportunities and broadens the field of insecurities and body dissatisfaction. It was proved that greater internalization of mass media images of beauty predicts more favourable attitudes toward cosmetic surgery (e.g. Sarwer et al, 2005; Swami, 200941). For instance, results of one study suggests ―that there is a greater desire to have cosmetic surgery among women who perceive media messages as informative about physical appearance and who internalise those messages‖ (Swami, 2009, p. 317). These attitudes may be further supported by multiple messages about celebrities and idols about having cosmetic surgeries surgery. Some of them refuse the accusation but other admit it even promote cosmetic surgery clinics through advertisements. The upgraded level is direct display of cosmetic surgery procedures in media. A study by Sperry et al. (2009) revealed that ―viewership of reality cosmetic surgery shows was significantly related to more favorable cosmetic surgery attitudes, perceived pressure to have cosmetic surgery, past attainment of a cosmetic procedure, a decreased fear of surgery, as well as overall body dissatisfaction, media internalization, and disordered eating‖ (p. 7). Indeed, the increasing media coverage of cosmetic surgery was found as significant predictor of increase in cosmetic surgery (Swami, 2009; Sperry et al, 2009). ―Media coverage of cosmetic surgery is now commonplace, as advertisements promise enhanced attractiveness, magazines tout the latest developments in surgical procedures, and television reality shows celebrate physical makeovers‖ (Henderson-King & Henderson-King, 2005, p. 137-138). Ordinary people are shown not only how to dress, do make-up or style their hair like celebrities, but how they can actually have a face more like their heroines through relatively cheap, readily available cosmetic surgery. A bright example is an American reality show Extreme Makeover, the first programme to focus on the process of transformation of ordinary-looking people to
41 Study by Swami (2009) showed that the greater media influence, less body appreciation, and lower body weight were significant predictors of consideration of cosmetic surgery among female undergraduates. 46 more glamorous counterpart.42 Such programmes allowed women to watch other ordinary women go through the process in full detail, and therefore cosmetic surgery became seen not only for the rich and famous, but realistic option for ordinary women. Moreover, British version of the show, Ten Years Younger, includes also advertisement break in the middle of the programme that regularly features cosmetic surgery (Featherstone, 2010). Also South Korean have multiple reality shows regarding cosmetic surgery, the most famous is Let Me In (since 2011).43 Also Korean film industry responded to boom of cosmetic surgery with films The 200 Pound Beauty (2006), Cinderella (2006) or Time (2006) and comedy drama series Before and After Cosmetic Surgery Clinic (2008). These according to Holliday and Elfving-Hwang (2012) serve to romanticize the practice with extremely rare references to procedures gone wrong or the painful recoveries. The 200 Pounds Beauty and Cinderella especially ―foreground bodies as an important stage where intersect social pressure making main characters get an operation‖ (Kim, 2010, p. 62). Interestingly all main characters with cosmetic surgery are punished as forms of humiliation, catastrophe and penalty from society.
4.5 Conclusion
Several concepts and studies regarding media exposure were introduces, however, it is essential to point out that previous research is not consistent in terms of role of media exposure on beauty, body image and cosmetic surgery perception. Considerable number of studies supported assumption that media exposure is complementary even secondary factor. For example Vonderen and Kinnally (2012) found out that for internalization of social beauty standards and body dissatisfaction especially peers (also Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 200644) and parental attitude were significant predictors. Importantly, parents were according to McCabe and Ricciardelli‘s (2003) study more important sociocultural
42 Since 2002, when the programme was first broadcast on ABC, the American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery reported a 44 percent increase in the total number of cosmetic procedures. In the United States other programmes include FX‘s Nip and Tuck (2003), Fox‘s The Swan (2004), MTV‘s I Want a Famous Face (2004). In the UK programmes include: Channel 4‘s Ten Years Younger and Channel 5‘s Brand New You (Featherstone, 2010). 43 New approach to the cosmetic surgery took a new Korean TV show Back to My Face. The show focus on addicts (10 or more operations) who get opportunity to go under the knife one last time to restore their natural beauty. The aim is let participants reflect on their choices and to muse on what it means to be beautiful, and consequently it may prevent them to have more surgeries or reverse the process. 44 Research of boys, most of respondents felt it was important to look like peers, and like close friends in particular. 47 transmitters of messages for both adolescent boys and girls than were peers or the media. Specifically, research among Korean middle school students showed that the individual allowance for cosmetic surgery was related to ―individual body images, that were in turn affected by mass communication, surrounding environments, and social values‖ (Bae & Park, 2004, p. 26). These findings and the whole theoretical background suggest that overall societal pressure may be a key feature of specific perception of beauty, of body dissatisfaction and of attitude towards cosmetic surgery (Heinberg & Thompson, 1995). In general, information about beauty standards and ideals are based on cultural experience which is the prime source of realism. Our knowledge and beliefs consist of all experiences direct and indirect, experiences drawn from media, our real life experiences, or our social environment (Burton & Jirák, 2001; Shrum & Bischak, 2001). The important link, therefore, represent the concepts of resonance and social comparison that need to be considered in interpretation of media and sociocultural pressure in South Korea. It is obvious that question of physical appearance is complicated and person‘s attitude towards own body is based on multiple factors. The aim of this work is not to create a list of factors or the relationships among them, but rather discuss openly the very basics of beauty concept and its perception with respect to sociocultural factors intrinsic to South Korea, the country with controversial attitude to cosmetic surgery, yet at the same time with highest rate of procedures per capital. The literature review, theoretical concepts and researches serves as set of possible ways behind shaping of societal perception of beauty and physical appearance. Even though this study seek to examine beauty from societal perspective, it is helpful to realize the impact and internalization of societal attitude by individuals whose are inevitably shaped by the society.
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III. METHODOLOGY
5. Research Design
5.1 Purpose of Research
Despite the increasing tempo of cosmetic surgery procedures in Korea, little research has been done about Korean perception of cosmetic surgery45 (Swami et al., 2012) and even littlest about their perception of beauty and physical appearance46 despite the fact that people‘s attitude and behaviour in terms of cosmetic surgery purchase has roots in fundamental perception of beauty and its role in society. Most of the previous research applied quantitative research in order to found out individual perception of body image and individual reasons for body dissatisfaction and cosmetic surgery, primarily focusing on psychological factors. Moreover, the previous studies neglect the very uniform feature of cosmetic surgery in South Korea. The author of this study asserts that in order to understand the underlying nature of cosmetic surgery and beauty obsession in South Korean, it is necessary to explore the very nature of beauty perception in the society, the specific sociocultural and historical features of country and perceived effects of media representation of physical appearance since media, television especially, are considered the leading opinion makers and presenters as well as constructers of social reality. Therefore, the purpose of this qualitative ethnographic study is to explore Korean‘s perception of beauty and cosmetic surgery as well as experiences and the pressure from variety of sources in order to facilitate understanding societal dimension of this phenomenon characteristic for contemporary Korean society. In the simplest words, the very basic aim of this study is to understand phenomenon of cosmetic surgery in Korea. The main research question is as follows: What is the Koreans‟ perception of beauty, its importance in society and malleability with respect to media representation and other sociocultural factors?
45 Most of the studies focus on Western sample, primarily American population, thus there is a lack of studies on acceptance of cosmetic surgery in non-Western settings (Swami et al., 2012). 46 In fact, author of research could not find any research regarding perception of beauty or qualitative study on physical appearance in Korea. 49
5.2 Research Questions
The outlined central question is further elaborated into 4 subquestions representing the essential topics of the research. In critical ethnography particularly, the research questions may build on a body of existing literature. The questions become working guidelines rather than truths to be proven (Creswell, 2008). This study will approach to the main issue and subsequent themes in terms of two approaches. Firstly, it seeks to explore individual participants‘ opinions and experiences on issue of beauty and cosmetic surgery as well as individual reception and internalization of media images. Secondly, the study attempt to recognize participants‘ indirect experiences and to understand the participants‘ reflection on the beauty and media in Korean contemporary society. The subquestions and their indicators are as follows:
SQ1: What is the perception of beauty concept by Koreans?
Indicators: Definition of human beauty, beauty as subjective/objective concept, measurement of beauty, universal beauty, standards of beauty, natural vs. artificial beauty
- Why have plastic surgery objective/homogenous character and non-Asian feature focus? (Is beauty subjective of objective concept?) - How should ideal person look like to be considered as beautiful? - Are natural beauty and artificial beauty equal? What is the difference between them? SQ2: What societal pressure (peers and parents; job and relationships) Koreans experience with respect to their physical appearance? Indicators: beauty as predictor of character and better self, importance of beauty, advantages of beauty, success in job, success in romantic relationship, beauty talk with parents, beauty talk with friends, pressure from parents, pressure from friends.
- How is the life in Korea with respect to physical appearance? - What are the advantages of beauty? - Do Koreans feel pressure from society considering beauty, how this pressure looks like and what are consequences? o What is the perceived importance of physical appearance in job seeking? o What is the perceived importance of physical appearance in romantic relationship? 50
o How parents affect perception of beauty and cosmetic surgery? o How friends affect perception of beauty and cosmetic surgery? - How perceived societal pressure affect cosmetic surgery attitude and purchase?
SQ3: What is the role of media on perception of beauty and cosmetic surgery?
Indicators: internalization of media beauty images (media exposure, media as source of information about attractiveness, media reality, comparison), media comparison, feeling after media exposure, reflection on media (media pressure, media influence, celebrity models, popularity of k-dramas)
- How respondents internalize beauty image provided by media? - What comparison, respectively feeling about appearance media evokes? - How Koreans reflect on role of media in beauty and cosmetic surgery perception?
SQ4: How Koreans understand cosmetic surgery?
Indicators: self-image/self-assessment, body satisfaction, perception of cosmetic surgery (advantage and downsides of cosmetic surgery), reasons for cosmetic surgery, media and cosmetic surgery, peers and cosmetic surgery, parents and cosmetic surgery, beauty capital and cosmetic surgery, experience with cosmetic surgery, effect of cosmetic surgery, controversy of cosmetic surgery.
- What is respondents‘ self-image? - What meanings attribute Koreans who underwent cosmetic surgery to their body enhancement? - Is cosmetic surgery and beauty obsession question of free-will self-expression or result of societal pressure? (parents, peers, media, job, romantic relationship) - Is cosmetic surgery necessity or vanity? - Why is cosmetic surgery so controversial topic? - Cosmetic surgery as: . A beauty premium, capital, investment in the body in consumer society . A free-will self-expression, self-esteem . Celebrity imitation, media exposure . Business practice
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5.3 Research Methods
As mentioned above, most of the studies concerning the issue of body image or cosmetic surgery were of quantitative nature, seeking to explore factors behind body image disturbance, and relationships between the various factors. Whereby, there is a lack of in- depth qualitative understanding of a variety of specifics of the phenomenon. There is no known research mapping the opinions and reflection of Koreans on the sensitive issue of cosmetic surgery as well as their experiences gain while living in society uncompromisingly gazing its eyes on the outer beauty. Therefore, this study adopted an interpretative paradigm to achieve comprehension of participant experiences, perception, and reflection on beauty and cosmetic surgery in Korea. The qualitative study employs the ethnographic approach with an aspect of phenomenological tradition. Ethnographic research, then, aims at description and interpretation of cultural or social group and to discover the true nature of human social experience with a holistic, contextualized approach. The prime focus of phenomenological research is to understand the essence of experiences about phenomenon. (Creswell, 1998). The research is the combination of the two approaches because such a methodological range allows to provide more complex understanding of the topic since phenomenological approach drawn primarily on interview of others experiencing phenomenon while ethnography in prioritize observation during the extended time in the field (6 months to a year) and ethnographical interview (ibid).
Qualitative research in media studies
Large part of the study aim at understanding of media role in formation perception of beauty and its effect on cosmetic surgery purchase. Qualitative method is frequently employed in communication and media studies. Its focus is ―not so driven by the goal of prediction but the desire for understanding some phenomenon - reasons for why it exists and explaining the unknown processes behind it‖ (Reinhard, 2007, p. 7). Therefore, the goal of the study is to facilitate in-depth, broad and complex understanding of a particular phenomenon rather than the generalize findings to the broader population – ―Where quantitative studies desire the ability to reliably apply the study to a large, heterogeneous population, the qualitative study tends to be more concerned with validly representing the phenomenon being studied‖ (ibid, p. 7). Following the cultural studies approach the context of broad social and cultural practice. The current study does not seek to explore the isolated media effects but recognize respondents‘ ability to interpret media narratives about 52 beauty that are implicated in mass media discourse with respect to their overall sociocultural environment. For that purpose audience reception analysis 47 drawing on interpretivism will be employed. The aim of the analysis is to find out certain similar patterns in individuals‘ interpretations as well as to explore how specific audiences differ in the social production of meaning, respectively why are some more vulnerable and thus influenced by media representation of beauty than others? To achieve this understanding, one focus of this study is to gather data from participants with various experiences with beauty and cosmetic surgery.48 The reception analysis uses primarily in-depth interviewing and observation (Jensen & Rosengren, 2005, p. 58). This study employed multiple data collection techniques. The ethnographic and respondent interviews were conducted. The ability of interview to travel deeply and broadly into subjective realities has make interview preeminent method in social sciences. The aim of qualitative interviews is to in eliciting in-depth understanding of the social actors‘ experience and perspectives. Ethnographic interviews are situational conversation that occurs spontaneously in the field. On the other hand, respondent interview is planned conversation that has certain structure so the responses can be compared across the entire sample. The aim of the respondent interview is, according to Paul Lazarsfeld, 1) to clarify the meaning of common concepts and opinions, 2) to distinguish the decisive elements of an expressed opinion, 3) to determine what influences a person to form an opinion or to act in certain way, 4) to classify complex attitude patterns, and 5) to understand the interpretations that people attribute to their motivations to act (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002). The current study aims to clarify the meanings of the concept of beauty and related consequences as well as meanings that participants receive and interpret from media (1), to recognize what influence respondents opinion on beauty, cosmetic surgery respectively and potential body enhancing behaviour (3) as well as their motivation to underwent cosmetic surgery as well as reason for no maintaining their
47 Ideally, reception analysis studies include a comparative empirical analysis of media discourses with audience discourses – content structures with the structure of audience responses regarding content (Jensen & Rosengren, 2005). Due he the lack of resources as well as character of the study, the current study adopted only audience oriented part of analysis. 48 Presumably, non-plastic surgery participants will likely be more active and critical in while decoding/interpreting media message, and they more carefully chose media products to be exposed to. Thus they decided to do not accept or even fight against values and meanings of dominant ideology conveyed through media. 53 natural appearance (5). Furthermore, the research seeks to also explore respondents‘ interpretation and reflexion upon Korean society and media images.
5.4 Research Sample
The research was conducted in 2014 during a 10 month-long exchange study program in Korea which preceded the collection of information about Korean drama production and cosmetic surgery situation. The personal motivation for the topic was firstly raised during the three weeks-long stay in Korea in summer 2013 during which author experienced several ―culture shocks‖, included the one of beauty and physical appearance obsession49. As the result of the stay I was motivated to watch Korean dramas (many of them explicitly emphasizing beauty of characters; while many of actors and actress have surgically enhanced physical appearance) and documentary about cosmetic surgery in Korea, and to collect more information about the phenomenon. This has gradually led to reinforcement of the assumption about the enormous significance of beauty and the unique attitude towards cosmetic surgery as means of body transformation that significantly differs from my previous experiences in Czech Republic. The sample includes primarily Korean students studying at one if the best Korean university. This group is there characterized by high level of education and better socio economic condition. University students form an important demographic group in Korea and especially in Seoul where is the greatest concentration of university education institutions. For Korean students university often represent a start of ‗new life‘. The time on middle and high school in replete almost exclusively by studying, and the social life is very limited. On the one side, university life provides a greater social life and therefore possible lower need for media consumption. On the other hand, in Seoul many students lives under the supervision of their family, therefore they are freer in organization of their free time and in choice of TV programs. In fact, Yoo and Buzinde (2012) argue that
49 During the short stay it was first time for author to see a numerous advertisement on cosmetic surgery displayed on public places, even heavily in public transportation. In one local restaurant, the TV program included the survey in Korean primary school where when children were asked whether they would underwent cosmetic surgery, the vast majority raised their hands. Moreover, author was, as part of voluntary project, in classes of children from first grade to fifth grade of primary school. During our activities one little girl from lower degree class asked the author (of European background) why have she done so many cosmetic surgery to gain desired European look. The girl was sad and envious. 54 university students are active consumers of media content; therefore they are a valuable group through which to interrogate media perceptions. Korean university students also use mobile devices very actively. In fact, media are frequently consumed through smartphones which are complemented by antennas. Primarily subways are common place for watching television. Another important feature to consider university students as valuable group is that many of the cosmetic surgery operations are underwent before entering university. As was confirmed by majority of respondents they or their friends purchased a surgery at that time. Moreover, the great pressure is experienced during high school years. Therefore this population have an appropriate amount of experiences. It is necessary true that student sample was chosen also out of the convenience or, better to say, necessity. As a foreign student without proper local language skills, the research sample must have been able to meet the requirement of certain level of English skills. This criterion formed a limitation that will be further explained below. Another valuable group would represent high school students who consume media intensively and at the same time experience high pressure on their appearance as revealed findings. Lastly, the study further points out, that parents would be very essential group for further research. While students of all degrees are frequent research target, parents of those children with and without cosmetic surgery are rather unexplored group. In order to capture the certain level of complexity of the chosen cultural phenomenon in the current ethnographic study, the effort was taken to ensure that respondents can provide new insight into the topic. Therefore, the research sample involved variation in personal experience with cosmetic surgery and in gender. This sample allowed for as broad a range of information as possible contributing to a multifaceted interpretive research account (Banister, 1999). Such a composition seeks to enable the understanding of the diverse conditions behind perception of beauty and cosmetic surgery through the diverse personal narratives as well as reflection on the issue. Moreover, during search for suitable respondents I was given the opportunity to interview a young women working in local television channel as a news announcer. I gladly accept the chance since I was already aware a strong pressure media workers experience. Her story strongly corresponded from what I heard from indirect experiences of other Koreans. The interview may serve as a limited yet valuable insight to the media industry in Korea. The total number of respondents was 15. The basic demographic information as their experience with cosmetic surgery is described in Table 1.
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Table 1: Demographic Information of Participants Name Male/Female Age Occupation Cosmetic procedure/surgery Juhee Female 23 Student No Somin Female 21 Student No Jaehub Male 25 Student No, planning nose surgery Kaeun Female 23 Student No Seulgi Male 26 Student No Youjin Female 25 Student No Heejun Male 27 Student No Sangseok Male 28 Student No Minji Female 23 Student No Eunmal Female 27 News announcer Yes – nose surgery Sukjeong Female 24 Student Yes – cheek procedure Gayeon Female 22 Student Yes – nose surgery Soeun Female 23 Student Yes – nose and eyes surgery Yeonbin Male 24 Student Yes – nose procedure Changmin Male 25 Student No Total number Male – 6 Age 21-27 Students - 14 Cosmetic surgery: Yes - 5 of participants Media-related Female – 9 Mean – 24,4 No – 9 – 15 occupation - 1 Planning – 1
5.5 Data Collection
The interviews with respondents were collected throughout the whole stay in Korea, with the great part conducted at the end when the research design became clearer. Participants were recruited through snowball, and purposive sampling. Purposive sampling is the most common sampling technique used in qualitative studies. Specific sampling criteria are based on the objectives of the project, and the appropriate experience is the key consideration in selecting respondents (Lindlof and Taylor, 2002). The choice reflects the pursuit of diversity in participant‘s experience as well as limitation given by language and cultural barriers and sensitivity of the issue. For that reason snowball sampling was employed since it is best recruiting technique for studies concerning sensitive topics (Lindlof and Taylor, 2002). Therefore, the contact with respondents was initiated mainly through the introduction through third parties recommendation. The majority of participant was students of Sungkyunkwan University in Seoul, their study majors varied. The first 56 series of interviews were conducted in June 2014 and served as a part of a documentary that I created with my three colleagues.50 These interviews brought initial findings and helped to further elaborate themes for discussion as well as led to more adequate coverage of related theories and concepts in the theoretical part. The interviews took place on public places, usually at school or in cafes. The duration of individual interviews ranged between 40 minutes to one and half hour, they were audiotaped and transcribed for analysis. The interview guide helped to organize the course of interview. A Lindlof and Taylor (2002) explain, the interview guide consists of set of topics and questions that interviewer can ask, but does not need to follow the order. He can ask optional questions and follow an unexpected conversational path. The important is goal rather than mean. To achieve the complex understanding several type of questions were employed. During interviews were used non-directive and directive questions.
5.6 Limitations
The researcher had to face several limitations in the study. First of all, it must be noted that the use foreign language may have influence the character and the quality of collected data. As was already mentioned the adequate level of English that would allow respondents to express their thoughts was a prior condition. Such a condition, however, affected the research sample and possibly the character of findings. In overall, English language skill of Korean students are not great, especially spoken skills. The related issue is also a certain level of shyness related to foreigners who are still not frequent in Korea. This leads to avoidance of conversation with foreigner in English. Therefore, the majority of students open to discussion are those who spent a certain amount of time abroad, usually on study program. This is also the case of many respondents out of them at least 5 lived at least several months abroad. At first, the condition of the English level represent a practical criterion, however, as first interviews revealed, the experience from abroad became a significant factor in respondent‘s reflection upon perception of beauty in Korea. In general, these participants compare the pressure they experience in Korea with relative freedom
50 The documentary film is attached on CD. See also Appendix 2. 57 abroad. The experiencing context of different culture, therefore, may have affected their overall view of beauty and cosmetic surgery, yet this is not a definite. Some of these participants confirmed that Korean culture embedded in them strongly. Therefore, even though they realize that the beauty is valued too much in Korea, they follow this ‗fashion‘. Furthermore, their comparison provides valuable personal reflection on Korean society, that was characterized by a perspective and that was in overall consistent among participants. Nevertheless, to enrich a sample and especially to find respondents with cosmetic surgery I conducted 2 interviews with mediators who helped with translating the interviews. Here must be pointed out that especially those participants who spoke fluently English did not have cosmetic surgery and on contrary. In overall, it appeared to be problematic to find participants with cosmetic surgery willing to be interviewed and able to speak English. This could be partly explained by the fact that to be able to speak openly to a foreigner in English about own appearance requires a certain level of self-confidence that may also relate to the confidence about the body image. If we go even further with implication, we could assume that cosmetic surgery is in numerous cases underwent by rather insecure individuals with a little or none experiences from abroad and therefore a little international comparison. Therefore, as can be seen, the level of English is not just matter of self-expression ability, but the criterion also predefines and possibly limits the character of findings. The second challenge of to the study presented the sensitivity of the issue that appeared to be another limitation during recruitment process and serves as one of the initial findings. The topic of cosmetic surgery is controversial in Korea, and therefore not very openly discussed. Fielding (2007) wrote text about working in hostile environment focusing primarily on the environment that may be dangerous to researcher‘s physical and mental health. Some kind of hostility is applicable also in case of sensitive issues since sensitive issue research supposes rather passive respondent group. In the presented research, those who underwent some kind of cosmetic surgery procedure belong to the more hostile group. There were no significant restrains during recruiting the non-surgical participants, however to convince those who have first-hand experience became a great challenge. I contacted the amount of people with cosmetic surgery, mainly through Korean acquaintances, yet the great number of them responded that they are not feeling
58 comfortable talking about the practice.51 As a consequence, several steps were conducted. Firstly, the one of the way to recruit the participant was made through public notice. Secondly, the course of interview focused primarily on question of beauty, society and media, and eventually, if possible, a careful detour towards body enhancement issue was made. Additionally, it is important to realize that the hostile attitude reveals some essential information. As Fielding (2007) wrote in his text, the resistance is an important way to understand the culture being researched, and researchers can derive insight into belief systems and other facts of the culture from a reflexive stance towards the issue from their attitudes. Here, the hostility to discuss topic of cosmetic surgery and question of beauty by those having cosmetic surgery facilitates understanding of their as well as public attitude towards the topic, quire further reflection. Respectively, the one of the first findings of the study suggests that the people with cosmetic surgery incline to conceal this fact which may be the proof of the ongoing controversy of the practice.
51 For instance, I asked several Korean friend to arrange an interview with her friend with cosmetic surgery, she confessed that it may be better to ask Koreans randomly than through friends because, at least in her case, it is quite uncomfortable to talk ask about it her close friend since their never mentioned it, even after the procedure when it was obvious.
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IV. RESULTS
Theme 1: 3 Paradoxes of Beauty
A) Subjective versus objective – beauty is in the eye of society
Even though people may have been ‗programed‘ to prioritize certain beauty features, it has been at the same time believed that every person has partly its unique way of seeing beauty that does not need to correspond with professional standards of ideal beauty such as ‗golden ratio‘. There was an article defining which Korean movie star has ―the most beautiful human face‖ according to the one of the leading plastic surgeon who used the golden ration to measure the perfectness.52 However as another article showed none of these actors on the list were positioned on the list of the ten most favourite Korean actors based on an international fans‘ voting.53 This proves that scientist measurement is not golden rule that can be always applied in real life. As Kant said, beauty is not grounded in rational argument (Scruton, 2009). That, however, does not mean that certain features are more desirable than others. The research revealed that all of the participants believe in rather subjective perception of beauty. As Minji said, it would be chaos if people had objective beauty and everybody liked the same person. The most of participants agree with her and firmly state that we have our own personal judgments following Darwin‘s (1871) argument. However, several respondents supported the idea that level of subjectivity is limited. That is, we have certain free choice but this choice takes place within the general type of beauty. For example, Somin and Juhee believe that there is some space for individual taste in some details, but we keep our standards inside the objective beauty standard. Heejun supports the idea by saying that “it is not perfect if you make any idea about beauty which doesn‟t have any connection to the reality.” In some cases, the subjective view can be totally overshadowed by need to follow objective rules. Such a situation experiences another male respondent, Sangseok: “Beauty is something that is very independent and something that I have to decide. But I don‟t feel free to decide. There is a confliction between the beauty
52 http://www.dramafever.com/news/plastic-surgeon-picks-your-10-handsomest-actors/ 53 http://www.dramafever.com/news/fans-pick-the-top-10-korean-actors-and-its-not-who-the-industry-chose/ 60 that I thought and beauty that others talk. I always prepare myself on my own will but sometimes I am just influence by others, sometimes I have to wear black clothes to fit into conception. Especially when I have blind date I really have to fit to others beauty conception. But I don‟t like it.” This statement may seem strict; however, it is more realistic, especially in terms of contemporary Korean society. Beauty standards are heavily formalized and expectations high, which is the fact all respondents realize. Despite their personal inclination towards subjective beauty concept many of them feel pressure on conforming objective beauty standards. As Youjin explains, “people in Korea have a kind of list of things people must have in order to get themselves quoted as beautiful.” The omnipresence of these standards is supported by the fact that each respondent is able to accurately name the desired, mostly facial, features on this list.54 Furthermore, as was proposed in theoretical part, some preferences are culturally determined. However, Korean contemporary beauty standards are not culturally inherited as was supposed by Rhodes (2006) but rather outsourced and artificially incorporated into the society. Despite the occurring denial that the aim of cosmetic surgery is to gain western features, three of the participant mentioned on their own that base on contemporary beauty ideals it seems that Koreans are losing some preference for Asian beauty and prioritizing more Western beauty. This claiming support also the fact that first cosmetic surgeries were done during Korean War when Korean women wanted to more resemble Caucasian features so their American partners and husbands were not ashamed of them (Alter, 2013).55 Although, the fact is that today the beauty ideals are set rather by Korean pop idols and Korean drama stars therefore the feeling to resemble Caucasian features may be decreasing. According to respondents the level of objectivity of beauty is phenomenon primarily of latest ten or twenty years, and the reason for that the majority of respondents attributes to the mass media that have been training people to perceive beauty objectively rather than subjectively. For instance, Jaehub argues that, “there are so many k-pop stars in Korea and almost all of them have similar outer appearance, similar face, they all wear similar clothes… By seeing them continuously we are thinking that beauty is objective rather than subjective. Because television is forcing us to believe that beauty is the thing
54 Bigger, ideally double-eyelid, eyes; high nose; sharp chin; small white face; clear skin 55 The similar motivation appeared also in other East-Asian countries such as China or Vietnam where women pursue surgeries to appeal American customers in bar, to possible husbands or to increase job opportunities (Alter, 2013) 61 that is objective”. Even streets, subways and buses are replete with the advertisements showing ‗the ideal face‘, that was achieved and can be achieved again through cosmetic surgery. At least that is the promise. For respondents this is the aspect of cosmetic surgery that is not acceptable, not even those respondents with cosmetic surgery. In fact those participants with cosmetic surgery loudly point out that this kind of homogenized appearance is despicable, and moreover it shows the difference between their legitimized behaviour and uncontrolled plastic surgery by sick individuals. For example, Gayeon with one nose surgery think that “it is kind of embarrassing to saw the kind of advertising in subway stations, like about plastic surgery. All that is so same, they look so same.” Kaeun suggested another reason behind objectivity of beauty standards that corresponds with Korean sense of conformity. For her it is “something cultural that Koreans don‟t want to be different, they want to be within the society….. They are more used to same thoughts, same groups, same beauty”. It may be the reason why cosmetic surgery has got to the point of producing same face, along with trained sense of comparison and competition. Moreover, beauty is considered by some people the matter of fashion. According to Seulgi “we have trends in our clothing, it is same with beauty, we have trends in our faces”. Beauty standards in Korean media are according to many Koreans changing, they believe that media will gradually show more oriental faces, especially the Asian eyes. Whether there will be a new set of strict rules or greater diversity is, however, not clear. Eunmal, for example, reckon that one standard will be replaced by another. More respondents, however, see future rather positively. Sukjeong explains her thoughts: “We really wanted to have face like western girls… And we made it, with our plastic surgery. But people started to be tired of same face. The various type of face started already. And even though her eyes are not so big, we realize she can be pretty. And after several years, maybe we can have more various types of actor and actress, the different kinds of beauty.” Minji belongs to the most critical respondents heavily criticizing objectification as well as cosmetic surgery. According to her reached the current craze for the uniform face a peak: “We came to think that this kind of unification of appearance is something horrible… now I think that also Korea came to the point that we see beauty in difference.” The role of shifter will according to Sukjeong take media: “Whenever I see program I think they are just making the trend. Pushing girls to go crazy. I think it is their job to change culture and trend.” Once again, same as media define the current beauty trend; they may establish a new beauty trend.
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Finally, there is one more issue related to the paradox of objective and subjective beauty. As was already stated, all Korean respondents emphasized subjective beauty. Yet, some of the described facial features they desire for themselves or at opposite sex resemble contemporary beauty ideals in Korea, mainly high nose, small face and big, not necessarily double-eyelid, eyes.
B) Beautiful, but natural
One in five Korean women has some form of cosmetic surgery56 (Stone, 2013) and every respondent has friends with some procedure, yet, it is not a usual topic of open discussion57. In overall the attitude of public is controversial and full of paradoxes. Many girls and guys with cosmetic surgery are hiding the fact or they at least refuse to talk about their experience. One reason suggested by respondents is that they do not want to be judged by others. The other related reason is that they want to be seen as natural beauties. The cosmetic surgery is common practice accepted by many. Yet, it appears that in spite of popularity of cosmetic surgery, there are critics of the trend that have loud voice. This, however, is not the main reason for hiding the procedure. Respondents revealed that natural beauty is praised more than artificial beauty. Surprisingly, the most of the critique aim at celebrities as explains Kaeun: “Plastic surgeries for movie stars are more unacceptable. If they announce that they had one. It is like „Oh so you were not beautiful before. Now you are better only because of the plastic surgery.‟” Paradox here is that people know that almost every superstar has cosmetic surgery, yet they comment badly on Internet about them. Eunmal who works as announcer for a local news program has been experiencing this situation. She has cosmetic surgery of nose, however she receive a lot of hateful comments blaming her from having multiple surgeries. She describes her experience: “This is my natural forehead but lately many females who want to be pretty, do surgery to have forehead exactly as mine. So people think I have many plastic surgeries. They say she looks like „seonggwoe‟ (plastic surgery monster)58. It hurts. … First I saw every comment and I cry, after that I don‟t search the comments.” She already knows that
56 compared to around one in 20 in the U.S 57 That cause a problém in searching for respondents with cosmetic surgery, as is noted in methodological part 58 In fact, the term ―plastic surgery‖ is inaccurate. In Korean, the literal meaning is ―form shaping surgery‖; there is less of a negative or fake (―plastic‖) connotation to the word itself (Chung, 2014). 63 people will always complain no matter how she looks like, “if you look on that online photograph ugly, then they hate it so you get bad comments, and if you look like monster then you get bad comments as well. It is tough job,” says Eunmal. The reason for such behaviour may be true hatred toward cosmetic surgery as well as jealousy sometimes the knowledge of cosmetic surgery help individual to cope with the beauty of other person. If the comparison leads a viewer to the feeling of dissatisfaction with own appearance, the denial of someone‘s appearance as a natural may serve as rationalization and better acceptation of own appearance. For example, Somin strongly emphasizes the superiority of natural beauty, while she admits: “Maybe I envy because I cannot have cosmetic surgery so when I see someone with cosmetic surgery I told to by self, it is not natural.” Cosmetic surgery is not exception of celebrities. Thousands of young girls head to the clinics to get double eyelid or well defined nose. Yet, these procedures become a ‗common secrets‘. For obvious reasons: Boys do not want plastic girls. At least this is want most of female respondent believe in. For example, Soeun points out that “when you ask a Korean guy what they think about girls with cosmetic surgery, they always tell you: I hate plastic surgery but I want pretty girl (laugh).” On that note, Juhee complains: “This is such a paradox. We have to look pretty but naturally pretty. When some girl looks naturally pretty, others see her like goodness. But you are not supposed to play with the nature”. The concerns these girls have are in many cases legitimate. Out of five male respondents two would not date a girl with cosmetic surgery. Another male participant, Sangseok, do not see a problem in dating girl with cosmetic surgery, however he would not support his future wife in doing so. “If girlfriend or ex-girlfriend had a plastic surgery, I am ok with that. But when I have a very serious date and she would be my wife, then if she want to have plastic surgery I think I would say that I don‟t want to. I really want the natural beauty.” Sangseok further points out that many of his friends is very conservative and they want only natural beauty while making jokes about those with cosmetic surgery: “But the awkward thing is that they don‟t want the ordinary girl, they want the beautiful one. Girl has to naturally very beautiful.” This is the contemporary phenomenon that burdens many young people; they are expected to be pretty as TV stars but naturally. Furthermore, not only female are concerned about negative judgements of cosmetic surgery. One male participant confessed that he would like cosmetic surgery of nose, however, “I don‟t want to reveal in front of other people that I did plastic surgery… Every person wants to be beautiful person in born, not to be made beautiful,” explains Jaehub.
64
The topic of cosmetic surgery is often commonly discussed within friends circles and family, yet when someone undergo a procedure, it is not common to point out the fact and can be considered as even impolite. Such a discussion occurs practically only between best friends, and even in this case may be very limited.
C) Cosmetic surgery but natural and individual and modest
Ordinary girls or boys can hardly fit into portrayed beauty ideals, yet such a beauty is often wanted by opposite sex, and since people do not want to lower their expectations they are more willing to accept cosmetic surgery of others. However, there is a big condition for acceptance of cosmetic surgery, the result must look natural and pretty. For instance, Sangseok says that these days there are more and more guy friends who are for girl‘s cosmetic surgery: “There is always desire in human for natural beauty. But it is not realistic so if the girl is really good looking, even from the plastic surgery, they don‟t care.” Another male respondent Yeonbin support this idea: “I appreciate the artificial beauty as far as result is successful, if it looks natural.” In fact, Yeonbin says that in that case artificial beauty become equal to natural beauty. At the same time study revealed the fine line between accepting and disapproving of cosmetic surgery. Too much of anything is bad, and too much of cosmetic surgery is despicable. At least by participants of study. They all agreed upon critique of so called Gangnam style cosmetic surgery, or ‗the seonggwoe‘ (literally: plastic surgery monster). In other words the undergoing of several surgeries in order to look exactly same was considered as ‗too much‘. For instance, a male participant, Seulgi, argues: “I don‟t have some feelings against plastic surgery, but if they do too much, it makes me uncomfortable. Only if it is too much, like doing nose, doing eyes, it is ok.” For him the standard of doing too much is natural. Is it natural or unnatural? This, however, implies a presumption that artificial can be ever considered as natural. If we do a little detour, Gayeon also mentioned that ―artificial beauty is less natural‖, instead of saying that it is unnatural or opposite of natural. Soeun then noted that, ―at some point it stops being pretty but too artificial,‖ suggesting that appropriate level of surgeries is not considered as artificial enhancement of bod. In that sense, it seems that Korea has already incorporated certain surgical procedures, primarily eyes and nose, as something not artificial, and indeed comparable with they stay in spa or fixing the teeth. Stone (2013) wrote that ―the two operations are so common that they are not called surgery, but a ‗procedure‘.‖
65
The most of respondents agreed that cosmetic surgery should help person to fix one or two complexes. For instance, Yeonbin argues: “If I have specific purpose for plastic surgery, such as make a nose higher, then it makes sense, but if becoming more beautiful is to standardize everyone, to make them homogeneous, then it is not about becoming beautiful.” Here, it must be pointed out that Yeonbin has a cosmetic procedure. He raised his nose by injection. The important is that even those participants with cosmetic surgery criticized the so called ‗Gangnam Yoja‘ (Gangnam girl) phenomenon. For Soeun who had already three cosmetic surgeries are these girls “too artificial” and Gayeon who had her nose raised is even more critical: “When I see advertisement at Gangnam station they really look same and awkward. They don‟t even look pretty. I really hate that kind of plastic surgery trend.” The problem is, according to Gayeon, that they cannot satisfy their taste and want always more. “You don‟t need to do everything, that‟s too much,” says Gayeon. This is what differentiates her as well as other respondents with cosmetic surgery from those girls. They believe that they had clear goals and ‗did not go crazy‘. Respectively, all except one legitimized their action as doing only one less invasive procedure that fixed their complex. According to Sukjeong, everybody has some complex and cosmetic surgery is here to repair the self-esteem, as it did in her case or in case of Gayeon. But, she points out that “if it is case of girls who are already sick in their mind and cannot control themselves, then it can be a drug.” This describes the respondents of cosmetic surgery, they mostly describes themselves as the modest examples who were not sick inside, even considerably satisfied with their earlier appearance but felt they may achieve even greater beauty with cosmetic surgery, which is, moreover, common practice among celebrities as well as their friends. Gayeon is bright example, she argues: “I liked myself before, I just wanted to be more pretty” since this is the aim of cosmetic surgery, to ―add some beauty into their face.‖ But within the boundaries of ‗being natural‘.
Theme 2: The Treasure Hunt
A) Person’s biggest power is beauty
The participant in overall believed that beauty is not just question of outer appearance but also of person character and inner beauty. In terms of appearance several of them even preferred imperfection rather than ideal beauty. However they at the same time admit that in today‘s hectic time of short encounters, we make decisions on the basis of a short 66 superficial first impression. In that situation, beauty is important factor that determines who you are. For example, Somin argues: “Beauty is not as important as heart, but we cannot neglect beauty because we give the impression through beauty, when we first meet people.” It accurately describes the feelings of the other respondents, who admitted that despite the importance of inner self, the reality requires the perfect outer appearance. Sukjeong even consider beauty as modern kind of hierarchical tool: “In Joseon dynasty there was strong hierarchy based on social status. We don‟t have that kind of hierarchy anymore, but I think that physical appearance is now way to get something and it can be a reason we lose something.” In that sense, beauty could be considered as a specific capital, defined by Bourdieu, characterized by greater chances on success in employment and in romantic relationship, and overall better position in society. Respondents truly believed that for the good appearance person receive reward while bad appearance is punished. Among them, Somin, gives a very good example. She believes that fat person does not have a boyfriend and people make fun of them. Her experience proves she is not too far from true:
―I had a job in supermarket as cashier and one of my female colleague looked like men. The customer behaved a little bit differently to me and her. Even if she was in the first row and me in the second, the men went to me to pay. They said: „hey, let‟s go to the other women, she is prettier‟. I could have heard them and she also heard.”
Later, Somin confessed: “I worry if I didn‟t care about my appearance people would ignore me,” and therefore she is constantly trying to lose her weight. This attitude may have seem extreme, yet another female respondent, Gayon confirm Somin‘s concerns. She argues: “If you should decide whether to go to coffee shop where is working very ugly person or very beautiful person, you prefer to go to the beautiful person.” Beautiful person can earn more money and that is the reason why employers consider greatly candidate‘s appearance, as will be described in next chapter. The research further discovered that many Koreans have feeling of omnipresent supervision. There are so many rules that significantly limit free self-expression of an individual‘s appearance that some interviewees feel pressure on fitting into standards they are not related or they did not feel outside the Korea. Firstly, there were few participant who expressed confidence about their appearance or sense of fashion, on the other hand some confessed they feel need to follow strict societal rules. For example, Sangseok admits he likes his style but he has to wear fancy clothes, ideally of black colour, and perfume to 67 be “someone who fit into society.” Other four participants pointed out the difference of life in Korea and abroad where lived or travelled for some longer period. During their life abroad they forgot much of beauty concerns and let themselves to be carefree, enjoying the liberation from strict rules concerning the appearance and high value of beauty. Heejun had his hair grown long and get tanned, Somin also grew her hair long and gained some weight as well as Gayeon. The common fact that these tree people share is that they did not even realized they changed since people around them did not comment their appearance. “When I was in Europe and other countries I even didn‟t recognize how I looked like,” says Gayeon. This changed as soon as they came back to Korea. Even though Gayeon felt skinny while traveling abroad when she arrived home she received a lot of bad comments: “Everybody was like: Oh my god you look so fat (laugh). Am I, do I look fat now? I didn‟t even realize that because in Europe you don‟t say like that.” The same situation awaited Somin: “When I came back in korea, everybody told me: Oh, what is it? You came like a pig. And I thought: Yes, little bit. And then I realized I looked like wild pig with long hair, so I cut them. I looked like Hagrid.” This was the moment when she realized how much is beauty appreciated in Korea. Lastly, after several months in Germany, Heejun, arrived home and found out that people laugh to his long hair calling him a tribe man from Amazonia. First he decided to keep them long since he liked it, but after few days he gave up upon the idea and cut the hair. The biggest difference these three respondents realized is how highly beauty is appreciated in Korea and that in Korea every close friend or family member can tell something about their appearance. They might mean it well but it leaves doubts about one‘s appearance and to fight against the rules is many people difficult. Therefore, these respondents might have opened their eyes, yet they subordinated to the demands of the society, or at least they tried to do so. All participants were very well aware of importance of beauty in contemporary Korean society. For example Somin simply states: “If is someone beautiful, everything is easier for him” and Sangseok admits that even though he is quite satisfied with his appearance sometimes he feel that if he looked ―very very handsome‖ there could be a lot of opportunities. “I have super pretty friends and when I see them I think: Oh, they surely have taken an advantage,” says Sangseok and explains how his very good looking friends are better presenters in university classes even though the amount of effort is same as his. According to him people associate beauty with higher expertise and proficiency and therefore have higher trust in beautiful people. Also another participant found connection
68 of beauty and character. “People act nicely to pretty people, they expect they are also nice,” thinks Juhee, and according to her they may be right since pretty people are treated with greater love from a childhood Furthermore, according to Seulgi, “if we see someone who is very scary looking we tend to think he will not be that kind person.” Their statement support physiognomic assumptions that the face may be considered as a reflection of the self, and although most respondents did not agree that physical appearance directly indicate character of person, they believed that outer appearance significantly affects the inner self, primarily self-confidence, which in turn may affect how present themselves to other people and how are they perceived. Basically, all respondents agreed that beauty increased the increases the confidence while perceived ugliness restrain person to be self- confident. This is the case of especially Korea since beauty is often issue number one in media, discussion among friends, and sometimes even in families. According to Seulgi, people tend to talk about issues of beauty and how is appearance important all the time and this makes concerns about beauty in our heads bigger and decreases the confidence.
B) Beauty at the workplace
There may be natural instinct to prioritize good looking people, however in the sphere of employment the person‘s qualification should be always on the first place. That may not be always the true, and especially not in Korean society. As James Turnbull (2014), a writer and lecturer in Korea on feminism and pop culture, noted “Korean employers scrutinize the looks of the applicants -- in search for physical attractiveness -- in addition to their professional qualifications.” Also Juhee‘s story provides similarly harsh conclusion: “One my friend working in Korean company told me that people who select the candidates usually do not have time and she saw how they go through application choosing only the ones good looking.” Application process is especially in large Korean companies extremely complicated requiring several interviews, tests and a lot of time. The majority of respondents complained about need to attach headshot to the resume they send in the first step. As Juhee‘s story suggests, their appearance may be the biggest factor at the very beginning when they did not even have the chance to show their professional abilities. However, resume, is not only to worry about. After passing first step and company test, candidates must have interview. The majority of respondents founds interview as the decisive moments which requires perfect appearance. “In the interviews is really big thing you have to think about, more than your answers actually,” describes importance of
69 appearance Kaeun. This is, according to Juhee, fact especially in last step of application process: “When you get to the final interview with some boss, your skill are already very good, you must be best if you were able to get so far, so the manager jus choose the best looking person.” Her words have been also confirmed by several surveys made in Korea that revealed that employers are looking for good looking women rather than those working very hard. Also media form time to time cover similar cases. Since all, except one participant, are students who did not have proper employment they only heard a lot of stories from their friends and parents. For example, Soeun said that her friend was refused after the interview, supposedly because she “had something on her face” and Yeonbin described how one teaching assistant in elementary school, where his mother works, was fired just because her appearance was not satisfying for doing her work. According to Yeonbin “her working performance was perfect, but the problem was that she didn‟t look that great, a little bit ugly and fat, and that was the reason why she got fired. After that a new employee got hired, and she had nice appearance, even though her performance is not that good. But everything is going well for her so far because she has a nice appearance”. Similar stories were told by other participants. These stories may be products of exaggeration or distortion from side of storyteller or a listener. Therefore, the situations from the stories should not be strictly considered as a common practice. However, the more important about these stories is that respondents, i.e. job applicants, are aware of these practices and often believe them. These stories are stored and preserved in minds of young people who consequently think about appearance as one of the decisive factor that need to be take care of, even with the help of cosmetic surgery. Surgery for practical reason is not a rare phenomenon as proves the fact that there is even Korean expression ‗job application plastic surgery‘59. According to Kaeun sometimes the decision for cosmetic surgery is not only about good or bad feeling but also about need: “They don‟t have like 10 years to get into company. They have maybe twenty minutes to be decided. So for that opportunity they think it is worth the price and the decision”. However, the research data rather suggest that, particularly young people do not undertake cosmetic surgery to increase job opportunities but rather as, sometimes spontaneous, decision made under the influence of peers and parents, and sometimes media. Only exception was a
59 Possible same term as ‗employment surgery‘, see chapter 2.1.3 70 young woman who decided to do her surgery of nose to fulfil her dream of becoming news announcer in television. On her case, we can see how essential issue of appearance in media business is. Eunmal describes her story: “I am working for TV channel as announcer. It is special job. I have to have more proper appearance. There are a lot of girls who wants to be announcer. So there are many girls who have many plastic surgeries because the first think you should have to be chosen is the best appearance. So to me, it is the most important thing” She also remembered the recruitment process for her job: “We did announcing in front of many people who judged us. If there was very very pretty girl but has bad announcing, and there was girl who is good at announcing and good pronunciation but not that pretty, then they chose the first one.” Moreover, the better looking girls gets the better position of news announcer and her colleague with slightly worse appearance has to do weather forecaster despite the professional abilities. Eunmal founds this way of recruiting unrighteous, however she must follow the rules, and therefore she did her surgery and every day is on diet. That the appearance in media induces a lot of pressure on the people working in this field proves also the case of Soeun who wanted to become actress but give up her dream from a large part because of her the major inadequate appearance. She describes the heavy pressure she experienced:
“Whenever I had the camera tests, the most important in front of camera is face. But there were many really pretty girls, so I didn‟t feel like pretty enough, actually I felt ugly next to those people because they were really really pretty. And because of that feeling I could not sometimes made the test well, so yeah, there was a lot of pressure on appearance. … Because when you see the celebrities on the television, and see how pretty and perfect they are, so I don‟t think I can make”.
Afterwards she changed her dream and major. These two stories especially points out how essential is role of appearance in Korean media. Every respondent, even those critical to contemporary beauty obsession, clearly expected that people in media must be beautiful as if this is natural law. Media are supposed to attract viewers by attractive people. In terms of personal pressure, respondent‘s feeling differs. The only respondent who admitted increasing feeling of pressure is Juhee since she graduates soon. The other student-respondents did not think about job yet or felt quite confident with their
71 appearance, either without or with cosmetic surgery. One reason behind the Juhee‘s insecurity might be that unlike other respondent her weight is, with regard to the Korean rather above average, and as she confirm, she receives a lot of bad comments about her body size. Finally, the perspective of larger number of respondents put more light on beauty necessity regarding employment. Despite the acknowledgement of advantage accompanying ideal physical features, some respondents believe that physical appearance is just small part. For example, according to Sukjeong, employers are looking for a person who gives the overall good feeling. She further explains: “If they take a good care of her body, look healthy, not too fat, good skin and make-up, they can get a good impression.” However she immediately adds: ―But big eyes, big nose and pretty face can be a great part to decide what the interviewer feels.‖ In other words, the most essential is to look as person who is taking care of her or his body, plus the good facial proportion function as a potential extra benefit. Nevertheless, eventually the essential factor is confidence and positive attitude. Here we again face the complicated relationship between confidence and beauty discussed earlier. The lack of confidence cause by low self-image, justified or unjustified, can severely affect the chances of success. On this note, Kaeun thinks: “If the person believes that it is possible to be charismatic or to appeal to the interviewer without plastic surgery, it is ok. But if he doesn‟t than maybe he needs to think about it.” Her statement support the assumption that especially in case of employment is cosmetic surgery more reasonable since the professional success is highly appreciated as well as desired in Korea, and lives of many Koreans are devoted primarily to their job. According to Sharon Hejiin Lee60 (Stone, 2013) it was the economic crisis in 1997 and increased competition for jobs that led to the surgery boom. In order to be able to compete with outer people on job market, many Koreans decided to enhance their facial features and get additional human capital. From interviewed respondents most of them do not plan cosmetic surgery to increase their future chances, only one decided to have cosmetic surgery and biggest current challenge of most girls is to lose weight, however Gayeon admits that “maybe when it is time to get job, I will think about that, how can I be more beautiful to get a job.” She may add to her surgery of nose another procedure.
60 an assistant professor in the department of social and cultural analysis at New York University 72
C) Beautiful me, beautiful s/he
To follow the phrase from previous chapter, beauty is important in relationship, but is it the most essential factor we seek at our partner? All participants asserted that there are more important features of opposite sex, especially a good inner character. However, Korea has created and popularized a phenomenon that significantly increased the value of outer appearance and once again made beauty a bit more important than abroad and beauty industry more flourishing. This phenomenon is called ‗sogaeting‘, that is a blind date usually arranged by mutual acquaintance. This practice is highly popular way and even preferable way of a finding a partner in contemporary Korea and there are a lot of agencies who provide the matching service in case of dating as well as with marriage purpose. Nevertheless while beauty is often the decisive factor in case of dating, the couple for marriage are making decision as well on family background, financial situation, status or education. None of the respondents have experience with marriage; however they have plenty of stories related to ‗sogaeting‘. Sogaeting is in fact similar to job interview. A person has to impress counterpart in short time. In that short moment the criterion which can determine the level of impression of the partner is beauty. For example Somin said that although she knows that to value beauty too much is wrong, she cannot help herself to be attracted to beautiful people. Yeonbin then describes accurately that “the blind date is basically about flirting and looking nice”. Frequent practice of ‗sogaeting‘ is to send photography beforehand, which as predicted, may lead as well as to prevent many unfortunate situation. Juhee offers an explanation: “Often the guys ask for picture ahead, and if the girl is not pretty they just cancel. Sometimes, you give a nicer picture than how you really look like, but then he may also leave. But it is not always about look, you may find that the person has nice character.” She points out several interesting facts. Firstly, people lie in their pictures. In fact, Koreans tend to heavily retouch their photographs and cover their face under the cover of beautiful filter. 61 On other hand retouch picture may increase the pressure of the person sending the picture as Sukjeong describes her story: “At sogaeting we check the
61 This is practiced not only by amateur but also by professional photographers. During my study on Korean university we had the option to make passport photograph at the campus. One foreign student went to the shop and took a picture. However, when she saw herself, she could have hardly recognized her face. She asked surprised photograph to return photograph to it nature state. This experience explains why are the photograph at ‗sogaeting‘ not reliable source and leave space for surprise. 73 picture before we go. I know the picture is not me, picture is so much beautiful then me, so I start to be nervous. He can be disappointed. But I could have not given the realistic face. In that moment I was really stressed.” On the other hand she admits that she is strict about partner‘s appearance as well, especially if his picture do not resemble the reality. That is the reason why many people do not want to give their pictures. However, it is too difficult in the country where many girls and boys have specific requirements of partners face and body. Even many respondents in current study are very clear of what they want. As was already pointed out earlier despite the respondents‘ critique of contemporary objectivized beauty, many of them, especially males, craved for a boy or girl with bigger eyes, small face and higher nose. Some of the tastes are very specific, for instance, Jaehub says:
“Girls, they should not be fat, they need to have high nose rather than low nose that usually Asian girls have. They need to have bigger eyes than usual girls have. They need to have white skin without any pimples on skin. My ideal beautiful women is tall, has long brown curly hair, white skin, who really cares about her dress and really cares about her beauty.”
Also another male respondents is very clear in his ideal women, Sangseok has a specific taste: “I want girl that look like a doll, very cute. Cute eyes, definitely bigger eyes and long eyelashes. And there should be the harmony between the eyes, nose and mouth. Like well organized (laugh).” Sangseok is far from only men with well-defined standards, and girls know it. Also female respondents were aware of men‘s scrutinized gaze, as Soeun contemplates: “Of course, in every country men like pretty women. But in Korea they like especially very very pretty, cute girls, so I really have to take care of my appearance.” Her thoughts share Sukjeong who has more direct experience:
“I already know that guys are just interested only in girls face and physical appearance. Guys always judge the girls on the street based on appearance when they are with their friends. I already know because my friends are same. It means I already know the guy can judge me, even though he doesn‟t know me. So it is really hard not to care. … If I talk about my friend that she is doing this and that, he usually ask me: Is she pretty?”
Sukjeong‘s experience is indeed common in Korea what was confirmed also by some male respondents. The evaluation of girls is definitely specific for Korea, the unique are the standards of evaluation that are far for traditional Asian face. Interestingly female
74 respondents seemingly do not have such a specific demands as men, which my support the assumption that women are still more scrutinized than men despite the high popularity of men skin care, increasing number of male cosmetic surgery and overall high self-care. Even several respondents noticed that there is still an gender-based inequality in beauty concerns. The loudest critique raised Gayeon who feels injustice in the pressure that is especially aimed at girls and women in Korea. “As Korean women I feel so unfair about beauty. Every society says that girls should be pretty…. But for men it is not so strict. Every girl has to be on diet to be more skinny, to look more beautiful, but for the men, it is an exception. I feel said about it as Korean woman,” Gayeon painfully comment the pressure society put on females. Despite her feelings the most of the men feel that they take care of their appearance intensively, Hee Jun in particular feels pressure on being muscular and Sangjeok tries to become a men girls like. According to Sangjeok Korean girls have “similar appetite, similar beauty conception” (which could be attributed to the sense of objectivity and prevailing in Korean society), this put a lot of pressure on him in his search for girlfriend. Lastly Younbin admits that he use a male cosmetic and sometimes even BB cream, which is not a rare thing for Korean men. He also found out that if he wear BB cream he receive a lot of good comments, while if he does not, people thing he is sick. This he consider as pressure. Even though the pressure on male and females is not comparable yet; this study as well as several other studies supported the assumption that also Korean men must pay much closer attention to its appearance. This pressure on Korean men strikingly increased with popularity of manga, anime and mainly dramas casting beautiful girly-like men, among them drama Boy over Flowers earned enormous fan basement. Unsurprisingly, these dramas gain the strong critiques from male respondents since it was the first big moment when attention turned from women to men, and had to experience similar unreachable expectations that are often aimed at young girls and women. Seulgi is by far the strongest critic among the respondents, he complains: “I don‟t like it because that kind of thing makes standards of beauty. It is so popular and even people who didn‟t think at first that flower boys are that attractive they tend to think that that kind of boys are attractive now.. ”. Paradoxically, Seulgi admits that many Korean men want a celebrity-like looking women62 and that he personally enjoys watching k-pop
62 Topic is further elaborated in chapter… 75 girl groups, who are specific by ‗ideal‘ face and skinny body while their videos are replete with over-sexualized body movements and little clothes. In this sense Korea can be considered is still patriarchal society where double-measurements are applied on different sexes. Women perhaps stop being subordinate to men but their bodies became object of media industry, therefore these women in music industry might have been considered as continuation of subjectless bodies. These bodies are enjoyable often by both sexes while flower boys only by one. And men may be worried by right since many girls in Korea and even abroad (since Korean pop culture crossed the country's borders several years ago and caused international crave for flower boys) dreaming of their flower boy: “Some of my friends seek for beautiful man, like k pop stars, they are so skinny, have really good skin and pretty like women,” says Gayeon. Also one of male respondents, Sangseok, mentioned the taste of his friend, yet in more cynical tone: “I have a girl friend who is very pretty, and always when she is meeting me she always talk about Jo In Sung (Korean actor), very very good looking guy. And I thought that: ok, you are single, and you like him. Maybe you will be single one more year.” According to Sangseok media always push a lot of desire which is the reason why are some Koreans single. We will look at the media as well as phenomenon of drama BoF later in this study, for now it must be pointed out that several female respondents actually deny they would like these kind of ‗girly man‘ while their focus aim rather at more ‗manly men‘, therefore ordinary men are not under such a pressure of cosmetic surgery that would make their features softer, rather than that they are by many girls supposed to have muscles and good skin.
D) For the sake of children
The parents‘ role in beauty and cosmetic surgery perception was found to be the most essential factor in this study, especially regarding the decision to undertake surgery at the young age. But we will start from the beginning. Firstly, many respondents admit that they have sometimes more sometimes less intensive conversation about beauty. The common talks concern the comment about family members‘ appearance. Especially female respondents receive intensive scrutiny of their weight from their mothers. For example Somin described how her mother pushed her to be in diet since she was 10 years old: “I was a bit fat back that but it had to be because I still had to grow. But she didn‟t allow it.” She blame her mother‘s continuous comment as reason why she cannot lose her way since the more she receive these comments the more is she under ―mental stress‖ and actually eat 76 more. Furthermore, her mother always pushed her to wear make-up to be more pretty and impress guys. Also Juhee‘s mum put a lot of pressure on her daughter, and lately when she gain a bit of weight even her father start to complain about her body. Juhee explains that beauty talks are common in her family and often include comparison:
“Mum tell my sister sometimes that she is ugly (laugh). There is Korean world that mean “ugly shaped or formed” that she uses. My sister is 18 and she doesn‟t have very pretty face. But mum means it well, not badly. She always tells her, you are ugly but cute. And then she refers to me because I have prettier face but weird expression. So she tells her you have ugly face but unlike your sister, you look sweet (laugh).”
As her story reveal Juhee, same as many Koreans, live under the ubiquitous awareness of her own body, moreover she recognize it as funny moments in her live and sometimes as justified comments. In overall, many Koreans see parental comment as prove of care and love, and they often do not give it much weight, consciously. However as was already stated earlier and in theoretical part, parents play very influential role in lives of young people. Particularly in Korea, children have strong feeling of obligation towards their parent who moreover take a modelling role. In that sense it may be harsh to make such a conclusion, but it seems that some of the Korean parents they are failing in their task to create strong self-confident individuals satisfied with their natural bodies and faces, and possibly increasing the children‘s insecurity about their bodies. On the other hand, this situation could be read from completely different perspective promoting more practical side. Parents are possible more than their children aware of high competition on job market and in seeking for rich life-time partner. Therefore they indeed see cosmetic beauty and potentially cosmetic surgery necessary for their children‘s happiness, or better sad success (since success does not necessarily bring happiness). Kaeun have the same thoughts that are accompanied by critique: “I cannot understand, but they say: Oh sorry, your face looks like mine, so you have to change it maybe. Because beauty is a real trend these days, so they think to survive in this society, it is the must, even though they gave it.” Kaeun alludes to the parental support of cosmetic surgery despite the fact that by these practices parents paradoxically criticize and deny their own genes. As a proverb says ‗the aim justifies the means‘. Therefore, even though parents may love their children and their appearance they feel they are helping to their children by encouraging them to become prettier as society requires. Consequently, the discussing the various cosmetic procedures and cosmetic surgery is also not a rare in Korean families. Following the Kaeun observation, on the 77 question whether would Yeonbin, male respondents, would allow his daughter to have cosmetic, he answer without hesitation ‗yes‘. However, with some possible limitations: “If my daughter would like to raise her nose or do something else I could understand it. If she would like to cut her jaw or that kind of more extreme operation I am not so much for it but if it would be just normal plastic surgery, as along as she is satisfied with result, it is fine. But it is under the condition that my daughter looks fine, but is she would look too bad then it would be fine to get something extreme. The point is her satisfaction.” Interestingly he points out the question of satisfaction, however aware of the fact that he already do not consider small nose and wider face as pretty, he will already insert the doubts in his daughter mind. Existence of these a priory these strict beauty standards already determines significantly his daughter happiness and satisfaction considering how open are parent about beauty discussion. This example also proves that not only mothers but also some fathers are supporting child‘s cosmetic surgery. The story of Sukjeong points out what important role plays her father in her perception of beauty. She explains: “My father doesn‟t want me to be ugly. He tells me: „Hey, why your face is not like that. You are young, just go skincare or do something, please (laugh)‟.” However his attitude towards cosmetic surgery is more restrained and cause a struggle between him and daughter. When she talked to her further about cosmetic surgery he refused to give her money but he gave her another chance to have safer procedure. In this case parent rather alleviated behaviour of his teenage daughter and eventually she was satisfied with the result, and today she does not have regrets. As can be here on Sukjeong case, father is more restrained in terms of cosmetic surgery, and based on other statements, it still seems that at least current fathers are more against surgeries of their then mothers which can lead even to the more tricky situations, such as in the case of Somin friend who wanted to have eye surgery: “Her mum supported that but her farther forbid it. But she did it anyway. When he was on business trip, her mum took her on clinic.” In overall, there are more case when especially mothers rather supporting surgery and even suggesting some procedure. We will look at other three respondents. Firstly, two females experience similar situation. Both Seoun with surgery of eyes and nose, and Gayeon with nose surgery got offer from their mother to have surgery after graduation. Seoun explains that her decision was very spontaneous. Her mother asked her after graduation whether she wants surgery and shortly after that it was done. She also accompanies her every time she goes to the clinic and she also has some cosmetic surgery. Gayeon case is alike: “I didn‟t like my nose…. So she asked, if I want to do that after
78 graduating, and I said yes, definitely I will.… It is my graduation gift from my mother, and I like it because I feel comfortable with nose. I liked myself before, I just wanted to be more pretty. And I had the choice so I did it.” As can be seen from her attitude, Gayeon do not consider a cosmetic surgery as a big step but rather as a correction of small complex on the face. For her, cosmetic surgery is opportunity which she did not hesitate to use when offered by her mother. Another factor in her case played friends example and media. In overall, many respondents admit that they comment appearance of celebrities frequently in their homes. They not only comment them but also take an inspiration. Soeun says about her mother: “Whenever she watches television, she tells me change these and change that (laugh).” Also Gayeon comments her watching practices with laugh: “When we watch television, some movies or dramas, if there is very beautiful actress, we talk about her appearance, like: „So beautiful, they are so beautiful‟. My mum says: you should do some plastic job (laugh) then you can be beautiful like her (laugh).” The other respondents do not receive such a direct encouragement but most of them admit similar conversation with parents or siblings. Furthermore, even other respondents do not have surgery, their sibling ore friend have or plan to have. For example, Yeonbin confessed that his family told his sister “that when she graduates the high school they can give her the opportunity to get plastic surgery of nose.” On that note, also Yeonbin case of cosmetic surgery is interesting, regarding he is only man doing so among participants. The young man described how it happed he lift up his nose: ―Originally my nose was kind of flat but actually I didn‟t think about cosmetic surgery that much, but when I came for holiday home during my military service, my mother had Botox injection at that time and she said she arranged the appointment for me as well. At that time I didn‟t take it so seriously, I wasn‟t so willingly for it but I did it.” From his story it seems that mother took a full charge of his son‘s ‗happiness‘. However, his statements must be taken with a distance since this young student appearance to be very shy talking about his appearance and reluctantly confessed to his experience. Moreover, he admitted that he was bothered by his flat nose in past while now he is more satisfied. In conclusion, out of five respondents with cosmetic surgery or procedures, three were done after high school graduation. The middle school and high school age is the time when majority of Koreans are still completely supported by parents. They depend on their attitude as well as finances. This logically suggests that decision for undertaking cosmetic surgery must be approved by parents. This was the case of all four participants who
79 received cosmetic surgery as graduation gift (phenomenon discussed further below). The essential influence of parent register also some respondents, however even those usually did not criticize the parental effort. As was mentioned, Koreans rarely argue with parents and their concerns are understood as legitimized. Lastly, the two female respondents were asked by their mothers where they want to have cosmetic surgery, while they were finishing their high school. Both declined, Kauen thought that accepting the cosmetic surgery would show the lack of confidence in herself. She would felt like coward and it might have influenced her confidence, paradoxically, in opposite way. Another respondent, Somin, declined mother‘s offer because of more prosaic reason, the fear of procedure. Today she rationalize her decision by confirmation that being pure is better, however she did not give up on possibility to undertake some kind of less invasive procedure once. Interestingly, Somin‘s mother turned her attitude towards cosmetic surgery. Her daughter explains the reason: “because when I die, I will be underground, everything will disappear and only plastics remain. My mum asked me, you want that?” This is indeed unique reasoning that did not occur in other interviews, but it proves that how the minds and attitudes may be changing over the time.
E) Teachers and beauty
Unexpectedly, the other source of beauty concerns can come from teachers as well. Even some teacher emphasizes the importance of physical appearance which can cause a pressure. It can be just small utterances or jokes. Also humiliation is common way of enjoyment, and students provide a good target. One experience offer Sangseok: ―I now I am not well organized. There was a biology teacher at my middle school who always made jokes about my appearance. Like he pointed at my face and said: ‗Look at the face, eyes and nose, all beautiful, but disharmonic‘. So he gave me the nickname Disharmony. It was quite offensive but he was a guy who makes a lot of jokes, he was really good at making the crowd laugh, so it was maybe just a joke.‖ This is Korean specificity, people (especial the ones higher positioned) enjoys making jokes and commenting appearance. Similarly, on one lecture at a prestige university in Seoul professor tend to often give comments such as: ―another pretty lade is presenting‖ or ―you do no look very like Korean, it is unfortunate‖ or ―you girls are totally natural aren‘t you‖. These kinds of comments are common in Korea but would he insulting in Europe, for example.
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F) Friends´ Talk
Another source of influence about body self-image are, undoubtedly, friends, especially female friends. As many Korean girls confirmed, beauty talk are the most frequent topic of conversation among girls. They talk about each other‘s appearance, compare each other or with celebrities, and provide advices how to improve the appearance. These practices may be indeed helpful and with a good intention. For example, Heejun and his friends frequently help to their friend to improve his appearance in order to find a girlfriend. However, this permanent presence of beauty topic within friends‘ discussion may increase pressure in terms of continuous compulsive thoughts about their own appearance and in terms of comparison. People naturally compare and try to be better, yet Korean contemporary society is now competitive more than ever before and its members are learned to compare and to be compared from childhood as explains Sukjeong: ―Maybe the problem is in education. We already get used to by compared and comparing, with me and my friend. Mother asks me which one is the best friend between your friends, and who is the smartest student. We are already used to ask which one is the best, the most, the better one.‖ Compared can be everything, also beauty. Young women compare themselves not only to celebrities but also on everyday basis with their real life surrounding. They are learned to do so. Sometimes comparison with ‗real‘ people is even stronger than with celebrities. For instance, Juhee claims that she is mostly more depressed if she see pretty people around her than in television since people in television are made into beautiful people by all the stylist, make-up artist and so on. However, if also social world offer upward social comparison, or in other words, if there is resonance in social reality with media reality, the pressure is higher since the beauty becomes reality rather than fiction. Furthermore, the beauty talks are not limited only to the issue of beauty but the may also include cosmetic surgery. Even though cosmetic surgery is not very open topic, the discussion among close friends is more frequent. Especially girls discuss possibilities, comment of celebrities, evaluate which procedure was successful which not, or what could be done on them to get prettier. For example, Eunmal says: ―We talk about it, sure. Like, maybe you should do the nose, it would look prettier, we encourage ourselves…‖ Another female respondent, Sukjeong, have found her friends helpful especially when was considering her procedure: ―They said: ‗your face is not that ugly but if you feel in that way it can work. So just try. And my friends are always people, I ask: Do I look better? Do you think it is enough? Do I have to stop here or do you think I have to do more?‖ Her
81 friends help her also with recommendation of good and safe hospital. This experience suggests that friends‘ opinion may be in many cases influential and can encourage as well as discourage cosmetic surgery purchase. In general, friends help to provide good advices which may be very sincere and well-intentioned. The question is what the scales these friends follow are? Are they thinking about the friends as individual person or do they better try to homogenize their friend into universal beauty standards. The one answer can be found in Minji‘s experience. Minji admits that the topic of cosmetic surgery is, to her displeasure, very often among her best friends from high school every time they: ―They are even recommending me some plastic surgery, like: ‗Minji why are you not getting your double eyelids done?‘ ‗Why?‘ ‗You know your eyes are rather smaller than ours.‘‖ Despite her friends comments Minji decided to maintain her natural features, possibly due to her sufficient self-confidence and supporting family. However, these comments make her angry and sad. She says: “It is really rude and impolite, but they think that recommending me something like that is really like caring for me and being considerate. So that I can be more beautiful from their perspective.” The last sentence reveals how important it is to look like other people in Korea. Minji‘s friends truly believes that everybody should try to look a certain universal way, and not looking like others and not taking this opportunity, is perhaps even foolish That is why they repeat their suggestions every time they meet Minji. Another fact of Korean society is that especially those having cosmetic surgery may be more spreading the phenomenon among their friends. At the same time, it appeared that unlike Festinger hypothesis suggests Koreans without cosmetic surgery expose themselves to those with opposite attitude, involuntarily (family) and voluntarily (friends). The reason is obvious. With that high rate of procedures it is nearly impossible not to know someone with cosmetic surgery.
G) A good example
Another highly important aspect or social world determining cosmetic surgery purchase is a good example. It came clear that many respondents formed their attitude towards cosmetic surgery based on good or bad example among their friends, relatives or acquaintances. Those experiencing good results of cosmetic surgery – patient become prettier and more satisfied – were more positive about procedure, even considering or purchasing their own surgery. Furthermore, cosmetic surgery has been logically considered as possibly dangerous since there were many cases of unsuccessful procedures, resulting even in death. This fear was partly found in case of young male respondents who would 82 like to pursue a surgery. However, with increasing number of successful procedures the fear is decreasing. Sukjeong, for example, argues: ―You can feel that plastic surgery is really dangerous but because we can see so many people, like my friend she did surgery, and she is ok, and became pretty, then why not.‖ A good example can be drawn from media as well. Firstly, almost every star has cosmetic surgery and viewers may seek the same hospital to reach ‗same‘ results. Secondly, there are numerous TV shows that take the viewer through the entire process of doing decision, selecting the features that need to be fixed and cosmetic surgery. These shows, such as Korean Let me in, deprive viewers of fear and encourage them to observe themselves more. ―(Media) tell mothers that it is ok to just bring their daughter to hospital,‖ says Sukjeong meaning her statement in positive way. She herself has a procedure, and faced negative attitude of parent. Therefore, these TV shows help parents to create a more positive attitude so their children can fulfil their dreams. However, Juhee pointed out one important aspect of these shows, that is that they never show what happened with participants after procedure. Were they satisfied with their appearance afterwards? Was their life happier? These questions stay unanswered. On the other hand, Sukjeong admits that if people see mostly negative results of cosmetic surgery such as addiction, then they will oppose to the practice. For instance, Minji who consider cosmetic surgery as ―awful‖ argues: ―I had many friends who did plastic cosmetic surgery, but didn‘t get confident or some people even lost their confident because it didn‘t fulfil their expectation they had before. Similarly, Heejun admit that most of his friend were not satisfied with the result of cosmetic surgery, and he on his own realized that it may be the reason for his rejection of the practice. These findings show that the real life experiences may be essential for cosmetic surgery attitude and purchase. Nevertheless, it needs to be remembered there is often needed more than one side encouragement. Although one person may act impulsively and decide to have surgery to achieve same results as her or his friend had achieved, the other person may be temporarily inspirited and in desire, yet decide to succumb the temptation. It may be because of money, parental attitude, or personal characteristics. Often there is need for inducement from more than one side. Such an encouragement as well as inspiration may be longitudinal exposure to media portraying homogenous and ‗unrealistic‘ beauty.
H) Time to renovate yourself
The interviews revealed that the great amount of cosmetic surgeries occurs after graduation and before entrance into university. The timing here is very important and meaningful, 83 which explains Kaeun: “In Korean society people thinks that the social life really begins when you go to university. It is the real big beginning of your life so if you want a big change you have to do it before that. Because when you go to the university, you will meet new people.” Therefore, about three months long holiday between graduation and entrance to university provides best timing for cosmetic surgery. Furthermore, most Koreans have really the biggest test at the third grade of high school. So after that they want something very special after, because they were very tired of studying. Cosmetic surgery is one of the presents parents can give. It was the case of almost all of respondents in the study as well as of many friends and classmates of respondents. For example Juhee remember her graduation ceremony, which follows after the few months of holiday, with humour: “You know maybe during school year you don‟t want to do that because people would have questions but at the end it doesn‟t matter so much…. So it was really funny at graduation day, when about five people from my class came with some cosmetic surgery.” This phenomenon also again points out the attempt to hide cosmetic surgery discussed above. It also shows that at this moment the practice is done by many girls, and this affect the thinking of other girls. The perfect illustrative example provides Soeun who did her nose after high school. Her argument is following: “Many friends on high school did it, it was kind of like: she did it too, she did it to, so me too (laugh).” The adolescence has revealed to be is also important in respect to the media. Before addressing the media, another phenomenon related to teenage life must be discussed, that is, the tactics of beauty industry.
I) Beauty industry hunting for teenage consumers
The research found out that some cosmetic surgery clinics adopt extreme practices to entice young students. First of all, plastic surgery hospitals offer very good discounts for high school graduating girls and boys, and they go as far as waiting for students at the school gate after the graduation promoting their services. Another practice described by Minji is even more ‗sneaky‘: “I even encounter this promoting people after my KCAT - this huge exam to enter the university. It finishes at around five a clock, and we were all so stressed out because we just had the biggest exam of our life, and we were just walking out and there were people giving us these flyers saying like: now you just finished your big exam and now it is time for you to be renovated.” The tactic of clinics is obvious. Right after the year of intensive studying resulting in this Exam are students exhausted and in need for reward as was stated above. Another admirable feature of beauty business in terms of efficiency is its promptness. This could best explain on Gayeon‘s nose surgery 84 experience: ―That was very funny. It was in December when I chat with my mother, so she asked me: you want to do that plastic surgery. Hmm, yes I do. So she called there: My daughter want to have plastic surgery, can you give her any schedule. So we went there next week, I get there, and doctor told me you don‘t need to do your eyes, and he draw something on my face and said: you should do like that. So I said alright. Then they gave me injection to sleep and I woke up and that was it. It was the same day. I cannot believe it (laugh). It took like three hours.‖ Indeed the surgeries of nose and eyes are finished in a few hours. Moreover, clinics offer a good discounts if the person decide to do it the same day as is the consultation. In conclusion, we could say that in case of high school, even middle school, media support distortion of reality. Moreover, the proof that media do not reflect the actual social world supports the experience of soldiers.
Theme 3: The Media
A) Enjoyments and pitfalls of teen life
The prettiest girl: Beauty talks in school
The prominent topic that the research revealed is the importance of the middle school and high school experiences. These school years appeared to be the essential time for forming attitude and desire for cosmetic surgery. It is the time when the identity of an individual is evolving, young person is fragile and vulnerable to every bad comment, and the doubts concerning the appearance are often the strongest. Several female respondents admitted that that beauty is the most frequent and popular topic between girls on high school. Both, boys and girls were evaluation especially female student in terms of their appearance. Girls typically they argued about the prettiest girl in the school, and the boys had, according to Eunmal and Gayeon, a list that ranked the prettiest girls.
Talking about drama
High school is also the time when students enjoy greatly watching Korean dramas that provided them the rest after long hours of study as well as common topic for discussion. Beauty and dramas are two topics, or often combined one topic, that especially girls talk about the most. Juhee even described that when she was at high school those girls who
85 watched dramas the most were the most admired and followed since they were considered as have the best knowledge of beauty, fashion and so on.
Fantasying over drama
A high popularity of dramas such as Boys over Flowers that was reported as ‗the hottest drama‘ during the high school years of the majority of respondents, interviewees explained in terms of beauty and the fantasy63. In the middle and high school the realism of drama seems higher. For example, drama Boys over Flowers provides a clever combination of fantasy and reality features, which young students can relate to. Firstly, media supposedly create fantasy that is in the case of young unexperienced students more influential than in case of older audience. These dramas are replete with fancy life styles and extremely handsome boys with soft girly features. Especially, male respondents emphasized that they dislike this portrait of man. For example, Heejun addressed the low realism of beauty as well as situations such as being CEO at very young age. Another male respondent, Seulgi said that he “hate these dramas” since they increase the expectation girls have from boys at their age. His statement show that even boys and men may be insecure about their chances at the opposite sexes because of the unrealistic depiction of beauty by the media. On the other hand, young girls seem to enjoy watching these contemporary fairy tales. For example, Gayeon remembered that when she was the high school student she glorified ‗flower boys‘ and considered them beautiful. Similarly, Sukjeong said that she identified with characters from drama greatly when she was younger, as well as her friends. They wanted to become those ‗princesses‘ that rich and extremely handsome guys will fall for. It means that certain deviation from social reality is well perceived since it temporarily satisfies fantasies. Secondly, despite the fantasy elements, these dramas still carry reminders of reality. Many of them takes place in the high school environment, so young students can better identify with characters and situations. In that sense, Juhee alludes to the important aspect of these dramas, that is, although those are high school dramas, characters “are played by older beautiful actors who have dyed hair, perfect make-up and short dress. But in middle and high school we have really strict rules, we have to wear same uniforms, no make-up or colour hairs. But girls compare to these in
63 See chapter 3.2 86 dramas, want to look as pretty.” Her statement provides a confirmation of one of the essential roles of media for teenagers. Media effectively provide pieces of reality but other pieces are distorted, improved and beautified so that they are more attractive to viewers. Whether they are intentionally presented as reality or not, young students receive a feeling of a false realism in regards to physical. The actors and actresses have often not only great make up and clothes but also enhanced facial features. Even though school girls might realize these dramas are fantasies it is hard to not compare and dream. Moreover, their understanding of reality is not complex yet. Minji aptly reflected that “after the age of self-actualization, maybe my age (22), we will not be that influenced by the media, but young girls are very fragile to that kind of influence, and they may think: Oh they look so pretty and they earn a lot of money. Maybe I should also get change.” Minji here alludes to the issue of cosmetic surgery. She is, also, right that young girls have higher sense of identification with the media. Correspondingly, Gayeon consider media impact greatest right during her high school years: “Many young girls are influence, because they have less experience than older women, they just believe what they see, like: that‟s beautiful, that‟s skinny, like chopstick leg are very beautiful. They just accept this beauty as ordinary beauty, and want to be like that.” This supports the increased distortion of reality by longitudinal exposure. This is further reinforced by lack of real world experiences – the downward social comparison – in case of young viewers. In Korean society the direct experience of teenagers might be even more inadequate since the children spend most of their time in school and after school, by tutoring and by home studying. Thereby, they have limited opportunities to encounter the real life.64 Another reason for popularity of these dramas is high level of conformity which seems to be even more intensive among young students. Girls want to be the part of the collective; they want to have a common topic to discuss and same beauty to reach. The difference is sometimes even punishable.
Beauty distortion during military service
64 From my experience with tutoring 13 years old middle school boys, I found out that he hardly ever spend time outside school and home, and he lack any real world perspective on the world, and lastly he did not even travelled further than his neighbourhood 87
This topic is little detour from school desks but it provides another example of media distortion of reality. Majority of respondents agreed that media portray extraordinary beauty. For example, Youjin said that “celebrities who are shown in media are way too beautiful. They come out in the TV as almost perfect people. So people had bigger expectation of themselves and get more disappointed of their own selves”. Her words are fully supported by story told by Seulgi, a male respondent:
“I went to military service and there we always see idols. Because soldiers are crazy about girls idols, like Girls Generation. And all think they watch in TV are like that (with pretty people). So we see all TV shows about girl idols, who are really beautiful, we keep watching them, and then when we finish military service and go out to the society and when we see some girls out there, we may think: „She is quite common, she is not that beautiful‟.”
This story confirms two hypotheses. Firstly, Korean media representation of beauty is heavily distorted and indeed lacks a proper reflection of the real world. In fact, military case may serve as a great example of cultivation theory since longitudinal exposure, and therefore cumulative effect, led to the adoption of media reality for social reality. Also, despite the amount of cosmetic surgery among ordinary people, they still cannot resemble celebrities. Secondly, real world social comparison, apparently, plays a great role in forming perception of beauty.
B) Like a movie star
Reality or fiction- dreaming of becoming beautiful as celebrity
With the increasing age the haze of fantasy decreases and the reality enters the life of an university student. As older, viewers are better aware that this kind of beauty is extraordinary, but that does not necessarily mean that they stop dreaming of becoming beautiful as celebrity. Sangseok aptly points out: “If you just watch the beautiful thing you always want more, your face is not satisfying. It relates to the desire. Media always push a lot of desire.” In this statement he practically stressed that with continuous exposure to televised messages dominated with beautiful people, viewer‘s satisfaction with own body decreases. In other words upward comparison has negative effect.
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Sometimes the comparison ends up just as the dream. Gayeon says: ―When I turn on the television I think: oh they are so beautiful, I want to be like that, and when I turn it off I forget about that.” Additional reason for her ‗short memory‘ is that she is aware of the fact that to reach and maintain this kind of beauty requires “agony” since they should be on a diet all the time. This expresses the attitude of several other respondents, who all admire the beautiful actresses and actors but at the same time they believe they are too far from their beauty, and that to become that beautiful would require “too much effort”. For example, Sukjeong is admits that comparison is natural part of life. But comparison with media can hardly ever work since “the gap is too big,”. Correspondingly, Sangseok, a male respondent admitted: “I envy them but sometimes I think it is very very hard to manage. If I want to be that looking I would have to put a lot of effort. It is not realistic.” These statements alludes that one big reason for staying, respectively coming back to the reality, is fact that to become beautiful as celebrity is too exhausting, and nearly unreachable. Even with the help of cosmetic surgery. All respondents agreed that Korean celebrities are all insanely beautiful. At the same time, many respondents frequently described the beauty portrayal in media as unrealistic. Celebrities are seen as superhuman molded by industry into perfect bodies and faces, by make-up artist, stylists or cosmetic surgery. In that sense they are considered as unrealistic and increasing expectation or ordinary people. However, all respondents agreed that it is the job of celebrities to be beautiful, even those critical to media representation of beauty. They recognize it as a media law or a necessity for attraction of viewers. Sukjeong argued: “It is just natural to choose the beautiful girl and handsome guy for the drama. People watch it more and producers earn more money.” This view is in Korea so common that it seems that nobody consider the option that media could reflect more closely the reality. Juhee suggested a simple reason, which is fact, that she never saw another alternative; everybody is beautiful on television, particularly in Korean dramas. Therefore, there is no reason to believe it should be different. The majority of respondents simply said: ‗it is their job to look pretty‘. In that sense, we could talk about homogenous portrait of beauty across the media that build a strong perception of uniform beauty as well as beauty requirement in the media. Only exceptions to the ‗beauty requirement‘ are comedians. These are allowed to have bigger body size or less pretty facial features since they make people laugh, even with jokes aiming at their appearance. At the same time this perspective might work for
89 rationalization of own ‗inadequate‘ appearance. Viewers create this argumentation to better reconcile the difference between their appearance and appearance of celebrities. This may be the healthy attitude, yet more attention could be focused on changing contemporary appearance-related rules in the media. Moreover, even though celebrities are required to be beautiful naturally, it is a common secret that they are not. Hoewever, most respondent considered the cosmetic surgery for celebrities as a necessity in the business. For example, Kaeun said: “I feel sad about it, but maybe it is what they need to do to survive in their job.” On the other hand, Soeun pointed out that celebrities in media may be considered as realistic since there is cosmetic surgery: “You go to have plastic surgery, you can have all these, you can do it, you can change what you want, so it is realistic”. Cosmetic surgery washes off boundaries of unreality. Everybody can become beautiful. Media reality becomes social reality, the hypperreality. Soeun herself underwent cosmetic surgery twice, because if there is an option to become beautiful, it should be used, in case a person desire it.
Becoming beautiful as celebrity
As was noted, some viewers can create a distance. On the other hand, there are other viewers who feel need to get closer to the beauty of celebrities. The very essential factor that encourages viewers to dream is the knowledge that even celebrities became beautiful through surgery. The question is why it should not be the same case with them. Gayeon, for example, explained: “When we see television, the actress looks different than before. Then we are like: „Oh, she did this. She did plastic surgery? Maybe I may do that as well‟.” Despite their rejection of having cosmetic surgery, Korean celebrities may still expand the number of cosmetic surgeries in the sense that they present beauty as changeable and reachable. The very common practice between friends and even within the family is to compare old and new pictures of celebrity and contemplate over the changes of their faces. Not everybody believes he or she can really reach the beauty of a celebrity, as was stated above, but there are viewers who believe or at least have a hope that they can and should try to achieve those ideal features. Seulgi points out that especially those viewers who are more sensitive about the issues of appearance may be more affected by television. He says: “If there is a famous actress, like someone pops up, get popular during
90 short time, people think she is beautiful. And some of the girls go to the hospital and say: make my face similar to her face.” Among the respondents only one female, Soeun, made her decision to have eye surgery based on a famous actress. It was her second surgery after the nose. She said: “I didn‟t feel like I need to do eyes as well, because I already had some double eyelid. But after watching that actress I felt like I want to have those eyes so I made my eyelid more visible.” She even went to the same hospital and asked for exactly same eyes, but eventually she was disappointed: “I was expecting to become really pretty. … But when I saw my eyes, they weren‟t that pretty”. Although Soeun was only one among respondents with similar experience, also other Koreans confirmed that the inspiration of celebrities is not rare. In that context, Jaehub equates cosmetic surgery to fashion: “If there is celebrity in TV with beautiful clothes the viewer can say: „Oh I really want that clothes‟. In that same view, if celebrity came out in television with specific brand new plastic surgery, like raising the nose, many television watchers may think oh I really want to do that‟.” His description corresponds with Kim´s (2003) assumption that beautification has become a “an act of obeying the new rules of propriety and fashion‖ (p. 109-110). In overall, one essential task of the media is to set up a trend. Television, in particular, shows what kind of face is ‗trendy‘ at the time. This trend can be, according to some Koreans, changed, in the same way as fashion. Already recently, some respondents noticed that the faces of television stars are changing. Eyes have more oriental shape, yet they are still bigger. With a new star there may be a new trend. Media are according to Sukjeong the ones who should and will change the trend. In that sense, it could be concluded that media build a trend, as well as a high expectations.
Not becoming a beautiful as celebrity
Inspiration by celebrity can have negative consequences such as in the case of Soeun who was not satisfied with her eyes that did not look like the eyes of chosen actress. At the time of interview she did not considered another change, however she already changed her nose twice, therefore it is possible that she will decide for new eyes. The danger of celebrity surgery inspirited by the appearance of a celebrity is that it can lead to dissatisfaction. The problem is in the fact that people in media have their merits even before cosmetic surgery and just want to become better through enhancing one or two features, therefore, they need only a small surgery. On the other hand, common people have their aim which is the star.
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Consequently, even though modern cosmetic surgery is very advanced, it cannot fulfil every expectation. In the worst scenario the unfulfilled consumers seek for more surgeries and become ‗cosmetic surgery monsters‘. These cases respondents described as unsuccessful surgeries that are seen as a result of the fact that people seek the beauty that is not in them but in the face of other people. This fact is what respondents of study with cosmetic surgery emphasized. There are people who can increase their confidence by enhancing or fixing one or two features, which differs them from contemporary beauty standards. While so called ‗cosmetic monster‘ pursue to become another person which may be never-ending and dangerous task. Youjin points out another related factor, that “people have bigger expectation of the people after looking at the media and seeing how the media represents beauty”. These high expectations apply not only to themselves but also on the others. Therefore, media are according to Sangseok,, one reason why there are so many single people in Korea. Finally, Youjin also points out that cosmetic surgery hospitals appreciate these expectations that celebrities build. In fact, some Korean celebrities became the faces of the clinics, and they can be seen in advertisements in subways and on the internet pages of the clinics.
Media beauty standards and watching dramas
A specificity of beauty trend is that it is very universal. The singer, and actors and actresses in dramas look very alike. With a little exaggeration we can say that there is one kind of beauty in mainstream media industry. This applies especially on females. Young viewers, therefore, do not see options, the diversity, but the one specific goal. This perspective is reinforced by the level of conformity in watching TV dramas. Many respondents confirmed that they tend to watch what is currently popular. Even at the time of study, those watching drama watched the same one. Why? “Because they are fun, and everyone watches them, we always discussed them a lot in school,” argues Juhee. The statement supports the assumption of conformity and shows the need for share interest and experience. The huge popularity of one drama enables to spread a certain standards and make the desire universal. The media effect may be consequently more pervasive. This is what happened in case of widely popular drama Boys over Flowers that gain fame in Korea as well as internationally. The drama popularized concept of kkotminam or flower boys
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(literally: men as beautiful as flowers) until then known only from the anime and manga. Since then many, especially young, girls have desired boys with girly looking features, and men begin to take better care of their appearance. The drama and Korean pop singers led men to buy skin care products to create smooth flawless skin. Furthermore, the number of men is undergoing procedures traditionally performed on women increased. Man have started to go under the knife for a softer, more feminine chin line, and older men have been accompanying their wives for a regular shot of Botox (Lee, 2009). This all is reinforced by large number of male celebrities of young as well as middle age being faces of cosmetic brands and in general of various advertisements. Cosmetic surgery became another way to reach those new standards. Minji comments cosmetic surgery practice: “It started many years ago, but it wasn‟t so popular. But after Korean dramas became very popular, I think it became popular and universal.” Media become an inspiration for girls as well as for boys. In overall dramas cast only the very homogenized type of actors with Westernized facial features, and reinforced the public craze for these physical features considered as symbols of contemporary male and female beauty. Lastly, the high value of beauty in television is supported by the fact that many viewers watch drama or singers performance basically mainly because of the faces and body of performers. The story is less important. For example, Gaeun says:
“When we see some news about k pop stars and k pop dramas, we always talk about their beauty and their appearance, that they are so nice … Fans adore their idol to the level that they do not care about their music or film story. It is like I don‟t care what they are doing I just want to see their face.”
In accordance to her statement, some Korean dramas extended despite the poor quality of story, because the fans of an actor or actress we demanding more episodes. As Gaeun admitted, the desire to see an actor is often more important than the story or his acting skills. It is similar in case of singers. Many boy bands and girl groups became more famous thanks to their faces and performances in reality and variety TV show rather than by their singing abilities.
V. DISCUSSION
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In this part I would like to discuss some essential points of findings and related them to the theories and concepts drawn in the first part of the study. Primarily I would like to focus on one occurring topic. That is, whether the cosmetic surgery is question of rather independent decision with the aim of improving person‘s confidence or a result of societal pressure when cosmetic surgery is done without actual considering of person‘s individuality but rather more unconscious decision. This question will be discussed with relation to the findings described earlier in this study. The purpose of this study was not to go deep into person‘s psyche and to understand an individual factor for cosmetic surgery attitude and purchase motivation. The theoretical part suggests there are various factors and incentives in society that may remove a free choice of individual. This can happen even unconsciously, keeping individuals believe in their independent decisions. The ethnographic study and especially interviews with several young Koreans revealed that their attitude in cosmetic surgery is diverse yet same in some aspects. The study included individuals with strongly negative attitude towards practice of surgical enhancements of appearance as well as those with positive attitude. Basically cosmetic surgery is seen in two ways. Firstly, but less frequently, as unwelcome phenomenon that homogenize Korean population into one ideal face that supresses Korean natural features. However, even those more critical Korean do not go as far as seeing this phenomenon as lose of identity. They see it rather as result of media homogenous and pervasive portrayal of beauty and in few cases as an example of group behaviour. Those Koreans with more positive attitude, who presented strong majority of respondents, understand cosmetic surgery as opportunity. “I don‟t really feel pressure, instead of that I just see some options how can I look like” says Soeun with respect to media, and basically echoes the opinion many others. Cosmetic surgery is understood as another kind of improvement same as make-up or new hairstyle that may be criticized for its homogeneity but not for its meaning and rationale. Beauty may be seen as an expansion of chances on success and better life as was stated in theoretical part. However, cosmetic surgery purchase was by young respondents not framed with the respect to happier life or with thought of future better prospects but rather as spontaneous decision happened as result of group practices, or as an the opportunity that will fix one complex that cause low confidence. Especially the second point is the most frequently mentioned by respondents with and without cosmetic surgery, when it comes to cosmetic surgery acceptance and legitimization. Even those without
94 cosmetic surgery are not too critical; and even those critical have understanding. In fact they argue that ―it is everybody‟s thing. If it helps them to be more successful, then why not” (Juhee). All but one respondent finds common agreement that cosmetic surgery help to increase self-confidence and practically, as was stated in the theoretical part, allows to shine, to make people more happier with themselves and therefore outgoing as well as with better chances on success. For example, Soeun says: “The good point is you get prettier so your confidence of course increases. It is quite good reason to do it.” She herself felt much more confident after her surgeries of nose and eyes: “Before the plastic surgery, when I took picture with my friends, I always covered my face with hands but now I don‟t really do it anymore.” Likewise, Gayeon who underwent surgery before entering university admitted that thanks to cosmetic surgery she feels: “More part of myself…I love myself more.” According to respondents shy person can become more open and talkative thanks to the surgical enhancement. Furthermore, respondents stressed the importance of own satisfaction with body when it came to cosmetic surgery, rather than actual appearance. Minji for example said: “the person who owns the body has to think her body is beautiful… Beauty affects you sometimes significantly, but it is more subconscious decision.” Kaeun has similar thoughts: ―If the person believes that it is possible to be charismatic or to appeal to the interviewer without plastic surgery, it is ok. But if he doesn‟t than maybe he needs to think about it.” Basically, these two young women emphasize a subjective need rather than objective need. Beauty is not necessary about how you look like but rather about how you feel, and how it influence your confidence. The low confidence may be related to the actual worse appearance but also not. However, this aspect is where individual decision meets societal pressure, or in better words is societal pressure presented as individual self-expression. Mere majority understood and agreed with cosmetic surgery as the way of increasing confidence. In fact, respondents often mentioned that if the person feels like needing cosmetic surgery than it is good reason. Moreover, cosmetic surgery should be available and not be too fiercely criticized since there are many people who have their need to become prettier and more confident, even though we may think they do not need any improvement. The comment by Seulgi provides the best example: ―If we think that she doesn‘t need plastic surgery, it is just our thinking. In her mind she could have low confidence about her appearance. So it will be needed if they want to… It is nothing bad and we don‘t have any right to say bad thing about it.‖ The most of respondents had same
95 feeling in terms of judging. They consider every person as free to decide about their bodies. Moreover, they (except two respondents) saw mostly positive results of cosmetic surgery in terms of increase of self-confidence: “Lot of my girl friends had plastic surgery, and their face was brighter after they had it. They had more confidence and they tend to talk more. Before that they just tent to talk a little and not go outside but after that they changed their personality. So it will be needed in that case,” said Seulgi. In Korean society, therefore, the decision is understood as need and need that should not be criticized because we do not know how many problems may have a person have due to its appearance. Therefore, cosmetic surgery is often framed as expression of individual need and desire that allows fixing the individual complex that restrain person‘s inner self to fully shine. In that sense cosmetic surgery becomes legitimized action driven by individual need. However, respondents are rather failing to realize that they better seek to solve question of low confidence by cosmetic surgery then try to seek and change origin of the body dissatisfaction, to put a plaster on the wound rather that prevent it. Despite the individual framing, the origin of body dissatisfaction is obviously in society as whole. The consumers of cosmetic surgery may feel free to decide, but as was revealed during study, there are so many pressures from society in terms of appearance that it would be impossible to form independent conception of self. The understanding of own body is subject to societal conception. This conception is in Korea very strict and uniform. Some respondents talks about individual need, but when we look at the case of girls who experience pressure from their families to lose a weight, the feeling of Sangseok about need to follow trends in fashion, or in the case of Minji whose friends try to convince her to become beautiful ―from their perspective” which is the perspective of contemporary Korean society, it is evident that self-confidence is heavily influenced by person‘s environment, social world as well as media world. It almost seems that there is free decision if the person wants to undergo cosmetic surgery, but there is a less space for independency if the person wants to remain natural and ‗ugly‘. The most common procedures, the surgery of eyes and nose, occur very naturally without a big questioning, without a great thought behind: ‗Everybody do it, so why don‘t I do it?‘. The Korean sense for conformity, for one shared body, and the fear of otherness makes cosmetic surgery the automatic practice that does not reflect personal expression but rather societal trend. This is valid especially in young age where students did not formed their independent self yet, but desire to resemble other, to be part of ‗we‘. The desire to
96 follow the trend is reinforced by current boom of capitalism spread in Korean in several latest decades. The society ones again push people fight for their success in this highly competitive society. The economic progress happen so rapidly and society changed so significantly from developed country, that everyone want to enjoy the luxury of high living standards and they are willing to do whatever it takes. It often happens that desire for ‗gold‘ is the greatest in economically progressing countries. The new is always better; the foreign is symbol of luxury. The old and traditional should be forgotten. In newly economically developed countries is often happiness counted in money. This is more than valid for Korea. In summary, Koreans desire to belong among highly developed countries, and they already are, at least in economic aspect. In the individual fight for good salary, respectively, nice husband, they fight with weapon called beauty. Respondents supported the suggestion in theoretical part. Beauty becomes the important decisive element in case of employment and romantic relationships. However, it must be pointed out that the young respondents do not really feel the pressure coming from the side of employment. Cosmetic surgery is undoubtedly the way to increase person‘s future prospects; however this is not what bothers young consumers. For them cosmetic surgery is mostly question of trend. Especially at the end of high school, students know that this is the time to become truly valid member of society. From ugly duck they can be born again as new individuals, and enter the society with the face that is more ‗trendy‘ and appealing. The undermining fact is that there is desire to fit into society rather than differentiate; to gain the same product rather than the different one. Moreover, question of beauty is not only about result but also about process. A person is supposed to always try more. There is always someone better looking you can compete. The people around must know that I take proper care of myself, that I commit myself in continuous self-improvement through body, that is the case of women especially. This findings support the suggestion of Neo-Confucian practices (see chapter 3.1). However, gradually even men‘s body has become subject of self-improvement. Body self- care and self-improvement has become the second most important value after the education for both sexes. Therefore we cannot anymore talk that cosmetic surgery is imply a result of patriarchy society where women are subject of male dominance. With the agreement with Kim‘s description of contemporary Korean society, we could better conclude that both women and men has become victims of consumerism and newly appearing capitalism in Korea. Capitalism is indeed the expansion of Neo-Confucian dominance over the body,
97 that in capitalism increasingly apply also on men. The market is flourishing in the streets of Seoul. Young Koreans has become the greatest consumers of products and services, willing to spend their money and show the high standards of living. New trends are quickly accepted and spread over a young population where nobody wants to be left out. Cosmetic surgery came as a new trend, a new product introduced as ‗gift‘ from local doctors that increases chances of young people on success, as a product through which dreams come true. One important topic to discuss is the involvement of parents in cosmetic surgery practice, and the understanding of cosmetic surgery. As was stated earlier, cosmetic surgery is by young student possibly seen as joining trend or as opportunity to be finally more satisfied with face or body. This would not correspond with assumption that in Korea cosmetic surgery has rather pragmatic value than become a case of vanity. Indeed, surgery of eyes and nose of boys and girls around their 18 years old, who do not suffer from serious complex, seems rather than vanity that question of future prospects. In that sense, parents appear to be the ones thinking about child‘s future. With that respect they pushing on child‘s appearance and even suggesting cosmetic surgery so their child has better chance. In that sense they are caring and lacing parents who yet may undermine the confidence of child. Hey make teach him to compare and compete, yet to be part of the crowd thinking. Moreover, young people who did not go through self-actualization and are fragile to outer influences that effect their body dissatisfaction and lead them to form a body complex in their minds. To the great extend it is the role of parent to lead a child to the self-actualization and self-confidence. This aspect of study is very fragile since there were no interviews conducted with parents, thus the findings draw on experiences and reflection of young respondents. Therefore, future research should consider the deeper analysis of parental involvement as well as motivation in terms of cosmetic surgery purchase. Finally, the role of media must be necessarily discussed. One question bothered me from beginning. That is, why Koreans have this strong need to resemble media celebrities? Media often choose a better looking people all around the world, but people keep the distance from the celebrities. What is in Korea so different that some Koreans want to resemble their stars to the extent of having cosmetic surgery? Answer offered here is surprising, yet logical. Korean television does not have much stronger power than in the other countries, at least with respect to comparison and the need to look same. It is the real
98 life environment that increases the power of television; that provides the resonance. Korean, do compare with celebrities, but, as was stated above, they believe (at least as older) that celebrities must look nicer than common people to attract viewers, and that their appearance is unrealistic (in that aspect that they are not showing a common appearance). In the higher age viewers can create distance, even though they may still feel great dissatisfaction with their bodies after media exposure. Yet, Korean media have several powerful tools that may make cosmetic surgery more common. The two aspects of Korean media are essential. Firstly, media provide homogenous image of beauty that is more easily saved and in minds of viewers. They create one beauty ideal that makes the desire more specific, and cosmetic surgery clinics may better target their customers. Kauen described that there is something in Korean culture that make people to follow the same fashion, the same rules. In that context, the concepts of conformity and traditional Neo-Confucian women‘s subjectlessness become important way how to understand the unification of appearance. According to Kim (2003) ―The Korean woman‘s role as subjectless body and the practice of strictly following rules pertaining to the body mean that media images tend to have an extremely normalizing influence on women‖ (p. 109-110). The idea, that their bodies are not their own, have led women to understand ―beautification an act of obeying the new rules of propriety and fashion‖ (ibid). It means that the need to follow the homogenous and standardized features of physical appearance is the result of old tradition that cannot be easily erased by value of individualism, at least not by many. Therefore, it will be very interesting to watch future course of cosmetic surgery and representation of beauty on media. Both may become more diverse, or they will follow the new trend. The opinions of respondents differed. Currently, the individual expression is not the main purpose of cosmetic surgery, as Kim (2003), said ―following the rules is.‖ Secondly, media helped to spread the idea of malleability of beauty. Nowadays, it is not mainly Western culture that undermines the body satisfaction and creates an ideal of alternation. The Korean media themselves are capable to create and disseminate the possibility and even the need for body alternation. Media personas have begun commonly, and less or more publicly, undergo cosmetic surgery, and therefore promote the practice. The consumers are tempted by idea that even they can become as beautiful as celebrity, and build the expectation that may or may not be fulfilled. Moreover, beauty industry tells consumers that there is nothing wrong to want to look like a celebrity. Consequently, the practice has spread among ordinary people, so today it is common to take inspiration and
99 encouragement also in these ordinary people in our surroundings, not only in celebrities. In that aspect, the power of media may seem weaker. Somin said that, today, there can be seen many beautiful girls on streets of Korea. They mostly have double eyelids, high nose and flawless white skin. In that sense, indeed, the borders between media reality and social reality are slightly vanishing. This may be the age of ‗beautiful hyperreality‘ where encouragement and perhaps even an inspiration can be sought in real world beside the media. In accordance with Baudrillard (1994), Korea may have entered the age of hypperreality when the reality of media has become occupying the everyday life, and so it is difficult to recognize media reality from reality. Ordinary people perhaps do not reach the beauty of celebrities in media, but they are not too far from resembling them. Cosmetic surgery allowed it, and became a part of the life of ordinary people. Everybody can become beautiful as that actress or that singer. Actress may serve as model for shaping a new face just as a friend (even though it was not confirmed by study). Moreover, everybody is aware that people in television have cosmetic surgery, which increases a hope of having similarly pretty face, and might serves as encouragement to do so. Third aspect of media is that they emphasize the importance of beauty in society. They show that beautiful people are successful, performers as well as characters. Respondents saw especially connection between the beauty and good life of celebrity. Most of them so as desirable to look like them since they must have a lot of opportunities. Possibly respondents even embrace same stereotypes that media present, especially the relatively uncritical expectation of good life and numerous opportunities.
Limitation and further suggestions
We already discussed several methodological limitations of study, primarily the language limitation, sensitivity of topic and related limited population sample. Additionally, we should point out that respondents consisted primarily of students who belong to the very frequent yet specific consumers of cosmetic surgery. It can be assumed that motivation for cosmetic surgery and the practice will differ in case of older generation. It is, for example, possible that the motivation of older consumers of cosmetic surgery is based on more pragmatic values that the motivation of students. The exploration of the age factor should be further explored. Furthermore, as can be logically conclude, parents must necessarily play a significant role in cosmetic surgeries of their adolescent children since they provide 100 financial support. Study revealed that the role of parents may be essential in final decision for cosmetic surgery purchase in the young age where the adolescent did not have chance to build more independent self and rather often follow the group behaviour that is in Korea enhanced by higher sense of conformity. In that age on the edge of adulthood parental attitude towards cosmetic surgery may significantly decide whether the child will go the way of surgical enhancement which may increase confident as well as undermine a feeling of strong self. As Minji emphasized, in the high school age, the children did not went through self-actualization, yet they experience a strong pressure with respect to their experience, possibly the strongest in their lives. They are, therefore, vulnerable and affected by environment, incorporating societal values into their value system. It is the role of parent whether they will support the prioritizing beauty and enhancement at every cost or try to prevent it or at least give a child a time for self-actualization and more conscious decision in their later age. Therefore, a future research should include a parental role in cosmetic surgery purchase of adolescent consumers. Furthermore, the phenomenon of global craze for Korean popular culture and its relation to the cosmetic surgery popularity and medical tourism should be explored in greater deepness. Seoul became Asian mekka of cosmetic surgery in latest years. The growth of foreigners, mainly from East Asian countries arriving to Seoul to enhance their appearance is increasing. As was stated in theoretical part, medical tourism provide a great financial contribution for Korea. The phenomenon copies the popularity of Korean dramas and k-pop expansion into the world. The study does not include a consideration of this phenomenon. Yet it seems that Korean popular cultural has much a longer range reach than within the country‘s borders. Additionally, since this study is made from the stance of foreigners it may provide a new perspective that is not affected by cultural knowledge and values. I believe that this perspective may be refreshing. I have discussed the topic of beauty and cosmetic surgery with numerous Koreans, the less and more critical. Yet, even those very critical were raised in Korean environment, therefore their perspective and reflection of topic is culturally determined. Their understanding of cosmetic surgery is necessarily affected by their understanding of beauty, the value of beauty and by the omnipresent importance of beauty they experience from childhood. On the other hand, the understanding of appearance greatly differs in case of author who comes from Europe, the Czech Republic respectively. The appearance was rarely an important factor, there is significantly lower
101 importance of beauty and there is definitely no one standardized ideal appearance in Czech Republic. People therefore do not feel pressured to reach a certain face. Furthermore, there are elements that many Korean consider as granted and from their point of view do not need to question. Such an element is the beauty comments. Several Korean respondents were abroad and as was mentioned, it was the first time when they realized that beauty may not necessarily be an important issue. However, those staying in Korea by lack this perspective. This is the factor that mainly ethnographic study may offer. Another aspect is media portrayal of beauty. In Czech Republic, media provides variety of appearance, there is certainly no need to for actor to be beautiful to be allowed to enter TV screens. Actors and actresses, singers and music groups are more defined by their skills rather than beauty. Consequently I held no idea similar to Koreans saying that there must be necessarily only beautiful people in television otherwise viewers would not watch or listen to performers. The whole view of television of beauty exhibition was a new for me and allows me to reflect the phenomenon from a perspective. However, I must admit there might have occurred subjective critique in the study, even though I tried to adopt unbiased view. With all the described differences, it would be valuable to continue in research and relate the subject to Czech Republic, possibly to make a comparison and thus try to explore cultural diversity and verify the culturally determined factors of cosmetic surgery revealed in the study.
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VI. CONCLUSION
The study sought to facilitate understanding of contemporary phenomenon of cosmetic surgery in Korea that is characterized not only by it rate per capita but especially its character. Cosmetic surgery becomes a practice that unifies Koreans and helps them to achieve more Caucasian features. This study attempt to emphasize that societal and cultural factors are essential and therefore cosmetic surgery and its research should not restricted to examination of psychological aspect. The case of Korea supports this call for societal perspective. The cosmetic surgery can be hardly understood in terms of individual decision since societal understanding of appearance and body self-care already significantly predetermine the way how will be cosmetic surgery understood. Korea is country where several aspects meet in recent age. The country combines the long tradition of strict Confucian rules that emphasized women body improvement and concealment with contemporary growth of capitalism and consumerism. The consumerism became new societal lever that however hold the power over women as well as men body. Another aspect of Korean cultural tradition is high level of conformity. There is a limited space for collectivism in new competitive society. We could rather talk about conformity that is characterized by sense to follow group behaviour paradoxically in the attempt to compete with others. Beauty is that a specific capital that increases chances on success. It is expected that everyone will take care of their bodies in order to compete in sharp competition in job market as well as love market. Yet the way how young participants of study perceive cosmetic surgery is framed rather in the aspect of self-confidence and self- satisfaction. The cosmetic surgery has become accepted as practice that increases self- confidence and helps to person shine. On the other hand, cosmetic surgery driven by desire to look like another person, especially person with unified features of media celebrity is seen as negative aspect of cosmetic surgery resulting in ‗monster‘ and dissatisfaction. To sum up, person shall pursue cosmetic surgery in case of improving one complex that is based on subjective need, but is rejected as a mean to become beautiful objectively, therefore as a result of societal pressure. It is interesting that first option is seen as rather independent decision but the second mostly understood as result of media. In overall media were frequently blamed for bad cosmetic surgery, that means ‗too much and too same‘. On the other hand, other sources such as parents, friends, teachers and other sources from social world were blamed rarely. Moreover, this diversification of cosmetic surgery on bad 103 surgery and legitimized surgery, respectively objective and subjective surgery do not fully reflect the reality of the practice (especially its same character and collective purchase) and the role of society. As this study revealed there are multiple societal factors that significantly influence body self-satisfaction, perception of beauty and cosmetic surgery purchase. These factors cannot be limited only to the power of media; their inherent character in Korean society makes them less matter of conscious reflection, yet they significantly influence perception of beauty and cosmetic surgery. Finally, the reason of the diversification of cosmetic surgery could be explain by the fact that respondents feel the need to legitimize a certain level of cosmetic surgery since it is so common practice that is done by many close friends and relatives. The main research purpose was to better understand the phenomenon of cosmetic surgery in Korea in terms of societal perspective. The main research question asked: How is cosmetic surgery phenomenon in South Korea affected by sociocultural values and media? The question could be addressed with consideration of another question that is whether cosmetic surgery in Korea can be truly seen as based free decision of individual who seeks to express individuality and reach self-improvement or as result of societal pressure, when individuals desire to conform to commonly perceived norms of ideal appearance. The subquestions will be answered to summarize findings. The study revealed that beauty is seen by respondents as subjective value, yet there are so many rules and objective beauty standards in Korean society that the free choice is felt as limited by some respondents. The uniformity of beauty standards is attributed to media standardized and homogenous portrayal of beauty that comes mostly from the hands of cosmetic surgeons rather than the nature. Media uniform representation of beauty is believed to form an objective and valid beauty that is easier to follow and reach through cosmetic surgery. Moreover, as was stated in theoretical part, the continuity and uniformity increase media the effectivity of representation. Another revelation concerns with beauty malleability paradox and provides and interesting discussion over the acceptance of cosmetic surgery. The perspective could be described as pragmatic, or by the proverb ‗The aim justifies the means‘, in the sense that cosmetic surgery is not fully accepted practice, however, people (especially men) do not want lower the expectation so they eventually accept the practice under the condition that the result looks natural. It is possible that eventually the cosmetic surgery will be better publicly accepted practices and people will not need to keep it as secret. This needs to be better discussed in Korea since now is the
104 practice hypocritical in the sense: ‗Everybody do it and nobody talks about it‘. The need for beautiful partner or employers may increase the open discussion when people admit that the requirement justifies a procedure. On the other hand, topic of surgery may further be concealed even deeper and hypocrisy will continues. The topic would deserve more open public discussion. The second subquestion asked about source of societal pressure. Research revealed an important role of appearance in terms of employment, and even though respondents do not have personal experience, they are aware of all various stories. Despite them, it seems that respondents keep rather positive attitude and believe in overall preparedness. Interesting findings include especially influence of parents and their active role in cosmetic surgery purchase. The study also showed that for teenager may decision lack any future planning but, parents may think more in pragmatic way, increasing the future chance of their child. This assumption would require interviews with parent which would be a task for future research because role of the parents should not be neglected. Also if there would be any attempt to decrease cosmetic surgery practices, parent would be a good target. Another essential factor appeared to be good example. The indirect experience with cosmetic surgery affect whether person has positive or negative view. Cosmetic surgery can be dangerous intervention into body. However, with the continuous practice and showing a good example in television and real life, the fear decreases. Also, those who see that friends are more beautiful and satisfied without building and addiction have more positive attitude that those with opposite experience. Media are omnipresent and it important role was proved especially in case of teenagers who enjoys the fantasy of dramas. At this age, high school students pay closer attention to dramas in order to have common topic of discussion. They have also higher level of conformity, trying to watch what is popular. Moreover due to the lack of personal experience with social world as well as because of the vulnerable age characterized by insecurity about own body, they tend to more believe to media representation of body and possibly internalize the standards as highly desirable. Finally, media may not be direct reason for cosmetic surgery, but they provide image of homogenized beauty that is more easily root in the mind of viewer and potentially lead to homogenized cosmetic surgery. The young girls and boys may not decide to have cosmetic surgery because of certain TV drama, but in case they already thought of having cosmetic surgery, the actors and actresses may serve as models for their faces and create high expectation. Media teach how
105 show viewers how they should look like which is usually far from how they actually look like; moreover, they show how their partner should look like. And additionally various cosmetic clinics and media articles revealing cosmetic surgery of celebrities suggest the viewer can even achieve this extraordinary look under the hands of plastic surgeons. Lastly, there a two possibilities for future direction of cosmetic surgery, it can become more diverse or change to a new trend. The path will possibly follow media, therefore it is the role of media to set up a new trend of diversity. This study proved that the decision to undertake cosmetic surgery or other kind of less invasive procedure cannot be reduce to one factor. It is inadequate to keep searching for the one most influential factor since it is the society, and all its diverse aspects, that push an individual to approach the human beauty as one of the highest values in person‘s life. Even though some parents emphasis child‘s appearance and support cosmetic surgery, the respondent did not undertake surgery. Even though a person is teased even mocked by friends, he or she decided to keep the natural face. Moreover, watching beautiful actresses and actors in TV dramas is not the determinant of cosmetic surgery purchase. However, what this study revealed is that all these factors are powerful. Some factors plays greater role, some are supporting, but they all are especially influential when they work together and support each other.
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VIII. LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Demographic Information of Participants ……………………………………….56
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IX. NAME INDEX
A Goldman, 12 Gutierres, 41 Adorno, 44 Agliata, 8, 9, 19, 24, 25, 30, 39, 40, 44 H Alibhai-Brown, 13, 14, 38, 44 Alter, 60 Hall, 34 Americanization, 18, 19, 20, 108 Han, 19, 38, 40, 41, 45 Anderson-Fye, 13, 21, 28 Harcourt, 7, 21, 22, 23, 24, 38, 40, 44, 108, 109 Anne Roiphe, 11 Hargreaves, 46 Audrey Hepburn, 11 Heinberg, 38, 40, 47 Henderson, 39 B Henderson-King, 8, 30, 45 Hendriks, 38 Banister, 54 Hofstede, 28 Bashour, 12, 13 Holliday, 7, 9, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, Baudrillard, 37, 38, 98 29, 30, 31, 46 Berger, 40 Holliday and Elfving-Hwang, 10, 17, 25, 30 Bischak, 33, 43, 47, 109 Bourdieu, 22, 65 Ch Burgoon, 38 Burton, 33, 35, 36, 47 Cho, 7 Buzinde, 35, 53 J
C Jensen, 33, 35, 51, 52 Crane, 40, 41, 42, 107 Jeong, Kim and Lee, 28 Creswell, 49, 51 Jirák, 33, 35, 36, 47 Jones, 13, 14, 23, 30 D K Darwin, 12, 13, 59 Kang, 7 E Kant, 12, 59 Kenrick, 41 Eisend, 8, 24, 30, 34, 41, 44 Khalil Gibran, 11 Elfving-Hwang, 7, 9, 15, 16, 17, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, Kim, 2003, 9, 18- 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 38, 39 30, 31, 46 Kim, 2010, 46 Kinnally, 39, 40, 42, 43, 46 F Kit Wah Man, 14, 30 Knobloch-Westerwick, 40, 41, 42 Featherstone, 11, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26, 30, 38, 44, 46 Kwon, 8, 16, 24, 26, 41 Festinger, 41, 81 Fielding, 57, 58 L Fiske, 34, 106 Fredrickson, 24 Lazarsfeld, 52 Lee & Kwon, 8, 16, 24, 26, 41 G Lee, 2011, 8, 40 Lindlof, 52, 55, 56 Gerbner, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37 Luckmann, 40 Gerbner (1986), 31 Gerbner et al., 1986, 32
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M T
McCabe, 8, 27, 46 Tantleff-Dunn, 8, 9, 19, 24, 25, 30, 39, 40, 44 McQuail, 14, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37 Taylor, 52, 55, 56 Möller, 8, 24, 30, 34, 41, 44 Thompson, 38, 40, 47, 109 Morgan, 32, 37 Tiggemann, 46 Munshi, 14 Turnbull, 39, 68
N V
Newell, 30 Vonderen, 39, 40, 42, 43, 46
R W
Reinhard, 34, 35, 51 Warren, 35 Rhodes, 12, 13, 60 Waymer, 12 Ricciardelli, 8, 27, 46 Wellek, 35 Roberts, 8, 24 Wen, 11, 14, 15, 22, 27, 29, 30, 31, 109 Rosengren, 33, 35, 51, 52 Woo, 26 Rumsey, 7, 21, 22, 23, 24, 38, 40, 44 X S Xiaozheng, 29 Sarwer, 8, 25, 41, 45, 109 Scruton, 11, 12, 15, 24, 59 Y Shanahan, 32, 37 Shim, 14 Yoo, 35, 53 Shrum, 33, 43, 47 Yoon, 25, 26, 28 Sperry, 8, 45 Spitzer, 39, 109 Z Stone, 62, 64, 71 Stormer, 38, 40 Zivian, 39, 109 Swami, 7, 8, 10, 24, 25, 26, 31, 39, 40, 45, 48
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X. SUBJECT INDEX
A employment, 8, 21, 23, 24, 25, 66, 68, 69, 70, 95, 102 employment surgery, 24 active audience, 33, 34, 52 artificial beauty, 14, 22, 29, 49, 62, 64, 115 attitude, 8, 10, 25, 28, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 40, 41, 42, 43, F 45, 58, 78, 108, 109 feminism, 39, 68 fiction and reality discrepancy, 38 B body commodification, 30 G Beauty capital, 21 beauty concept, 11 gendered cosmetic surgery, 29 beauty industry, 9, 10, 30, 38, 39, 44, 71, 83 beauty myth, 16, 30, 41, 44 beauty stereotypes, 44 H
hyperreality, 37, 98 body dissatisfaction, 8, 10, 40, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 94, 96
Ch
C China, 13, 14, 16, 22, 27, 60, 107 capitalism, 20, 31 celebrities, 15, 39, 45, 62, 63, 65, 70, 77, 79, 80, 86, 88, 89, 90, 91, 96, 103 I collectivism, 28, 101 identity, 14, 18, 20, 29, 39, 84, 92 conformity, 27 individual decision, 29, 93, 101, viz individual expression consumerism, 16, 18, 21, 22, 25, 26, 30, 31, 38, 44, 50 individual expression, 28, 97 consumption, 18, 20, 38, 41, 53, 105, 106 instrumental approach, 26 cosmetic surgery, 1, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 22, 25, internalization, 8, 40, 43, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 115 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 34, 35, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, interpretation, 33, 34, 35, 51, 52 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 57, 60, 61, 62, 63, interpretative approach, 34 64, 69, 70, 71, 73, 75, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87,
88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98,99, 100, 102,
103, 105, 106, 108, 109, 115, 116 cosmetics, 30 cultivation, 33, 38, 41, 43, 87, 106, 109 J Cultural transformation of Korean society, 17 jaw surgery, 17, 76 cultural transformation of South Korea, 16 culturally determined beauty, 13
K
D Korea, 1, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 32, 39, 42, 47, 48, 49, 51, 53, 55, 60, 61, 64, double eyelid surgeries, 17 66, 67, 68, 71, 73, 75, 79, 81, 88, 90, 91, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99, 100, 102, 107, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118
E economic transformation of South Korea, 6, 16, 18 115
M romantic partners. viz romantic relationships romantic relationships, 24, 95, 115 media, 1, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 19, 20, 22, 26, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 58, 60, 61, 68, 69, 74, 77, 80, 81, S 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 94, 96, 100, 101, 102, 103, 106, 109, 115,116, 117 self-confidence, 29, 66, 67, 68, 70, 71, 78, 80, 90, 92, 93, Media, 9, 21, 31, 32, 33, 38, 44, 45, 55, 70, 81, 84, 85, 87, 94, 96, 101 88, 90, 91, 96, 102, 103, 104, 106, 108, 109, 110 self-esteem, 8, 26, 29, 50, 65 media representation, 6, 10, 31, 33, 37, 48, 52, 86, 88, self-image, 22, 50, 71, 79 103 social comparison, 9, 34, 35, 37, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, middle school students, 46 47, 50, 61, 62, 75, 79, 80, 87, 97, 100, 106, 109, 115 social status, 22, 65 subjective beauty, 12 N subjectless bodies, 17, 20, 28, 74 natural beauty, 14, 26, 46, 49, 62, 63, 64, 115 nose surgery, 17 T Neo-Confucianism, 17, 18, 19, 20, 95, 96, 107 television drama, 9, 30, 37, 50, 53, 74, 77, 84, 85, 86, 88, 90, 91, 92, 99, 103, 104, 117 P parental attitude, support, 27 peer attitude, 27 W personal experience, 34 physiognomy, 21, 67 Western look, 40 political transformation of South Korea, 18 Westernization, 19, 20 woman´s beauty, 24 women’s bodies, 17, 18, 28 R realism, 6, 35, 36, 47, 84 Reality and fiction discrepancy, 35 resonance, 34, 43, 47, 80, 109
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XI. APPENDIX
5.7 Appendix 1: Interview questions
BEAUTY CONCEPTION
- How do you define human beauty? o Is beauty subjective of objective concept? Measurable? o May be or should be beauty subject of improvement? Why? o What are the ideals beauty? How should ideal person look like to be considered as beautiful? Why do like/prioritize these features? o Why Korea focus on these specific features? o Are natural beauty and artificial beauty equal? Why? What is the difference between them? May artificial beauty replace the value of natural beauty?
SOCIAL PRESSURE - What is it like for you to live in Korea with respect to physical appearance? - How important is beauty in society nowadays? - What advantages it has to be good looking? - Could tell me about your experience of pressure concerning your appearance? Have you felt now or in past any pressure on appearance? From whom? Because of what? How did you feel? What did you do? o Parents: Do you talk about beauty or looks with your family. If so, what do you usually discuss? Do you feel pressure from your family? How your family members look at the plastic surgery? Do you discuss cosmetic surgery? o Peers: Do you talk about appearance with you friends? Do you discuss cosmetic surgery with you friends? Do you feel pressure from your friends, other students or people you work with? Have they ever teased you in terms of your appearance? o Job – How important is beauty in terms of job opportunities. Do you feel pressure? What will you do in terms of appearance when you will be preparing for job interview? o Romantic relationships – How beauty affects chances of having boyfriend and getting married? Have you ever experienced pressure on your appearance from your boyfriend/girlfriend? How important of physical appearance for you with respect to other sex? What are the most important characteristics of opposite sexes? How should your partner look like (the attractive features?) Why these features?
MEDIA
Self-image - What do you think about your physical appearance? Where do you stand in standards 117
of beauty? Are you satisfied with your appearance? Would you like to change something? - Is beauty important to you? Why? How much you care about your appearance? Upward comparison and internalization - What are the most important sources of information about appearance for you? - How often do you watch TV programs? What kind of programs do you watch mostly? Why you like those kinds of programs? - Are TV programs an important source of information about being attractive for you? - When you see models and actors/actresses of your own sex on television, what do you think about them? - How do they feel about your appearance after watching media? Do the actresses/actors in some TV shows etc. affect how you think about beauty? - Would you like to look like these actresses and models? - Do you try to look like them? What do you for that? - Have you ever felt pressure on your appearance because of media (TV, magazines)? Please, describe in detail what kind of pressure? - Do you compare yourself with people from TV or magazines? How does it make you feel? - Are the beauty standards in TV realistic? Should ordinary people try to look like performers? - How do you think that media affect the perception of beauty and desire for cosmetic surgery? - Should people performing in TV/show business be good looking and have cosmetic surgery?
COSMETIC SURGERY - What do you think about plastic surgery? - Would you consider having a surgery? If so, which part and why? - Would you consider cosmetic surgery if your partner ask for that? - What are the reasons of popularity of cosmetic surgery? What is the positive side/advantages? What is the negative side? - What do you think about TV programs focusing on cosmetic surgery?
FOR RESPONDENTS WITH COSMETIC SURGERY ONLY - Could tell me about your experience of cosmetic surgery? - How did you decided to undergo cosmetic surgery? - What were your expectations? - Did/do you see any consequences? - Are you satisfied now?
The transcription of interview is attached in CD.
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5.8 Appendix 2: CD
The attached CD includes:
1: complete text of diploma thesis and transcription of interviews in the excel document.
2: documentary movie named ‗Beauty‘ that is based on several interviews with Korean students (some of them included into the current study) and a few students from other Asian countries. These interviews and the documentary served as a pilot study conducted in June 2014 in Korea. The documentary was made by Kristina Kolovratkova (author of the study) , Yusni Dewiantin, Natasha Susanto and Tanja Lehtovaara
Methodology of pilot study:
Research sample The core research sample will include around 10 university students (6 Korean students, 1 student from Brunei, 1 Japan, 1 Taiwan).
Main research question:
What are the social factors that affect Korean‘s perception of human beauty?
Sub questions:
1. How Koreans define human beauty and how evaluate its importance? Interview questions: - How do you define human beauty? What are the standards, ideals? - What does the term mean to you? - Who is beautiful? - Where do you stand in beauty standards? - What they think about all of it?
2. Do Koreans feel pressure from society considering beauty and how this pressure looks like? (What is the relation of beauty and their personal and professional success?) IQ (Interview Questions): - Do you talk about beauty or looks with your family. If so, what, and how deep is it? - Do you feel pressure from your family? - Do you feel pressure from your friends, society or from the people you work with? - Do you feel beauty affects your chances of getting married? - Do you think you should conform to these norms?
3. How media exposure influences the perception of beauty - How often do you watch TV/Korean dramas? - What do you think of Boys over flowers, 200 pounds beauty, Time? - Are the beauty standards in these movies realistic? 119
- Do the actresses/actors in some TV shows etc. affect how you think about beauty? - Should people performing in TV/show business have plastic surgery?
4. What is attitude of Koreans toward plastic surgery? IQ: - What do you think about plastic surgery? - Would you consider having a surgery. If so, which part and why? - Do you know anyone who has had a surgery or is considering it? - Do you think doing plastic surgery is necessary?
5. What is the attitude of non-Koreans toward Korean beauty standards and practices? How their perception of beauty change during the stay in Korea? IQ: - How do you think Koreans look like? - What do you think about Korean beauty standards? - Are the standards different from your culture? - How do you feel when you know that most of Koreans do really care about their appearance? - Did your idea of beauty change while in Korea? How? - Did you change your way of dressing, doing your make-up or doing your hair in Korea? Are these changes going to last when you return to your country? - Did your perception of yourself change in Korea? - What do you think about plastic surgery?
Final product is 22 minutes 30 second long video, documentary genre.
-male-gaze-son-ye-jin/
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