THE IMPACT OF MINIMALISM ON HEALTH AND RELATIONAL
SATISFACTION: UNDERSTANDING MINIMALISM THROUGH A MEDICAL
FAMILY THERAPY LENS
A Dissertation
Presented to
The Graduate Faculty of The University of Akron
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirement for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Michelle Cappetto
August 2020 THE IMPACT OF MINIMALISM ON HEALTH AND RELATIONAL
SATISFACTION: UNDERSTANDING MINIMALISM THROUGH A MEDICAL
FAMILY THERAPY LENS
Michelle Cappetto
Dissertation
Approved: Accepted:
______Advisor School of Counseling Director Dr. Rikki Patton Dr. Varunee Faii Sangganjanavanich
______Committee Member Acting Dean, College of Health Professions Dr. Heather Katafiasz Dr. Timothy McCarragher
______Committee Member Acting Dean of the Graduate School Dr. David Tefteller Dr. Marnie Saunders
______Committee Member Date Dr. Delila Owens
______Committee Member Dr. Ingrid Weigold
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to the MFT faculty for admitting me as a student in 2017 and taking a chance on my research which was uncharted territory for this field. Also, to my committee for looking at this project with a sense of curiosity and interest. I’d also like to thank those who have supported me along the way during this academic journey. To my friend and cohort member Eman. You have showed me such kindness, support, and friendship over the past three years. It has been an honor to learn and grow beside such an amazing person. To my parents Linda and
Mario for helping care for my dog during the long days where I was unable to be with him. Your help with Petey during my graduate education, both times, made my success possible. To my friend Jenny for her emotional support and spiritual guidance. You have helped me in ways I cannot even express. To my friend Ariana for inspiring me to live a sustainable and minimal life, ten years ago she introduced me to the work of Bea
Johnson. This sparked my interest in this lifestyle and led me to seek other perspectives such as the work of Marie Kondo and The Minimalists.
This project would have not been possible without all of the generous people on social media who were interested in my research and participated in my study. I was overwhelmed by the amount of responses I received. Combining my love for marriage and family therapy and minimalistic living in this research project has been a dream come true. My collegiate education and doctoral research have sent me on a path of self-
iii discovery and healing. I can say after almost ten years of education I now know the secret to happiness and life satisfaction. Live simply, love authentically.
“Last but not least: I want to thank me. I want to thank me for believing in me, I want to thank me for doing all this hard work. I want to thank me for having no days off.
I want to thank me for never quitting. I want to thank me for always being a giver, and trying to give more than I receive. I want to thank me for trying to do more right than wrong. I want to thank me for just being me at all times. -Snoop Dogg" -Michelle
Cappetto
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES...... v
ABSTRACT...... x
SUBJECTIVITY STATEMENT...... xi
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1
Minimalism: A Chosen Lifestyle...... 1
Overconsumption: A Materialistic Epidemic ...... 4
Physical Health Effects...... 5
Mental/Emotional Health Effects...... 6
Hoarding...... 7
Happiness...... 8
Anxiety and Depression...... 9
Insecurity...... 11
Traumatic Stress...... 11
Social Isolation ...... 11
Relational Impacts...... 12
Materialism and Relational Satisfaction...... 13
Significance for Marriage and Family Therapy and other Mental Health
Professions...... 14
v Medical Family Therapy...... 15
Research Questions...... 17
Summary of Chapter 1...... 18
Definitions ...... 19
II. LITERATURE REVIEW...... 20
Minimalism: A lifestyle...... 20
Materialism...... 23
Consumption ...... 24
Stress...... 25
Mental Health ...... 26
Relational Satisfaction...... 28
Conflict ...... 28
Physical Health...... 30
Happiness...... 31
Intersection of Materialism and Relational Satisfaction...... 33
Medical Family Therapy (MedFT)...... 36
Summary of Chapter 2...... 42
III. METHODOLOGY...... 44
Research Questions ...... 44
Research Design...... 45
Participants...... 46
Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria...... 46
Procedures...... 46
vi Measures...... 49
Demographics ...... 49
Demographic Survey...... 50
Gender ...... 50
Race/ Ethnicity...... 50
Relationship Status...... 50
Relationship Length ...... 51
Childhood Family Financial Status ...... 51
Current Financial Status...... 51
Therapeutic Services ...... 51
Material Values Scale (MVS) Short Form ...... 52
Medial Outcomes Study 20- Item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-20) .....53
The Relationship Satisfaction Scale (RAS) ...... 55
Data Analysis Plan...... 56
Missing Data ...... 57
Ethical Considerations...... 58
Summary of Chapter 3...... 59
IV. RESULTS...... 60
Data Cleaning and Screening...... 60
Univariate Analysis...... 62
Preliminary and Bivariate Analysis...... 63
Research Question 1...... 65
Research Question 2...... 66
vii
Research Question 3...... 67
Summary of Chapter 4...... 68
V. DISCUSSION...... 70
Interpretation of Hypotheses...... 70
Hypothesis 1...... 70
Hypothesis 2...... 71
Hypothesis 3...... 72
Clinical Implications...... 73
Medical Family Therapy...... 76
Mindfulness...... 78
Cultivating Change: Increasing Relational Satisfaction via Minimalism...... 80
Limitations...... 84
Future Directions...... 86
Conclusion...... 89
REFERENCES...... 91
APPENDICES...... 126
Appendix A Informed Consent ...... 126
Appendix B Institutional Review Board Form ...... 128
Appendix C Demographics Survey ...... 136
Appendix D Material Values Scale (MVS) Short Form...... 136
Appendix E Medical Outcomes Study (MOS) 20-Item Short-Form Health Survey
(SF-20) ...... 139
viii Appendix F Relational Satisfaction Scale (RAS)...... 141
Appendix G Survey Debrief...... 142
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Descriptive Statistics...... 62
2. Frequencies of Covariates...... 62
3. Pearson Correlations between MVS and Dependent Variables...... 64
4. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Examining Association between MVS and Relationship Satisfaction...... 66
5. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Examining Association between MVS and Physical Health...... 67
6. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Examining Association between MVS and Mental Health...... 68
ix
ABSTRACT
Minimalism aids in the elimination life’s excess and allows for focus on the essentials, happiness, fulfillment, and freedom. Benefits of a minimalistic lifestyle include reclaiming time and the elimination of excess. Minimalism is a topic yet to be explored by marriage and family therapists (MFTs). Medical family therapy (MedFT) is a systemic, biopsychosocial model utilized to provide therapeutic services to patients and their families who are experiencing or have experienced physical health problems. The research question driving this study asks, how could benefits of minimalism be understood from MedFT lens? Descriptives, frequencies, correlations, t-tests, ANOVAs, and hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted to answer three research questions.
Results found that materialist values are a statistically significant predictor of relational satisfaction and mental health. Additionally, results indicated that materialist values are not a statistically significant predictor of physical health. Limitations of the study, implications for clinical practice, and future directions are discussed.
x
Subjectivity Statement
My name is Michelle Cappetto and I am a Ph.D. student in the Counselor
Education and Supervision: Marriage and Family Therapy program at The University of
Akron. I am a 31-year-old, white, heterosexual female from a middle-class family. My main research interests are applying Medical Family Therapy to working with different populations. Specifically, I am interested in clinical research, looking at what the research can show us will be helpful within clinical practice. I am a Licensed Professional
Counselor and an Independent Marriage and Family Therapist. I utilize a narrative family therapy approach in my clinical work. I have worked in different clinical settings such as in home, school- based, hospital, clinical mental health, and private practice. I currently own a private practice in Rocky River, OH, Healing Pathways Cleveland where I provide therapeutic treatment to a variety of distinct individuals, couples, and families.
Although this a quantitative study where subjectivity statements are uncommon, I believe my committee’s suggestion to include one is quite helpful and unique. The goal of this subjectivity statement is to identify the importance of this study to me as well as how reasons as to why this is an important topic to me may influence my work in conducting this study. This is a lifestyle I subscribe to in my own personal life. Due to
xi this, I believe since it is my preference to live such a lifestyle that I need to safeguard my biases. To safeguard against my own biases that may come up during the process of collecting and analyzing the data, my plan is to collaborate with my colleagues and my dissertation chair, Dr. Patton. By discussing such biases and/or feelings, I will not only be abiding by research ethics, but also be obtaining guidance on how to address my biases within the different topics embedded into my dissertation.
xii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Minimalism: A Chosen Lifestyle
Minimalism is “a tool to eliminate life’s excess, focus on the essentials, and find happiness, fulfillment, and freedom” (Millburn & Nicodemus, 2016, p. 26). If one decides to trade the American Dream in for a minimalist lifestyle, it has been said that you will get back your time, freedom, and overall life (Millburn & Nicodemus, 2015).
This lifestyle has been explained to stray away from a displeasing regime and on toward a more authentic life of freedom (Uggla, 2019). Further, this lifestyle consists of valuing voluntary simplicity (Uggla, 2019). Minimalism can have a plethora of effects on a person’s life (Millburn & Nicodemus, 2016). A few of the benefits of this lifestyle include: reclaiming time, the elimination of excess stuff, enjoying life, discovering meaning, living in the moment, concentrating on what is important, pursing our passions, finding happiness, doing anything we want to do, finding our missions, experiencing freedom, and creating more by consuming less (Millburn & Nicodemus, 2016).
Furthermore, minimalism can be viewed as an individual tactic to coping with situations of dissatisfaction (Uggla, 2019). The concept of minimalism has currently been a topic of attractiveness in the media. Still, there are painstakingly few academic articles that explore this topic (Uggla, 2019). The purpose of this dissertation is to add to the extremely small pool of literature on minimalism, address the physical and mental factors
1 as well as relational satisfaction that impacts this type of lifestyle, and understand its potential plethora of benefits through a relational lens.
Minimalism involves decluttering as well as owning fewer material items
(Millburn & Nicodemus, 2016). Owning less has been found to save money and time and stand for a radical, anti-capitalist movement (Rodriguez, 2017; Uggla, 2019).
“Nonmaterialism refers to the lack of importance consumers place on material possessions for defining their sense of self, success, or happiness (Richins & Dawson,
1992; Shrum et al., 2013), while voluntary simplicity refers to the behavioral limitation of the ownership and acquisition of material goods out of one’s free will” (Etzioni, 1998;
Huneke, 2005; Peifer et al., 2019, p. 232; Shaw & Newholm, 2002). Through decluttering, a person can focus on eradicating debt, changing habits, and formulating better decisions with rarer resources (Millburn & Nicodemus, 2016). By removing things that do not matter, people can allow for the most important aspects of life to be focused on such as health, relationships, passion, growth, and contribution (Millburn &
Nicodemus, 2016).
“Voluntary simplicity is defined as the behavioral limitation of the ownership and acquisition of material goods out of one’s free will (Etzioni, 1998; Huneke, 2005; Shaw
& Newholm, 2002) or what Cherrier, Black, and Lee (2011) refer to as intentional nonconsumption” (Peifer et al., 2019, p. 234). Essentially, voluntary simplicity is a choice people make to own less and contributes to minimalism. Nonmaterialism is an example of an anticonsumption value whereas voluntary simplicity is an example of anticonsumption behavior (Richins & Dawson, 1992). A minimalist lifestyle is a choice which empowers a specific perspective on life (Rickly-Boyd, 2012).
2 An ethnographic study discovered that existential authenticity in individuals is consequential on traveling and related experiences (Rickly-Boyd, 2012). Thus, they concluded that a minimalist lifestyle requires experiences to be placed value-wise above items of any kind. Further, they concluded that this lifestyle as well as incessant travel leads to autonomy (Rickly-Boyd, 2012). Another major concept of this lifestyle is that it aids in the deciding of items that enhance value in people’s lives (Millburn &
Nicodemus, 2016). “Minimalist stories of lifestyle change present how the authors narrate their lifestyle change by describing a previous unsatisfactory and stressful life, a moment of awakening, and their new minimalist life, which is primarily characterized by freedom and passion” (Uggla, 2019, p. 239). Furthermore, minimalism leads to positive lifestyle changes for individuals who choose to make these changes.
The path towards a minimalist lifestyle can look very different. However, all paths lead to the same place, which is a life with more time, more money, and more freedom to live a more meaningful life (Millburn & Nicodemus, 2016). A study explained that people pursue a higher income due to their hope of this false ideology that it will increase their happiness (Kahneman et al., 2006). Millburn and Nicodemus (2015) explained that individual’s needs, wishes, and technologies are always changing, thus, the items that add value to our lives today, will likely not add value tomorrow. They go on to say that this is the very reason people should be willing to let go of everything. This notion of living minimalistically and being able to get rid of things is farthest from the concepts of materialism and overconsumption. Minimalistic individuals may be perceived to be executing practicality (Uggla, 2019). Practicality has a positive connotation in the American society; however, it is also commonplace to overconsume
3 materials. Thus, the contradiction certainly exists between living practically while also being told to over purchase. Unlike minimalism, materialism holds vastly distinctive views; the following section will discuss overconsumption and materialism.
Overconsumption: A Materialistic Epidemic
Materialistic values are central to American culture (Richins et al., 1982).
Materialism is theorized as a value that reflects the principle that possessions are imperative in people’s lives (Richins, 2004). An article in The Wall Street Journal
(2011) stated that Americans spend $1.2 trillion annually on nonessential goods, thus, all of this money is going to towards items they do not even need. The United
States (U.S.) spends a large amount of the world’s resources and numerous people have advised the limitation of consumption is essential to avoid disastrous environmental damage (Human Development Report, 1998). Further, 71% of American purchases are expended on consumer goods and on average spend more on shoes, jewelry, and watches than on higher education (De Graaf et al., 2014; Kaplan-Oz & Miller, 2017).
Materialism focuses on goals and values that subscribe to acquiring items, the negative results following this has been gaining more attention from researchers (Kasser,
2016). Materialism and compulsive consumption are considered as the dark side of consumer behavior (Moschis, 2017; Nickerson et al., 2003). For example, due to the fact that materialistic individuals typically accentuate communications that encompass valued assets like smartphones, a higher level of materialism might result in an elevated level of reliance on communications technology (Lee et al., 2018; Roberts & Pirog, 2013).
The research published on the damaging consequences of communications of materialism in the U.S. is predominantly between individuals living in low
4 socioeconomic neighborhoods (Chaplin et al., 2014; Kasser, 2005; Schor, 2004;
VanderPyl, 2019; Williams et al., 2000). Materialism may contribute to the production of negative consequences in individuals living in a mindless fashion and allured by the longing for money (Wang et al., 2017). Youth are continuously overwhelmed with messages of materialism (VanderPyl, 2019). Intriguingly, research has shown that people who are materialistic are more likely to fall for marketing tactics more frequently (Ruvio et al., 2014). Unfortunately, they are not offered the proper supports to cease these messages’ job of encouraging or validating influence in delinquent behavior (VanderPyl,
2019). In addition, there are a plethora of health consequences associated with living a materialistic lifestyle. The following subsections will discuss the physical, mental/ emotional, and relational impacts of materialism.
Physical Health Effects
The direct link between minimalism and physical health outcomes is yet to exist in the current literature. Thus, this is one of the goals of this dissertation. However, the physical health outcomes of materialism will be discussed to attempt to fill this gap.
Materialism has been documented as a noteworthy life value; therefore, substantial scholarly research has been conducted to examining its impact on individual wellbeing and consumption undertakings (Belk, 1985; Burroughs & Rindfleisch, 2002; Lee et al.,
2018; Rindfleisch et al., 2009). Highly materialistic individuals were found to have lower satisfaction within the domains of their health and physical condition (Ryan &
Dziurawiec, 2001). An article has observed the behavior of compulsive buying through a biological standpoint (Moschis, 2017). Specifically, the occurrence of this behavior has
5 been concluded to be the consequence of a disease or deficiency due to inadequate development of the cognitive system.
An article that reviewed the literature on the impact of post-structuralism and postmodern social theory in health sociology revealed a rise in new materialist perspectives (Fox, 2016). The review yielded that the focus on materialism affects health, illness and health care (Fox, 2016). The materialist lifestyle/behavioral paths had a major mediating role in the relationship between socioeconomic position and health (Grundy,
DeStavola, & Ploubidis, 2011). Thus, this article implied that people with higher incomes are able to purchase better food, better housing, live in safer environments, and have better access to health care (Grundy et al., 2011). Work to improve an individual's reported well-being should be viewed as a means of health promotion as well as a disease prevention strategy (Siahpush et al., 2008). Much more research has been conducted on the effects of materialism has on individual’s mental and emotional health, the following subsection will discuss the pertinent findings.
Mental/ Emotional Health Effects
Various problems and negative effects regarding materialism have been discussed in the literature, such as causes and costs of materialism, the behaviors and personality traits of materialists, and moral considerations (Belk, 1983; Fournier & Richins, 1991;
Richins & Dawson, 1992). Materialism has been associated with low levels of gratitude, empathy, as well as additional occurrences of conflict in relationships (Belk, 1985;
Kasser et al., 2004; McCullought et al., 2002; Puente-Díaz & Cavazos-Arroyo, 2015).
Materialism is considered to be a psychological state that is fostered in one’s early years
(Baker et al., 2013; Moschis, 2017; Richins & Chaplin, 2015; Rindfleisch et al., 1997).
6 Mental health costs stemming from compulsive consumption aligns with humanistic psychologists such as Fromm (1976), Maslow (1956, 1970), and Rogers (1961, 1963) whose work state that chasing ambitions based on extrinsic rewards, the conditional approval of other people, and “having” rather than of “being” divert individuals from the meaningful facets of life as well as potential lead to psychological pain (Nickerson et al.,
2003).
Improved psychological well-being was found to be a positive outcome of the consumption of experiences versus to the consumption of materialistic goods (Muniz-
Velazquez et al., 2017). Materialism has been propositioned to be a predictor of subjective well-being (Puente-Díaz & Cavazos-Arroyo, 2019). However, just because a person believes something will contribute positively to their health does not actually mean it will occur. Polak and McCulough (2006) insinuated that gratitude could potentially be a substitute to materialism since it is supposed to have the opposite effect on subjective well-being (Puente-Díaz & Cavazos-Arroyo, 2019).
The significance placed on material items are expected to lead to different cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes (Kasser, 2016, Puente-Díaz, & Cavazos-
Arroyo, 2019). Actually, some neurological studies have been done to examine the relationship between acquisitiveness cognitive processes and personality to begin exploring the reasons why some of us over consume and find it challenging to discard items (Wang et al., 2012). It would be difficult to speak to the relevance and vitality of the mental/ emotional health consequences of materialism without discussing hoarding, happiness, anxiety, depression, insecurity, traumatic stress, and social isolation.
Hoarding
7 “Hoarding can be defined as having three components 1) the acquiring of and failure to discard a large number of possessions that appear to be useless or of limited value, 2) living spaces sufficiently cluttered so that the clutter precludes activities for which those spaces were designed, and 3) significant impairment in functioning or distress caused by the hoarding” (Steketee & Frost, 2007, p. 1). Studies have shown that lower rates of marriage and higher rates of divorce exist between hoarding couples, thus, exposing potential issues within these relationships (Stekee & Frost, 2003; Tolin, Fitch,
Frost, & Steketee, 2008). Furthermore, individuals who compulsively hoard hold emotional attachments to their belongings when compared to people who do not hoard
(Steketee & Frost, 2007). In fact, these individuals appear to have extremely sentimental attachments to items that are deemed meaningless (Steketee & Frost, 2007). Therefore, the literature shows that hoarding is considered problematic to emotional attachment as well as romantic relationships.
Happiness
Richins and Dawson (1992) extensively documented the that definition and measurement of materialism is the link concerning the attainment of material goods and the person’s end objective of being happy. In actuality, materialistic individuals tend to be less happy as well as less satisfied with their lives versus individuals who are less materialistic individuals (Dittmar et al., 2014; Martin et al., 2019). Individuals who report higher engagement in materialism are not as happy as individuals who report lower engagement in materialism Tsang et al., 2014). Similarly, studies have shown that people who ranked highly in materialism were less satisfied with their life (Ryan & Dziurawiec,
8 2001). Relatedly, people that reported to be happier and more satisfied report to be healthier (Siahpush et al., 2008).
Many researchers have argued that materialism and the quest for items is not the cause but the outcome of dissatisfaction; further, that the desire to possess derives from insecurities or profounder dissatisfactions with one's self and one's life (Braun &
Wicklund, 1989; Cushman, 1990; Fromm 1976; Richins & Dawson, 1992; Wachtel,
1983). Wang et al. (2019) found that consumption had strong negative effects on happiness. Makant (2010) found that happiness can’t stem from material items as it is something that can’t be bought or sold. Millburn and Nicodemus (2015) developed what they called the, ‘The Consumption Continuum,’ which means when people give too much meaning to the stuff they purchase, they then will think it will bring them happiness.
They went on to explain how this method sets people up for failure.
Anxiety and Depression
A meta-analysis was conducted to explore the relationship between materialism and signs of mental health such as individual affect, anxiety, and depression (Dittmar et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2017). This relationship could be damaged by specific demographics (age and sex) and social (economic growth and inequality) factors (Dittmar et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2017). Present-day research indicates that compulsive buyers experience significant anxiety, a lack of pleasure or enjoyment in their lives, and utilize substances in order to cope with anxiety (Harnish et al., 2019). Additionally, a study found that lower self-efficacy and higher social anxiety may contribute to materialistic individuals being more vulnerable to smartphone addiction (Lee, et al., 2018).
9 Moschis (2017) studied materialism and compulsive consumption from a social and behavioral sciences perspective by acknowledging maladaptive patterns that cause such behaviors. Compulsive buyers experience increased social anxiety, alienation, and lowered self-esteem versus non-compulsive buyers (Black 2001; King 1981).
Consequently, compulsive buyers may compulsively shop with the goal of enhancing their social relationships (Harnish et al., 2019; Valence, d’Astous & Fortier, 1988).
Additionally. compulsive buyers may instinctively shop to preserve or improve their social relationships (Valence et al., 1988).
Materialism was found to be linked to self-reported happiness and depression
(Muniz-Velazquez et al., 2017). An article’s results showed that individuals who place greater value on wealth, status, and material possessions have an increased likelihood of becoming depressed or antisocial (Bauer et al., 2012, p. 517). It is expected in society that an increase in income will coincide with a reciprocal increase in subjective well-being, however, it was found that negative psychological consequences, such as anxiety, depression, lower self-esteem, and life dissatisfaction were typically the actual costs of desiring financial success (Nickerson et al., 2003). Fortunately, romantic relationships can mitigate to some degree the negative effects of depressive symptoms (Kouros &
Cummings, 2010; Morgan et al., 2018). Knowing that depressive symptoms may be a consequence of a materialistic lifestyle, one can hypothesize a potential correlation between these factors and relational satisfaction. Thus, there is existing research that displays the significant link between mental health diagnoses and relational effects.
However, the link between relational satisfaction and minimalist lifestyles are still left unexplored.
10 Insecurity
The American society endorses materialism despite unintended effects such as impaired self-esteem (Chaplin et al., 2014), insecurity (Richins & Chaplin, 2015) and stress (Rindfleisch et al., 1997). It is assumed that these negative, unintended effects can be relieved by attaining and valuing material possessions. A noted key positive predictor of materialism in the literature is an amplified feeling of insecurity (Howell et al., 2012;
Kasser & Sheldon, 2000; Maslow, 1954; Pyszczynski et al., 1997). Additionally, when people experience existential insecurity, it is possible they may become even more materialistic in order to cope and circumvent self-awareness (Howell et al., 2012; Mandel
& Smeesters, 2008; Rindfleisch et al., 2009).
Traumatic Stress
Minimalism has been shown to reduce stress and increase happiness (Millburn &
Nicodemus, 2015). The gratification that comes from shopping does not offset posttraumatic distress. In fact, maladaptive shopping behaviors rise alongside the level of traumatic exposure (Somer & Ruvio, 2014). Further, materialism has shown to have a negative effect by making traumatic events worse (Ruvio et al., 2014). More research is needed to validate that materialism is a risk factor for coping with traumatic stress
(Somer & Ruvio, 2014).
Social Isolation
Research has validated various negative effects of materialism, such as loneliness
(Pieters, 2013), anxiety, stress, and depression (Burroughs & Rindfleisch, 2002; Kasser &
Ryan, 1993, 1996; Wang et al., 2017). Materialism has been revealed to employ an unfavorable consequence on such aspects of mental health, particularly, social isolation
11 (Pieters, 2013). Social support and relationship quality are vital to an individual’s sense of self and identity, particularly due to the quality of their social relationships having an effect on both their emotional and physical health (Harnish et al., 2019; Suls & Wallston
2003).
People recounted being lonely preceding a buying episode (Faber & O’Guinn
1992). Researchers have recommended that extra attention be given to create social support networks of compulsive buyers (Harnish et al., 2019). Additionally, these social supports may be a safeguard against the social anxiety experienced by compulsive buyers as well as aid in decreasing feelings of anhedonia and practice of substances to control social anxiety (Harnish et al., 2019). Somer and Ruvio (2014) found that very materialistic individuals seek more support from objects than humans in reference to coping. Therefore, this may be contributing to their overall feelings of social isolation. It was found that the emotion of ‘awe’ may reduce feelings of loneliness as well as aid in overcoming materialistic tendencies (Kaplan-Oz & Miller, 2017).
This section reviewed the various mental/emotional health themes: happiness, anxiety and depression, stress, and social isolation in reference to their intersection with materialism. In furthering showcasing significance to this topic, various research studies that all showed negative, some extremely harmful, effects on mental health derived from materialism and overconsumption. The next section will discuss relational impacts in regard to overconsumption and materialism.
Relational Impacts
Materialism has been linked to decreased levels of overall life satisfaction (Tsang et al., 2014). This overall decrease in life satisfaction can potentially impact couples
12 within their relationship. Researchers found that materialism has a significant effect on a family’s stress level (Roberts et al., 2005). Materialism also been found to have an effect on an adolescent’s family stress level (Roberts et al., 2005). Further, positive partner and parent–child relationships are linked to better health and well-being (Carr et al., 2014;
Chopik, 2017; Kim et al., 2014). Much less is studied on the relational impacts of overconsumption and materialism than on physical, mental, and other harmful effects.
The effects that overconsumption and materialism have on individuals, couples, and family is so unresearched that no systemic theory has ever even been utilized to conceptualize it before. This further displays the need for more research as well as the need for an applied systemic approach to this appalling problem.
Materialism and Relational Satisfaction
Romantic relationships embody a central aspect of social life which tend to be bases of support, love, health, and wellbeing, however, may also serve a concerning factor in life (Bradbury et al., 2000; Røysamb et al., 2014; Stack & Eshleman, 1998).
There is a negative connection between materialism and life satisfaction (Belk, 1984,
1985; Dawson & Bamossy, 1991; Kau et al., 2000; LaBarbera & Gurhan, 1997; Richins,
1987; Richins & Dawson, 1990, 1992; Ryan & Dziurawiec, 2001; Sirgy et al., 1995,
1998). “Our culture exerts a constant pressure on us that severs our relationship to ourselves and each other” (Havrilesky, 2018, p. xiv). An individual’s marital satisfaction is significantly correlated with their life satisfaction and happiness (Carr et al., 2014).
Further, both spouses’ perspectives on marital quality should be reflected as well as how these perceptions are associated with specific behaviors, such as spousal caregiving, which may augment the other spouse’s well-being. (Carr et al., 2014). Furthermore,
13 relationship quality factors, for example, loneliness, may be an imperative predictor of compulsive buying (Harnish et al., 2019).
Studies that concentrated on relationship conflicts that focused on financial matters found that conflicts habitually hurt relationships, foreshadowed a deterioration of marital satisfaction, (Britt & Huston 2012) and projected surges of marital distress and at times subsequent divorce (Curran et al., 2018; Dew 2007; Dew et al., 2012). Another study showed that in investigating the effects of goals for financial success on satisfaction had the highest significance in two particular domains: family life and job, which were the strongest predictors of general life satisfaction (Nickerson et al., 2003). Thus, showcasing how exceptionally vital it is to consider partners, children, and other family members when conducting this type of research.
The driving force of this dissertation project lies within this very intersection of minimalism and relational satisfaction. Due to the fact that no literature exists within these two topics, the researcher will discuss the opposite of minimalism which is deemed in this dissertation as materialism. The connection between materialism and relational satisfaction will be discussed with the intent of focusing attentions to 1) physical and mental facets and 2) systemic relational terms. As formerly stated, very few academic articles discuss minimalism (Uggla, 2019). The purpose of this dissertation is the add to the very small pool of literature on minimalism, address the physical and mental aspects that are engrained in engaging in this type of lifestyle, and understand its potential plethora of benefits through a relational lens.
Significance for Marriage and Family Therapy and other Mental Health Professions
14 Minimalism is a topic yet to be explored by marriage and family therapists
(MFTs). This chapter has displayed the consequences of living a materialistic lifestyle on various matters that are of prime interests to MFTs such as mental/ emotional health, physical health, and likely, most importantly, relational satisfaction. This researcher believes that if MFTs understand the documented impacts of living materialistically has on individual’s health, that they would have a more vested interest in this topic. Further, this researcher speculates that living materialistically will have a negative effect on a person’s relational satisfaction. Thus, this points to another major reason a MFT would certainly want to pay close attention to this topic. It is hoped that the findings that emerge from this study can be used to better understand minimalistic lifestyles and its impact on physical and mental health and relational satisfaction and further contribute to research in the field of MFT. The researcher hopes the findings add to the enhancement of future treatment in MFT. Lastly, this researcher notes there has not been a theory that systemically looks at minimalism or materialism. Thus, Medical Family Therapy is proposed to employ such as task.
Medical Family Therapy
Medical family therapy (MedFT) is a systemic, biopsychosocial model utilized to provide therapeutic services to patients and their families who are experiencing or have experienced physical health problems (McDaniel et al., 2014). The distinctive systemic viewpoint is exactly what demarcates MedFT from other biopsychosocial theories
(Finney & Tadros, 2019; Marlowe, 2011; McDaniel et al., 2014; Rolland, 1994; Zubatsky et al., 2017). MedFT applies systemic family therapy principles from a biopsychosocial
15 approach to treat mental and physical health disorders in patients and their families
(Doherty et al., 2014).
“The goals of medical family therapy (agency and communion) through engaging patients as experts of their own illness experience, facilitating a sense of control over the different ways that they choose to draw support and cope with their illness-related challenges” (Williams-Reade et al., 2014, p. 416). Further, MedFT’s goal is to support the healing and well-being of clients (McDaniel et al., 2014; Zubatsky et al., 2017).
Medical family therapy will be used to address the unique needs of individuals and families that are affected by overconsumption and materialism in this study.
MedFT has been applied to a variety of patient populations and diagnoses
(Tyndall et al., 2012). MedFT carries out various ideas espoused by early systems theorists (e.g. Bowen, Whitaker, and Minuchin) that family therapy can be used to treat both mental and physical health. MedFT has used a variety of ideas from many theories with many central ideas coming from systems theories (Tyndall et al., 2012). MedFTs can greatly contribute to the changing healthcare system because of their ability to approach illness from a biological and psychological perspective. MedFT offers guidelines on addressing how a person’s physical illness effects daily living and how to cope (McDaniel et al., 2014, Tadros & Finney, 2019). MedFTs can also help patients and family members better process their emotions and make rational treatment decisions in the face of dismal outcomes (Doherty et al., 2014). Additionally, MedFTs can help families and patients cope with terminal illnesses and death (Doherty et al., 2014).
MedFTs work with patients, their families, and other medical professionals to identify relational factors impacting health and helps work towards potential solutions (Doherty et
16 al., 2014). Therefore, this study hopes to understand how living a minimalistic lifestyle can aid in the simultaneous betterment of relational satisfaction, physical, and mental health. Since this study is looking at relational satisfaction, the researcher hopes to find ways in which physical and mental health can be enhanced to impact the whole system by living minimalistically.
Research Questions
This dissertation is focused on answering an overarching research question with three corresponding sub-questions. The sub-questions being asked will assist in the understanding of the overarching question of this study. Hypotheses will also be provided to showcase the researcher’s educated speculations of what the statistics will demonstrate.
Overarching question: How could benefits of minimalism be understood from
MedFT lens?
Q1: Is there an impact between living a materialistic lifestyle and relational satisfaction?
H1: There will be a negative impact between living a materialistic lifestyle and relational satisfaction.
H0: There will not be an impact between living a materialistic lifestyle and relational satisfaction.
Q2: How does living a materialistic lifestyle impact an individual’s physical health?
H1: Living a materialistic lifestyle will negatively impact an individual’s physical health.
17 H0: Living a materialistic lifestyle will positively impact an individual’s physical health.
Q3: How does living a materialistic lifestyle impact an individual’s mental health?
H1: Living a materialistic lifestyle will negatively impact an individual’s mental health.
H0: Living a materialistic lifestyle will positively impact an individual’s mental health.
Summary of Chapter 1
Chapter one introduced the significance of this topic. Chapter one explained that minimalism is a concept that is severely under researched. Interestingly, materialism has much more literature and be utilized to understand negative impacts on individuals who engage in this particular lifestyle. Chapter one also introduced MedFT which will be utilized to understand minimalism and relational satisfaction. Also, Chapter one also specified a list of operational definitions utilized throughout this dissertation. This was provided to avoid any misunderstanding as there are several different definitions for some of the words as well as to ensure transparency. This chapter highlighted the need for greater exploration into the literature on the proposed issues. Unfortunately, some of the articles discussed in chapter one did not use U.S. samples. Therefore, although they were utilized to showcase the significance of this topic, they will not be able to be reviewed for the literature review. The primary reason for this is to remain consistent with American values throughout the literature as with the actual study to be conducted in this
18 dissertation. American values are quite distinct from those of other cultures; thus, the researcher would like to acknowledge that by only including such studies for review.
Chapter two will review the literature surrounding major variables of the proposed dissertation. The following chapter will delve into concepts introduced in chapter one as well as fully define and outline prior research conducted on minimalism and relational satisfaction. Further, MedFT will be reviewed and conceptualized in terms of the major topics of this study to fully utilize a systemic lens within said subjects.
Definitions
Materialism. “Defining materialism as a value is consistent with the notion that materialism reflects the importance a person places on possessions and their acquisition as a necessary or desirable form of conduct to reach desired end states, including happiness.” (Richins & Dawson, 1992, p. 307).
Minimalism. “A tool to eliminate life’s excess, focus on the essentials, and find happiness, fulfillment, and freedom” (Millburn & Nicodemus, 2016, p. 26).
Relational satisfaction. “A partner’s subjective and global evaluation of a romantic relationship” (Funk & Rogge, 2007; Raffagnino & Matera, 2015, p. 323).
19
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
For years now, materialism has been a topic of attention to consumer researchers
(Baker et al., 2013). However, minimalism is a relatively new topic within the literature and has yet to be fully examined, particularly its impact on relational satisfaction. The intersection between minimalism and relational satisfaction has been investigated very marginally in the current literature. In addition, a systemic lens has never been applied to these topics prior to this dissertation. The goal of this literature review is to begin examining how minimalism is defined and how it is connected with relational happiness within couples through a systemic lens. This literature review will be organized by the major themes found in the literature: minimalism, relational satisfaction, the intersection of materialism and relational satisfaction, and Medical Family Therapy. These major themes were analyzed by conducting a thorough review of the research with a curious lens into learning about this topic from a very broad to specific scope. Therefore, these major themes will be organized by smaller, yet important, subthemes of the literature.
Minimalism: A Lifestyle
Minimalization, in mathematics and theoretical computer science, is an imperative and a typically utilized methodology to generate readable and unambiguous formulae (Cornell, 1997; Obendorf, 2009). There are various different meanings for the term, “minimalism,” depending on the subject being examined. For the purposes of this dissertation, the definition that seems most fitting was constructed by famous
20 minimalists, Joshua Fields Millburn and Ryan Nicodemus. The definition states that,
“minimalism is a tool to eliminate life’s excess, focus on the essentials, and find happiness, fulfillment, and freedom” (Millburn & Nicodemus, 2016, p. 26). Utilizing this definition for minimalism for this dissertation is most appropriate. This section will review the published literature on a minimalist lifestyle.
Minimalist experts Joshua Fields Millburn and Ryan Nicodemus wrote the book,
Minimalism: Live a Meaningful Life, which discusses the journey of two best friends at
30 years old making major life changes to improve their life satisfaction. “The point is that minimalism is a tool to help you achieve freedom” (Millburn & Nicodemus, 2016, p.
25). They explained that minimalism causes people to get rid of some things to then make room for life's most important things. These important things in life are identified as: health, relationships, passion, growth, and contribution. The book explains how they were able to discover their true passions by quitting their high paying jobs and simplifying their lives. Authors discussed how their previous lifestyles led to consequences such as debt, depression, and discontent. The authors also emphasize that people should tolerate, accept, respect, and appreciate. They go on to say that if one does these things, their relationships will be more positive, and they’ll gain a deeper understanding of people.
The authors main focus is to showcase that minimalism is a lifestyle choice and minimalists search for happiness not through things but through actual life itself
(Millburn & Nicodemus, 2016).
Meissner (2019) discussed the impact of post-2008 financial crisis era on economic productivity and consumption. The article utilized Kate Soper’s concept of
‘alternative hedonism,’ to explore a collection of five self-help books and a blog that
21 encourages the minimalism lifestyle. Additionally, the article uses post-ecological theory, which claims narratives of minimalist lifestyle are inconsistent in that they attack but simultaneously promote capitalist cultures of progression. Some narratives argued principles of economic productivity, which promoted the ethics of minimalism. Other narratives provided lifestyle guidance on living simplistically, de-cluttering, and communication. The article’s conclusions highlight the possibility of an eco-movement that connects the alternative culture of minimalist pleasure-seeking with the eco-political program of de-growth (Meissner, 2019). Further, the article postulates different perspectives in reference to minimalism and the current political state post-2008. It is vital to discuss articles that provide a holistic view on the topic at hand.
Uggla (2019) studied the main concepts of minimalism by studying the writing of
American bloggers and authors. The purpose of the paper was to gain an in-depth perspective of the ideology of a minimalistic lifestyle. Findings displayed that a lifestyle change was typically caused by discontent that was felt in their lives. Findings displayed that minimalism was found to be freeing and lead to autonomy. It was discussed that the formula for beginning to lead this type of lifestyle is to start with the material possessions and then proceed on to other areas in their life. Researchers also rationalized that materialism seems to be a negative outcome of an individualized society as well as the unclear center of power in social acceleration (Uggla, 2019).
Hausen (2018) conducted a study with the goal of understanding how individuals implement a minimalist lifestyle. The researcher discussed that our society runs under the assumption that owning the items one believes they should have, will bring upon happiness. Prior literature supported that overconsumption does not lead to health and
22 well-being. Dialogical Self Theory (DST) was utilized to aid in the understanding of the decision-making process in the shift from a materialist to a minimalist lifestyle. The article found that guidance from oneself and dialogical relations of I-positions helped with the changeover to a minimalist lifestyle (Hausen, 2018).
This overview of the literature of minimalism included the definition of minimalism for the purposes of this study. The above also discusses minimalism as a lifestyle, particularly, that it is a chosen way to live by individuals who seek freedom.
The sub-headers for this section naturally emerged from the literature review on minimalism. Materialism, arguably the opposite of minimalism, yielded a much richer search as well as several sub-themes: consumption, stress, and mental health. Materialism will first be defined and broadly reviewed followed by the emergent themes in the literature. While the literature on minimalism did consistently show the link between minimalism and individual well-being, there is a clear dearth of literature examining the association between minimalism and relational satisfaction.
Materialism
There are several definitions for materialism in the literature. A few that fit the need of the current study will be provided. One definition for materialism is "a mind-set... an interest in getting and spending" (Rassuli & Hollander 1986, p. 10). Another definition for materialism by Belk (1984) is, "the importance a consumer attaches to worldly possessions" (p. 291). An additional definition states, “Materialism can be defined as a value system that is preoccupied with possessions and the social image they project”
(Bauer et al., 2012). All of those definitions seem fitting and appropriate. However, for the purposes of this study, the definition of materialism by Richins and Dawson will be
23 utilized as it appears to fit best for this particular study: “Defining materialism as a value is consistent with the notion that materialism reflects the importance a person places on possessions and their acquisition as a necessary or desirable form of conduct to reach desired end states, including happiness” (Richins & Dawson, 1992, p. 307). Therefore, the researcher urges that this definition be utilized when conceptualizing systemically moving forward.
Richins and Dawson (1992) created a values-oriented materialism scale with three components: acquisition centrality, acquisition as the pursuit of happiness, and possession-defined success. By conducting validation tests, they found that high scorers of materialistic values wanted a higher level of income, placed greater stress on financial security and less on interpersonal relationships, desired to spend more on themselves and less on others, engaged in fewer voluntary simplicity behaviors, and were less satisfied with their lives. Thus, researchers have claimed that the search for happiness through goods is fated to result in dissatisfaction (Leiss 1976; Richins & Dawson, 1992).
Additionally, it is important to consider existing research examining the relationship between materialism and life satisfaction in order to more thoroughly understand the role of minimalism in life satisfaction. There are several themes prevalent in the materialism literature, these include: consumption, stress, and mental health.
Consumption
Makrant (2010) asserted that in a culture of consumerism, individuals pursue gratification and happiness through consumption. Additionally, the article explained how having the power to purchase what one wants is at times confused for freedom. The researcher brought a new perspective through a religious lens about consumerism.
24 Christianity operates under the concept that faith and community is the true source of happiness. The article postulates that consumerism sells people a false God and that happiness cannot be purchased (Makrant, 2010).
Researchers Otero-López et al. (2011) explored the relation between materialism, life satisfaction, and addictive buying. The purpose of their study was to discover a mediating factor of life satisfaction when looking at the relationship between materialism and addictive buying. Using structural equation analysis with a sample of 469 women, results of the study showcased that life satisfaction is seen to be obtained by dimensions of success and happiness when engaging in addictive buying. The researchers determined that the mediating role of life satisfaction in a materialist lifestyle is addictive buying practices. Researchers suggest looking into a more direct channel amongst significance and addictive buying (Otero-López et al., 2011). Various researchers posit that consumption is an undertaking of production, meaning as individuals consume, they are producing a specific life (de Certeau 1984; Hall 1977; Hebdige 1979; Ozanne et al.,
1998; Willis 1978, 1990). The following subsection will discuss the current literature on materialism and stress.
Stress
Durante and Laran (2016) studied the phenomenon of stress in reference to consumer saving and spending. Series of seven experiments displayed that consumers who endure stress utilize saving and spending as a means of gaining control. It was explained that consumers enduring stress could engage increased saving behavior, this may be due to the assumption that it comforts them that monetary resources will be available when needed. Stress could also cause an increase in spending; this may be due
25 to the assumed need for control when other things seem uncontrollable. However, it was found that consumers spend strategically on items that they believe are necessities. This study explains that overall stress can lead to both positive and negative effects on consumerism. Researchers hope that the results inform human behavior in reference to natural and consumer sciences (Durante & Laran, 2016). In a study about materialism and life satisfaction, it was revealed that the effects of materialism on life satisfaction may be unintended and further, facilitated by stress and moderated by religious values
(Baker et al., 2013). The literature has confirmed that greater religious values are correlated with less materialistic values, similarly, there is a negative link between materialism and life satisfaction (Baker et al., 2013).
Another study examined the impacts of materialism on traumatic stress and maladaptive consumption through an Israeli field study and a U.S. national survey (Ruvio et al., 2014). The field study looked at the impact of materialism on traumatic stress and maladaptive consumption between individuals from an Israeli town suffering from a terrorist attack and individuals from an Israeli town not being attacked. The study showed that when under attack, very materialistic individuals experience increased levels of post- traumatic stress, compulsive consumption, and impulsive buying more so than less materialistic individuals. In the U.S. survey, it was found that the effects from the Israeli study, are also likely because materialistic individuals were found to have lower levels of self-esteem, which decreases their capacity to be able cope with traumatic events. Thus, overall both studies concluded that materialism has had negative impacts on psychological well-being (Ruvio et al., 2014).
Mental Health
26 Martin, Czellar, and Pandelaere (2019) argued that research has shown how values of materialism change with age during adulthood. The researchers hypothesized that changes as individuals age are entrenched in changes in self-uncertainty; various measures of self-uncertainty were used to provide substantiation for this claim. Results of this study displayed that changes in materialism cannot be rationalized by age-related differences in socio-demographic variables. Additionally, changes in self-uncertainty offer a better explanation for changes in materialism than age-related alterations in self- esteem. (Martin et al., 2019).
Wang et al. (2017) studied the relationship between materialism and mental health to understand the impacts of dispositional mindfulness and if it would moderate the effects of this relationships. A sample of 533 college students completed the Material
Values Scale, Mindful Attention Awareness Scale, Symptom Checklist 90, and Social
Desirability Scale. Results of this study showcased that mindfulness exercised a significant moderating effect. In fact, greater materialism predicted poorer mental health outcomes in individuals with low and medium levels of mindfulness. Unfortunately, the impact of materialism on mental health was not significant in individuals with high mindfulness levels. Therefore, mindfulness may be very helpful in safeguarding harmful effects of materialism (Wang et al., 2017).
The above review of the literature on materialism yielded themes of consumption, stress, and mental health. Unfortunately, the studies reviewed all found negative implications to materialistic lifestyles. These negative impacts surrounded compulsive buying, overconsumption, the increase of stress, and poorer mental health outcomes. The purpose of this dissertation, however, is to look at these impacts in terms of relational
27 satisfaction. There are several themes in the materialism literature as it relates to relational satisfaction and those will be covered in the following section of this dissertation.
Relational Satisfaction
Relational satisfaction is “defined as a partner’s subjective and global evaluation of a romantic relationship” (Funk & Rogge, 2007; Raffagnino & Matera, 2015, p. 323).
Relational satisfaction in the literature is typically discussed as a couple unit. Although, as marriage and family therapists, we know that relational satisfaction can mean relationships between a parent and child or other individuals, the literature almost exclusively uses the terms relational happiness or satisfaction to mean a romantic relationship. There is an abundance of research on relational satisfaction. Therefore, it’s important to hone in on this particular relationship and then begin to understand how this relationship can be impacted in terms of physical health and mental health when a minimalist lifestyle is employed. This section will discuss the following themes of relational satisfaction: conflict, physical health, and happiness as they are the most relevant to the overarching study’s purpose.
Conflict
Conflict appeared in the literature as a central theme and risk to relational satisfaction. Prior research has shown that evading communication about conflictual matters has been connected to reduced relational satisfaction (Caughlin & Afifi, 2004;
Caughlin & Huston, 2002; Kurdek, 1995; Worley & Samp, 2018). A few new studies that have shown how relational satisfaction can be decreased in romantic relationships when
28 conflict is a factor. For the purposes of this dissertation, conflict will be discussed in terms of romantic relationships.
A study explored conflict interactions when assessing for an individual’s knowledge on mindfulness and their usage of it during conflict (Harvey et al., 2019). It has been found that when in conflict, six common strategies that partners engaged in are compromise, domination, submission, separation, avoidance, and interactional reactivity
(Harvey et al., 2019; Zacchilli et al., 2009). The researchers explained how interactions of conflict are dyadic and call attention for evaluating an individual’s capacity for mindfulness. The sample of 169 heterosexual couples in actor-partner interdependence models explained that male mindfulness positively forecasted the couple’s likelihood of compromising during conflict. The researchers reported gender differences in terms of mindfulness. Male mindfulness positively associated with relationship satisfaction with female partners; female mindfulness actually projected a lower probability of male dominance and reactivity while engaging in a conflict. Researchers asserted that mindfulness training programs may strengthen romantic relationships (Harvey et al.,
2019).
Worley and Samp (2018) studied the associations between rejection sensitivity, communication about complaints, and relational satisfaction in romantic relationships.
Researchers used measures consisting of five items from Rusbult et al. (1998) in an online survey with 260 participants. The results yielded that RS was positively related with complaint avoidance and negatively linked with positive and negative politeness when expressing complaints. Further, results recommended that couples open and
29 honestly communicate complaints as it may support the prevention and reduction of relational dissatisfaction linked with rejection sensitivity (Worley & Samp, 2018).
Physical Health
Marital dissatisfaction has been associated with physical health issues (Bookwala,
2005; Campbell, 2003; Grames et al., 2008; Hawkins & Booth 2005; Umberson et al.,
2006; Wickrama et al., 1997). Didericksen and Berge (2015) conducted a study with the purpose of exploring family meals, familial relationship satisfaction, and family physical activity. Structural equation modeling was employed with a sample of 1,435 parents to figure out the relationship between family meals, familial relationship satisfaction, and family physical activity. Findings displayed significant results among family meals and parental health. Additionally, familial relationship satisfaction and family physical activity were statistically significantly linked with parental health (Didericksen & Berge,
2015). Therefore, results showcase the clear need for a systemic perspective when analyzing couples’ relational satisfaction and physical health.
A study used contextual theory (Boszormenyi-Nagy, 1987) to conceptualize the relationship between relational ethics, marital satisfaction, depression, and illness
(Grames et al., 2008). A sample of 632 married individuals were surveyed using the
Relational Ethics Scale. Results using structural equation modeling showed that the
Relational Ethics Scale was a significant predictor of marital satisfaction. In addition, it showed that marital satisfaction was significantly linked to depression and other health problems (Grames et al., 2008).
Chopik (2017) strove to discover the association between relationships and health and well-being throughout an individual’s lifespan. Additionally, the researcher sought to
30 find out if there were more prevalent benefits in later adulthood. Two studies were conducted, and results displayed that in study one, cherishing friendships was associated with better functioning, specifically among older adults. However, valuing familial relationships tended to have a stagnant influence on health and well-being throughout life. The results from study two showed that stress from friendships predicted more chronic illnesses, while support from spouses, children, and friends predicted higher reported well-being (Chopik, 2017).
Another study explored the link between marital quality and physical health in marriage (Proulx & Snyder-Rivas, 2013). Researchers noted that prior research has not acknowledged the potential bidirectional link between changes in marital quality and self-reported health. The study utilized latent change models with a sample of 707 married adults who participated in six waves of the Marital Instability Over the Life
Course panel study and were continuously married to the same spouse for over 20 years.
Results showed that unidirectional coupling was present for marital happiness and self- rated health only. Therefore, results did not show that there was a link between marital problems and self-rated health (Proulx & Snyder-Rivas, 2013).
Happiness
Vollmann et al. (2019) examined the mediating role of gratitude toward partners through the lens of attachment. Previous research has said that insecure attachment is negatively related to relationship satisfaction. The sample of this study was mostly female (84%) with 362 participants. An online questionnaire followed by regression and bootstrap analyses were used to understand relational satisfaction in terms of attachment.
The results revealed attachment avoidance and attachment anxiety are negatively linked
31 to relationship satisfaction. Further, in relationships with attachment avoidance can be mediated by gratitude towards their partner. The researchers used gratitude interventions which were shown to have constructive and productive effects on the relationship. The article advocated for utilizing gratitude interventions, particularly with couples who have an avoidant attachment style (Vollmann et al., 2019).
Raffagnino and Matera (2015) explained that relational satisfaction is a substantial contributor to happiness throughout life. Further, researchers have cited previous literature that documented relational satisfaction being one of the greatest predictors of marriage stability and physical health as well as self-reported overall well- being (Bookwala, 2005; Dush & Amato, 2005). Researchers constructed a scale to measure dimensions of relationship satisfaction using what they called the Dyadic-
Familial Relationship Satisfaction Scale; the scale was up of both dyadic and familial components. The results showed that the scale could be highly reliable and valid scale in measuring relational satisfaction (Raffagnino & Matera, 2015).
A literature review was conducted to explore forgiveness as a therapeutic intervention to increase relational satisfaction for opposite- and same-sex couples
(Aalgaard et al., 2016). Forgiveness between partners has previously been identified in the literature is identified as a strong indicator of relationship satisfaction. However, researchers deemed it as being typically discounted as a therapeutic intervention in increasing couple’s relational satisfaction. Further it was identified that trait anger and dispositional forgiveness personality projected the quality of close relationships and effect physical and mental health (Aalgaard et al., 2016; Berry & Worthington, 2001).
32 The review yielded that forgiveness positively impacted relational satisfaction, specifically, that it can benefit stress and overall health.
A study explored the link between marital quality and both general life satisfaction and experienced well-being in elder husbands and wives (Carr et al., 2014).
Prior research has shown that there are protective effects of marriage for physical and emotional well-being (Carr & Springer, 2010; Carr et al., 2014). Nevertheless, newer research demonstrates that these impacts are conditional upon the quality of the relationship. Secondary data were utilized from the Disability and Use of Time daily diary supplement to the Panel Study of Income Dynamics. Results showed that there was not a significant relationship between a partner’s marital appraisals and their own well- being. Interestingly, the association between a husband’s marital quality and life satisfaction is sustained when his wife also reports a happy marriage but decreased when his wife reports a low marital quality. Thus, this study tells us that for husbands, life satisfaction is augmented by their wives’ marital happiness. This still holds true even with husbands who reported unfavorable marital quality. This particular study not only validates the ‘happy wife, happy life” mantra, but also highlights the significance of self- reported views on relational satisfaction on a partner’s perspective on the relationship.
Intersection of Materialism and Relational Satisfaction
The intersection of minimalism and relational satisfaction has yet to be explored in the available literature, therefore, this researcher will look at the antitheist of minimalism, which is materialism. By conducting this review, the reader will be able to comprehend the intersection of materialism and relational satisfaction to be able to start conceptualizing what the potential positive effects could be for minimalistic lifestyles and
33 relational satisfaction. Prior literature has documented the negative connection between materialism and life satisfaction (Belk, 1984, 1985; Dawson & Bamossy, 1991; Kau et al., 2000; LaBarbera & Gurhan, 1997; Richins, 1987; Richins & Dawson, 1990, 1992;
Ryan & Dziurawiec, 2001; Sirgy et al., 1995, 1998). Further, one study explained that materialism was negatively associated with satisfaction in all the aspects of life measured
(Richins & Dawson, 1992). Recent relevant studies will be reviewed below that discuss the intersection of minimalism and relational satisfaction with the purpose of understanding this crucial linkage of literature.
Thyroff and Kilbourne (2018) explored the relationship between materialism and satisfaction by the institutional forces of values and competitiveness. The results of this study display a negative relationship between materialism and satisfaction. In addition, self-enhancement values and individual competitiveness were found to mediate the relationship between materialism and consumer satisfaction (Thyroff & Kilbourne,
2018). Thus, results showcase no positive implications of materialism and satisfaction.
Further, this study is very much aligned with values of the American society, self- enhancement values and individual competitiveness that wouldn’t necessarily matter to a minimalistic individual.
A study explored the role that materialism plays in the family structure–stress relation in adolescents (Roberts et al., 2005). The study explained that materialism is a multifaceted concept that seems to mediate and moderate the family structure–stress relation and have positive and negative effects. Findings displayed that adolescents who linked happiness with material items reported higher levels of family stress. The study found that parental divorce may lead to increased materialism, also effecting family stress
34 levels. The study speaks to the significance of measuring and gaining insight into the position materialism plays in family transition and potentially other traumatic events
(Roberts et al., 2005).
Another study examined the mediators of the association between materialism and life satisfaction (Tsang et al., 2014). A sample size of 246 undergraduate marketing students did an online survey that assessed for self-report dispositional measures of materialism, gratitude, need satisfaction, and life satisfaction. Quantitative mediation methods revealed that gratitude and need satisfaction mediated the relationship between materialism as well as decreased life satisfaction. Further, gratitude was found to be a direct mediator to life satisfaction. It was speculated that this negative relationship may potentially be that materialistic individuals find it harder to be grateful. Additionally, lower levels of trait gratitude may be associated with unmet psychological needs. The researchers recommended that mental health professionals should be trained to aid individuals in changing their view from appreciating what they have already instead of concentrating on the things they do not have (Tsang et al., 2014).
Leavitt et al. 2019 studied the relational and sexual costs of materialism in romantic relationships. An actor–partner interdependence model was used to longitudinally predict relationships across three waves of data over two years of time. A sample size of 338 married and cohabiting couples. The results of this study showcased longitudinal relations of materialism and relationship and sexual satisfaction within these couples. The researchers recommended that therapists utilize the results of this study to gain insight into the sexual and relational cost of materialism. Further, they recommended that therapists assess for materialistic ideologies and to provide psychoeducation in
35 understanding the links between materialism and satisfaction within their romantic and sexual relationships (Leavitt et al., 2019).
All the articles reviewed on the intersection between materialism and relational satisfaction revealed negative links between them. The articles use different methodology, populations, and contexts to explore this unique relationship. However, this relationship has not yet been studied via a systemic lens. This systemic lens may offer new insight, particularly within romantic, couple relationships. The next section will discuss the literature on Medical Family Therapy (MedFT), which has yet to be employed within minimalism research.
Medical Family Therapy (MedFT)
The theoretical orientation employed to conceptualize minimalism and relational satisfaction for the purposes of this dissertation is Medical Family Therapy (MedFT)
(McDaniel et al., 1992). Although practitioners were engaged in MedFT, it was not formally introduced until the 1990s by Susan McDaniel and her seminal work Medical
Family Therapy. This work challenged the status quo of the healthcare system at the time when patient autonomy and their support system was considered secondary. MedFT is being used to understand minimalism and relational satisfaction due to its focus on physical and mental health as well as systemic orientation. Additionally, MedFT is a systemic theory meaning that multiple systems are considered when understanding issues in a family. Unfortunately, there is not a single article in existence that utilizes MedFT to understand minimalism. However, MedFT has been used to improve relational and familial satisfaction. The section will discuss the current literature that explains MedFT
36 as well as employs its theoretical underpinnings to assist in increasing relational satisfaction.
MedFT is a biopsychosocial, conceptual framework that is rooted in systemic family therapy principles (Finney & Tadros, 2019; Marlowe, 2011; McDaniel et al.,
2014; Rolland, 1994; Zubatsky et al., 2017). MedFT runs under the assumption that, “all health and relationship problems are biological, psychological, and social in nature”
(McDaniel et al., 2014, p. 5). MedFT looks at how biological issues impacts multiple areas of a client’s life and as well as how emotions impact health and decision making.
MedFT aids in the understanding of physical illness and mental illness directly impacting one another (Zubatsky et al., 2017).
The primary goals of MedFT is promoting agency and communion (McDaniel et al., 2014). Agency refers to the “activation of the individuals and families to meet their needs related to health, illness and the health care system and to contribute to their community” (McDaniel et al., 2014, p. 13). Communion refers to the “emotional bonds that are often frayed by illness, disability, and contact with the health care system”
(McDaniel et al., 2014, p. 14). Some goals of medical family therapy consist of promoting agency and communion, improving coping with a physical illness or disability, better communication with physicians, increasing acceptance, and producing and maintaining lifestyle changes (McDaniel et al., 2014).
Researchers Tyndall et al. (2012) emphasized the collaborative nature of MedFT.
This literature review found 82 articles that met the criteria and were then divided into four themes: 1) Historical emergence; 2) Contemporary skills and applications; 3)
Punctuating the “family therapy” in MedFT; 4) effectiveness and efficacy research.
37 MedFTs are advised to not only work with the client and their family, but also other professionals such as physicians, nurses, case workers, speech pathologists, physical therapists, neurologists, mental health clinicians, and any other healthcare providers that are involved in treatment (Tyndall et al., 2012). Other researchers, Marlowe et al. (2012) also advocated for collaboration between healthcare providers. Further, these researchers advocated that behavioral health modalities also incorporate MedFT’s relational lens when collaborating interprofessionally.
Michaels et al. (2014) conducted a content analysis to examine the competencies from health psychology, medical social work, and MedFT. Researchers coded and reorganized themes to classify ways to pursue additional skills that could be enhanced to add to the current competencies in place. Findings displayed that that researchers need to create competencies in reference to training in relational health, research, and clinical skills. They suggested to revise competencies by giving priority to the family, collaboration, and interprofessional communication. Additionally, creating competencies that aid in assessment, case management, consultation, administration, research, program evaluation, training, and supervision. Perhaps most striking, was the researchers’ push for the stressing of the relational lens from which MedFTs’ work derives (Michaels et al.,
2014).
Stermensky and Brown (2014) conducted a literature review in order to discover the most effective way of integrating solution-focused therapy and motivational interviewing into medical family therapy. Researchers utilized Proquest, EBSCO,
Medline, and PsychInfo databases and the search yielded 86 articles. Researchers reviewed 46 articles in which were relevant to the study. Findings displayed that both
38 solution-focused therapy and motivational interviewing is absent in MedFT literature.
Results also displayed that there is promising evidence for This review found evidence for the integration of solution-focused therapy and motivational interviewing in MedFT.
Additionally, researchers supported the notion of MedFTs receiving more advanced training in therapeutic and de-escalation skills. Further, the review found that MedFTs were more cost-effective than other providers such as medical doctors, nurses, and psychologists in offering family interventions (Stermensky & Brown, 2014).
A recent case study explored the utilization of MedFT with parents of an adult child with traumatic brain injury. Davis and Tadros (2019) discussed how chronic illness impacted various areas of a client’s life. The paper provided a case example of an adult child with a traumatic brain injury. The researchers described multiple phases of treatment and how the usage of MedFT interventions benefitted treatment. In addition, researchers advocated for increased access to MedFT services for families such as the one provided in the case study. With this increased access to care, families would gain an understanding of how physical and mental issues are impacting the entire family system
(Davis & Tadros, 2019).
In another case study, Finney and Tadros (2019) examined MedFT in home-based settings through a case application. Home-based family therapy (HBFT) is a modality of treatment where therapeutic services are provided in their client’s home. Researchers strove to link HBFT and MedFT to create a comprehensive treatment. The case example displayed effectiveness of the utilization of MedFT in home-based environments by clients being able to achieve their goals (Finney & Tadros, 2019). This study showcases
39 the importance of being adaptable and flexible as clinician literally and figuratively to provide best client care.
In a third case study that utilizes the MedFT framework, Tadros et al. (2019) integrated narrative therapy and MedFT to treat a client experiencing somatic symptoms that mimic papillary thyroid cancer symptoms. The study displayed the advantages of employing MedFT and narrative therapy with a female college student such as understanding physical symptomology and being able to rewrite her story (Tadros et al.,
2019). Interestingly, the researchers report that the treatment provided would have not been holistic without exploring both the mental and physical health issues. Thus, emphasizing the need to examine biopsychosocial aspects of a problem to be able to effectively treat systemic problems.
Similarly, researchers Rajaei and Jensen (2020) integrated MedFT with narrative therapy. Narrative therapy was described as an empowering, nonpathologizing, and collaborative approach that was recommended for usage in integrated behavioral health care by MedFTs. Case examples were utilized to show efficacy in using narrative concepts and techniques to treat individuals, couples, and families. The researchers also advocated for cultural humility to be employed. Further, they advised to aid clients in altering their problematic stories through separation from it rather than only reauthoring them.
Another case study explored the utilization of structural and medical family therapy with an incarcerated mother living with HIV. Researchers Tadros and Finney
(2019) filled a gap in reference to family therapy in incarcerated settings as well as providing MedFT services in such settings. Additionally, the researchers’ goal was to
40 integrate two systemic models to best treat this particular population. A case was explored the usage of MedFT and structural family therapy with a daughter and a mother who is incarcerated and coping with a physical illness. Results of treatment were shown to be efficacious by techniques utilized to restructure the family as well as help the family cope with the mother’s HIV diagnosis. Also, the family reported that they were able to gain insight into their dysfunctional communication pattern (Tadros & Finney, 2019).
Lastly, this paper emphasized the importance of therapists acknowledging both the physical and mental aspects of health that impact presenting problems within a family system.
Hertlein (2003) discussed MedFT through a feminist lens. Feminist-informed
MedFT supports therapists in looking at health and healing simulantaously. The integration allows for treatment that is gender sensitive. A case study was provided and showcased influences that prohibited a woman from developing agency and communion.
Through communication and flexibility within the couple relationship she was able to explore options. The researcher spoke to the need for interventions that are sensitive to different cultures and genders.
A study explored chronic migraines (CM) and its effects on couples (McPhee &
Robinson, 2019). Using phenomenology and dyadic interviews, researchers explored the
CM experience within couple relationships. Three themes emerged from the interviews: cost, coping, and couple experience. These findings can be seen as contradicting at first as couples reported fighting more as well as lack of connection due to CM, yet also reported that CM has made them closer and more resilient. Thus, it is vital to look at CM
41 and the couple experience systemically as both disconnection and connection may be occurring simultaneously due to these complexities.
A review of the literature surrounding MedFT displayed MedFT’s usage with different populations, types of families, and kinds of medical issues. MedFT encompasses a systemic outlook where the client’s mind, body, relationships, and community are considered in treatment (McDaniel et al., 2014). Further, a couple or family’s physical health, culture, mental health, and socioeconomic status directly affect an individual’s overall well-being (McDaniel et al., 2014). This review showcased MedFT’s helpfulness in better understanding the link between physical and mental illnesses as well as its applicability towards bettering relational satisfaction with couples and families. The hope for this dissertation is to utilize this theory to display how living minimalistically can positively impact physical and mental health within relational satisfaction.
In summary, there is limited research on MedFT. What was found in the literature was mostly case studies and theoretical integrations. It appears that there is a need for more empirical- quantitative and qualitive analyses- to validate the efficacy of this theory. The purpose of employing MedFT is due to its central focus on the utility of the physical and mental systems being integrated in a systemic fashion. Lastly, MedFT was chosen due to being an overarching conceptual framework to assist in the understanding of materialism in physical, mental, and relational domain.
Summary of Chapter 2
The above review of the literature consisted of an in-depth exploration of major topics of this study: minimalism and relational satisfaction. These major themes were examined closely and from this, subthemes emerged organically. These subthemes
42 consisted of specific topics that aided in the understanding of the main concepts of this study. The intersection of minimalism and relational satisfaction had no research for the researcher to review and build off of, thus the intersection of materialism and relational satisfaction was conducted. Previous literature on MedFT was discussed with the purpose of providing explanations for brief tenets of the theory to then apply to the methodology moving forward as well as a way of conceptualizing the literature on the main topics as a whole. The following chapter will explain the study’s methodological design.
43
CHAPTER III
METHOD
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the research methodology for this quantitative study. This chapter identified the research questions and corresponding hypotheses that guide the study in every facet. Chapter three is composed of an exhaustive explanation of the methodological plan that was carried out. Principal components of this chapter consist of the participants, procedures, measures, data analyses, and the handling of missing data are reviewed in this chapter. Finally, the statistical methods to be employed and the rationale was provided.
Research Questions
This dissertation is concentrated on exploring an overarching research question with following subquestions. Hypotheses were provided to showcase the researcher’s educated speculations of what the statistics will demonstrate. The overarching question asked is: How could benefits of minimalism be understood from MedFT lens?
Q1: Is there an impact between living a materialistic lifestyle and relational satisfaction?
H1: There will be a negative impact between living a materialistic lifestyle and relational satisfaction.
H0: There will not be an impact between living a materialistic lifestyle and relational satisfaction.
44 Q2: How does living a materialistic lifestyle impact an individual’s physical health?
H1: Living a materialistic lifestyle will negatively impact an individual’s physical health.
H0: Living a materialistic lifestyle will positively impact an individual’s physical health.
Q3: How does living a materialistic lifestyle impact an individual’s mental health?
H1: Living a materialistic lifestyle will negatively impact an individual’s mental health.
H0: Living a materialistic lifestyle will positively impact an individual’s mental health.
Research Design
Survey research is one of the oldest methods and most popular research designs used in social science fields (Heppner et al., 2016). Using survey design, the aforementioned hypotheses that have not yet been validated by prior research were tested.
Effectiveness of a descriptive design study is directly dependent on the quality of the survey being used to describe a phenomenon (Heppner et al., 2016). As with all research designs there are pros and cons of each methodology. Benefits of survey research include the obvious convenient nature of the data collection (Murphy, 1988) as well as respondents being able to answer questions privately. Limitations to survey research are typical as they are self- reported and thus, may not be completely accurate. Further,
“ethical approaches to human-subjects research emphasize a cost–benefit calculus” (Lupu
45 & Zechmeister, 2018, p. 563). Thus, a section in this chapter outlined ethical considerations of this type of methodology. Surveys used in this study collected both categorical and continuous data. The measures for the core concepts materialistic values and physical and mental health have been validated in prior research. Thus, this adds to the quality the current study. The following section discusses the participants that were recruited for this study.
Participants
In total the researcher originally hoped to obtain an estimate of 250 individuals to be participants in the study. The sizeable estimated sample size of (n=254 individuals) is advantageous to the study as it justifies the statistical power (Cohen, 1992). Power analysis for the regression was conducted using G*POWER to establish a valid sample size using at an alpha of .05, a power of .95 (Faul et al., 2007). Consequently, the alpha level is 95%, with a 5% of a margin of error. The total sample was more than originally anticipated (n= 586). A convenience sample of participants was drawn from social media groups and through advertisements posted at a private practice. The total participants in the study includes 586 individuals. The sample in terms of gender consists of n= 555 females and n= 31 males. Thus, the vast majority of the sample (94.4%) consists of females. In terms of racial and ethnic breakdown, 501 participants are White or
Caucasian, 8 are Black or African American, 34 Hispanic, 22 Asian, and 21 Other race/
Multi-racial.
Inclusion/ Exclusion Criteria
Participants must be age 18 and over and must be in a romantic relationship.
Inclusion criteria additionally required individuals to speak English, be physically and
46 mentally capable of answering survey questions, as well as to be comfortable enough in providing private information regarding the status of their physical and mental health as well as their romantic relationship.
Procedures
Once IRB approval was obtained, invitations to participate in the study were sent via social media and email. In order to recruit participants, a public post was written for these sites with a link to the survey. Potential participants were screened through initial demographic questions to ensure qualifications for the study were met. The sample for the current study was collected from various sources. The recruitment of participants was done via social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and LinkedIn.
Interestingly, a study found that professionals, university students, and members of the community more likely to complete surveys using a paper-and-pencil format versus individuals who complete surveys online (Weigold et al., 2019). In fact, participants using the paper-and-pencil method for the surveys were almost twice as likely to complete surveys compared to those who took it on the computer (Weigold et al., 2019). With this information, the researcher was prepared to print the surveys and have participants fill them out in a traditional paper-and-pencil fashion. This was done to ensure the necessary sample size is met as well as potential convenience for the participants if they requested.
Participants were asked to complete an online survey which prompted participants with the informed consent form (Appendix A). The informed consent was necessary to be acknowledged prior to even seeing the questions that will be asked. The informed consent provided information to the participants about the purpose and procedures of the study.
47 Potential risks and discomforts associated with participation were outlined in detail to ensure the participant is informed. In addition, benefits and compensation information was provided. Further, the participant’s right to refuse or withdraw was outlined and followed by procedures of confidentiality of records and the limits to confidentiality.
Lastly, the researcher’s contact information was listed in case of other questions the participants may have and a signature of acceptance of these terms was collected at the end.
After completing the informed consent, participants were directed to complete the study surveys. First, a demographic questionnaire appeared for the purposes of collecting basic demographic information such as gender, race/ ethnicity, income, relationship status, etc. as well as to evaluate them using the established eligibility criteria (Appendix
C). Following the demographic questionnaire, the participants completed the Material
Values Scale (MVS) (Appendix D). Subsequently, participants completed the Short Form
(SF-20), (Appendix E) and lastly, finish the comprehensive survey with The Relationship
Assessment Scale (RAS) (Appendix F). The order of the surveys was randomized in
Survey Monkey in order to minimize the potential for order effect bias. Randomizing was a way to address the issue with having the surveys all pre-ordered for all participants.
Thus, the order was different depending on participant at random.
Once the survey was completed a debriefing paragraph appeared saying, “The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of living a minimalist lifestyle on relational satisfaction, physical health, and mental health. The researcher does recognize the content of some of the questions asked may be emotionally difficult. If a participant finds that any part of this study led to a negative emotional response, please reach out to
48 friends and/or family, a mental health provider of your choice, or access information and resources via the researcher at your request. Please contact the researcher Michelle
Cappetto, at [email protected], if you have any further questions regarding this study. Thank you for your contribution.” Additionally, there was an incentive offered to participate in this study, four $25 visa gift cards were awarded to participants who elected to provide their email at the end of the survey. The winners were randomly selected and contacted via email once data collection was complete. In addition, every participant was thanked for their time and their contribution to this project. When all the data were collected from all participants, descriptive analyses was computed to contextualize the participants and gain an understanding of who participated in the overarching study. The following section discusses the specific measures used in detail for this study.
Measures
The measures that were utilized in this study consist of a brief demographic survey, The Material Value Scale (MVS) Short Form, the SF-20, and The Relationship
Assessment Scale (RAS). These four different surveys were employed to measure demographics, materialism, physical health, mental health, and relationship assessment scale respectively. The following subsections describe the scales were utilized in this study.
Demographics
Demographic information from all participants was collected and analyzed. In creating the brief demographics questionnaire, the following topics were considered to be important to be able to understand the demographics of the participants in the study: gender, race/ethnicity, relationship status, relationship length, childhood family financial
49 status, current financial status, and therapeutic services. All of the demographic variables emerged from the literature review and therefore are important pieces of information to collect from participants. These data were collected for demographic purposes as well as to contextualize the data. Understanding the participants’ background information was helpful in finding links and associations in the analysis. Further, it aided in the explanation of specific patterns that may emerge.
Demographic Survey
Gender. The researcher inquired about the categorical variable of gender. The researcher asked, “What is your gender?” The choices were 0 = male, 1 = female, 2= other gender. The rationale for allowing multiple options for gender were so that participants can identify how they wish.
Race/ Ethnicity. The researcher inquired about the categorical variable: race/ ethnicity. Researchers asked the participants, “What is your race/ ethnicity?” and then prompted to select one of the following options: 1 White or Caucasian, 2 Black or
African American, 3 Hispanic 4 Asian, 5 Other Race/ Multi-racial. The measurement has been given these options to include various options for the participants. Race/ethnicity were included in the demographics survey and be coded with the numbers stated above.
Relationship Status. The researcher asked about the categorical, dichotomous variable of relationship status. The question asked, “Are you currently in a romantic relationship?” The answer choices were 0= no and 1= yes. If an individual answered no, they will not be prompted to move forward as the inclusion criteria for this study states participants must be in a romantic relationship at the time completing the survey. If a participant answered yes, they were prompted to the next measure.
50 Relationship Length. The researcher asked about the categorical variable of relationship length. The question asked, “How long have you been in your current romantic relationship?” The answer choices were 1= Less than one year, 2= One to five years, 3= Five to ten years, 4= Ten years or more. The rationale for measuring this way was to gauge how long the participant has been in their current relationship. This data helped to contextualize the sample.
Childhood Family Financial Status. The researcher asked about the dichotomous, categorical variable of childhood family financial status. The survey question asked, “Do you believe you and your family were financially well-off during childhood?” The answer choices were 0= no and 1= yes. The rationale for measuring this way was for the participant to be able to generally self-report this information while it not being the central focus of the study.
Current Financial Status. The researcher will ask about the dichotomous, categorical variable of childhood family financial status. The survey question asked, “Do you believe you are currently financially well-off?” The answer choices were 0= no and
1= yes. The rationale for measuring this way was for the participant to be able to provide an estimated, general self-report this information while it not being the central focus of the study.
Therapeutic Services. The researcher asked about the categorical, dichotomous variable of therapeutic services. The question read, “Have you ever been to individual, couple, or family counseling? The answer options were 0= no and 1= yes. The rationale for measuring this way was to be able to gain basic knowledge on if the participant had
51 received such services, regardless of duration. This variable was being included due to the literature stating that couples’ therapy may increase relational satisfaction.
Material Value Scale (MVS) Short Form
The MVS measures materialism in individuals by means of three distinctive dimensions: success, centrality, and happiness (Richins & Dawson, 1992). The MVS was found to have good psychometric properties, particularly when utilized to measure materialism broadly (Puente-Díaz & Cavazos-Arroyo, 2017). The measurement’s subscales were explained as, “the centrality of possessions and their acquisition in a person’s life (i.e., material centrality), the belief that possessions and their acquisition are essential to one’s happiness and life satisfaction (i.e., material happiness), and the use of possessions in judging the success of others and oneself (i.e., material success)” (van der
Meulen et al., 2017, p. 1203).
The scale selected for the present study was The Material Value Scale (MVS)
Short Form (Richins, 2004), the condensed nine-item measure of materialistic values which was revised and constructed from The Material Values Scale (MVS) created by
Richins and Dawson (1992). Previous examination has “indicated that the nine- item version possesses better psychometric properties than the other two short versions. This nine-item scale encompasses the same three domains as the long form and possesses acceptable levels of reliability and validity for measuring overall materialism” (Richins,
2004; p. 216). It has been found that “the scales possess acceptable levels of reliability, and their dimensional characteristics are superior to those of the 18-item scale” (Richins
& Dawson, 2004, p. 216). Thus, based on the validity and reliability of the MVS short form, the researcher decided to utilize it for the current study. Further, the scale’s items
52 are scored on likert scale going from 1 to 5. In accordance with typically accepted likert scales, 1 indicates “strongly disagree” and 5 represents “strongly agree.” Thus, the higher the number the higher the score of agreeability to the item’s statement. Therefore, the scales in this measure did not necessitate reverse coding. The full scale can be found in
Appendix D.
Medical Outcomes Study (MOS) 20-Item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-20)
The SF-20 has been endorsed for health-related quality of life research (Carver et al., 1999). It has been said that this scale is a compromise between extensive scales and single-item measures of health (Stewart et al., 1988). The SF-20 has been used to measure quality of life and has been assessed for applicability to clinical practice and clinical trial settings. (Holme et al., 1996; Wachtel et al., Carpenter, 1992; Wu et al.,
1991, 1994). It is additionally utilized to measure scopes of broad health-related quality of life: physical, role, and social functioning as well as mental health and health perceptions (van Dijk et al., 2016).
The SF-20 measures health through six spheres: six questions on physical functioning, two questions on role functioning, one question on social functioning, five questions on mental health, five questions on health perceptions, and one question on pain (Stewart et al., 1988). The smaller subset of these items borrowed from its longer form of measures have met the criteria for acceptability, reliability, and validity in a general population (Manning et al., 1982; Stewart et al., 1988). Thus, the SF-20 provided multiple questions that are used as a scale of physical and mental health separately yet in the same comprehensive measure. The SF-20 has also been used to assess for functional status scores, disability time, health care usage, and symptom-related struggle (Huang et
53 al., 2006; Kroenke et al., 2001). Further, the SF-20 has been deemed as a measure of the health outcomes of chronic disease with verified reliability and validity (Franks et al.,
2003; Stewart et al., 1988; Stewart et al., 1989).
For the current study, the physical functioning subscale was used to assess physical health and the mental health perceptions sub-scale was used to assess mental health. Physical functioning was measured on the SF-20 with items 3–8 while mental health with 12–16 (Hanninen et al., 1998). The physical health subscale was deemed reliable and has been validated as an appropriate measure for physical health (Hanninen et al., 1998; Stewart et al., 1988). The mental health subscale is representative of four major mental health dimensions: anxiety, depression, loss of behavioral-emotional control, and psychological well- being (Veit & Ware, 1983). Therefore, for the current study those exact items were used for the corresponding physical and mental health questions. The scale can be found in Appendix E.
Reverse Coding. The rationale of reverse coding data was for the items within a measure to be in the same direction. Scores were reverse coded so that a high value will signify a better health score. The physical health questions did not necessitate recoding, however, two of the mental health items must be recoded so that all items are going in the same direction. Reverse coding was completed as typically the highest score on the scale
(5) represents the best possible score and the lowest score (1) represented the worst possible score. Question 9: “During the past month, how much of the time have you felt calm and peaceful?” requires recoding; the recoding equivalents would be as follows: 1=
6, 2= 5, 3=4, 4= 3, 5 = 2, 6=1. Similarly, question 11: “During the past month, how much
54 of the time have you been a happy person” needs to be recoded, the recoding equivalents would be as follows: 1= 6, 2= 5, 3=4, 4= 3, 5 = 2, 6=1.
The Relationship Satisfaction Scale (RAS)
The RAS was constructed to measure an individual's satisfaction with their current romantic relationship (Hendrick et al., 1998). Relationship satisfaction is considered to be how satisfied both partners feel about their relationship (Hendrick,
1988). The RAS is a concise measure of global relationship satisfaction (Hendrick et al.,
1998). The RAS is a broad measure for wide a range of individuals, yet items are specific enough to look at different dimensions like love, problems, expectations (Dicke &
Hendrick, 1998; Hendrick, 1988; Vaughn & Baier, 1999). Further, research conducted on this measurement has been shown to be correlated with other types of measurements of love, sexual attitudes, self-disclosure, commitment, and investment in a relationship
(Hendrick, 1988).
The scale is comprised of a seven item likert scale based on the five items of a marital assessment questionnaire (Henrick, 1981). Also, the researcher elected to only use likert scales and multiple-choice questions to eliminate further identification. A few years since the original scale was made changes were made to the word such as “marriage” to
“partner” to be inclusive and encompass other romantic relationships (Hendrick, 1988).
The RAS has exhibited respectable criterion-related validity and good discriminant validity (Vaughn & Baier, 1999). The RAS revealed to be high in the following: internal, test-retest reliability, structural, convergent, and discriminant validity (Røysamb, et al.,
2014). Further, researchers deemed it very useful and a good broad measurement of
55 global relationship satisfaction. The complete scale utilized in this study can be found in
Appendix F.
Reverse Coding. The rationale of reverse coding data is for the items within a measure to be in the same direction. Items numbers 4 and 7 must be reverse scored as follows: 1= 5, 2 = 4, 3 = 3, 4= 2, 5= 1. Items were recoded after data is collected before summing the scores. After reverse coding, all items will be in the same directions so one could add up the items and divide by 7 to get the mean score.
Data Analysis Plan
The data analysis plan consisted of data cleaning, screening, and analysis procedures. The purpose of cleaning data was to recode necessary variables such as from the SF-20 and RAS discussed above, and the organizing data. The survey tool,
SurveyMonkey, was utilized to collect data from participants. Once the data were inputted into SPSS, the univariate, descriptive statistics for each scale were calculated, including mean, median, range, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis. Frequencies and percentages for those categorical variables were ran.
Following this, bivariate statistics, such as correlations, were conducted to better understand the relationship between variables. The researcher ran t-tests for any of the dichotomous variables and ANOVAs for the multiple category variables. Multiple
ANOVAs were conducted as a part of the bivariate analysis which allowed one to analyze potential differences between the means in the sample for the covariates that contain more than two groups, for example the gender variable. Multiple t-tests were conducted to analyze potential differences between the means in the sample for
56 covariates that contain only two groups such as the dichotomous variable of therapeutic services.
Lastly, multivariate statistics were conducted to answer the three research questions. Specifically, three separate hierarchical linear regressions were conducted to determine the relationship between the MVS and the RAS, the physical functioning subscale of the SF-20, and the mental health perceptions of the SF-20. Regression analyses were chosen since a regression is used to evaluate the accuracy of predictions
(Salkind, 2014). A regression or prediction line is used to analyze the data through a series of points on a scatterplot (Mertler & Vannatta, 2017). A hierarchical linear regression allowed for an analysis of the association between the MVS and the three dependent variables within the context of controlling for demographic variables as well.
Finally, the word choice utilized for the research questions mirror the statistical method being utilized. For example, regression analysis being employed allows for the word,
‘impact’ because regression categorizes which variables does or doesn’t have an impact
(Gallo, 2015; Szewczak, 2009). Further, it seeks to find which of the variables are the most significant and which do not have as much of an impact on the dependent variable
(Gallo, 2015; Szewczak, 2009).
Missing Data
The researcher pondered the question of what to do with missing data. For example, should participants who left substantial amounts of questions unanswered/ blank be eliminated from inclusion completely? Or should an approved method of handling missing data be applied to replace missing scores? The data within the current study sample was checked for missing values. Missing data has the potential to
57 negatively impact statistical power (Acock, 2005). Additionally, missing data can damage the validity of the analysis as well as potentially allow for a research bias
(Acock, 2005). The researcher decided to eliminate surveys with ANY missing information. The researcher instructed the participants to answer all questions, but also advised them that if they feel uncomfortable answering any of the questions at all, they may end participation at any time. When the researcher found missing answers when reviewing the data upon completion, the surveys were then not utilized.
Ethical Considerations
It is vital with any research study to account for research ethics. Prior to the study’s data collection, Internal Review Board (IRB) approval was obtained from The
University of Akron for working with human subjects. To maintain anonymity and/or confidentiality of subject responses and data the researcher asked for names or any identifying information from participants. Participants may have elected to put in their email, but their personal, identifying information was not sought. Also, the researcher elected to only use likert scales and multiple-choice questions to eliminate further identification. Surveys were discarded once was data inputted into the statistical software
(SPSS).
The researcher minimized potential risks by informing participants in the informed consent they can withdraw their participation at any time for any reason. In addition, the participants were debriefed at the end of the survey and if any emotional distress is caused or experienced, participants were encouraged to contact their local crisis center to obtain mental health treatment and follow-up, as well as referrals in their area, if they reported and/or requested services.
58 Summary of Chapter 3
This chapter described the present study’s research questions and hypotheses.
Subsequently, participants, procedures, measures, data analyses, and missing data were examined. Moreover, the variables were identified and the rationale for the utilization of these variable was based on the existing literature on minimalism, materialism, and relational satisfaction with the theoretical support of MedFT. The proposed plan for data analysis was discussed for the current study. Conclusively, the overarching goal of the researcher is to understand the association between living a minimalist lifestyle and relationship satisfaction via a MedFT lens. The researcher hopes that with the methods described above will produce data that answers the presenting research questions to contribute to the research in marriage and family therapy entirely.
59
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
The present chapter provides an overview of the results of the current study.
Chapter 4 will provide univariate, bivariate, and multivariate analyses of the study’s results in paragraph form as well as with coinciding APA statistical tables. This study sought to answer three research questions surrounding materialism. These research questions have been answered by conducting preliminary bivariate statistics such as correlations, t-tests, and ANOVAs that informed three hierarchical multiple regressions.
Univariate, bivariate, and multivariate statistics were ran to contextualize and better understand the sample.
Data Cleaning and Screening
IBM SPSS Statistics version 26 was utilized to complete the statistical analysis conducted for this dissertation. The variables’ means, skewness, kurtosis, and standard deviations are represented in Table 1. The information in the table showcases that the data were normally distributed. No issues of multicollinearity issues were found as the variables have a correlation of less than .80 or less.
The data were cleaned by methods of deletion, recoding, and creating sum scores.
First, missing data were accounted for. The raw sample size was n= 690 prior to data cleaning and screening. In chapter three, it was explained that the researcher would eliminate all surveys with incomplete data. Due to various surveys left blank or incomplete, the researcher deleted those from the data (n= 98). Additionally, participants
60 that indicated no to the question, “are you currently in a romantic relationship” were deleted due to the previously stated inclusion criteria (n= 4). Deletion of unfinished surveys and unfitting criteria resulted in n= 588 participants. The survey asked participants to select a gender (male, female, or other gender). Two individuals identified as other which would indicate a non-binary gender. The data from these two participants had to be removed due to the extremely low representation, two out of 588. The total participants in the sample were n= 586.
Following the deletion of unusable data, items were recoded so that the Likert scale scores would all be in the same direction. Covariates did not need to be recoded. In the RAS, question numbers 4 and 7 were recoded due to being reverse-scored. The final recoded summary score for the RAS indicated that the higher the score, the more satisfied the respondent is with the relationship. For the mental health questions, number 7, 9, and
11 were recoded for scoring to be kept continuous in terms of direction. The physical health questions and MVS did not require recoding. After items were recoded to be in the same direction, sum scores were calculated per scale. Sum scores add up all the item scores in a scale. The lowest possible score for the mental health questions was 5 and highest possible score was 30 with a standard deviation of 2.154. The lowest possible score was for the physical health questions was 6 and highest possible score was 18 with a standard deviation of 2.824. The lowest possible score was 18 for the MVS and the highest possible score was 45 with a standard deviation of 5.642. The lowest possible score was 7 and the highest possible score for the RAS was 35 with a standard deviation of 5.50. After recoding was complete, descriptive statistics and frequencies were computed.
61 Univariate Analyses
Descriptive statistics and frequencies of the sample have been included to better understand the study’s participants. The total participants in the study includes 586 individuals. For relationship length, 72 individuals reported being in a relationship for less than one year, 198 individuals reported one to five years, 138 six to ten years, and
178 eleven years or more. As for childhood finances, 258 people believed they were not financially well of during childhood and 328 thought they were financially well-off during childhood. For current finances, 171 believed they were not currently financially well off and 328 thought they were currently financially well off. In terms of previous counseling experience, 198 individuals reported ‘no’ they have not been to individual, couple, or family counseling and 388 reported ‘yes’ they have attended. See Table 1 for descriptive statistics of the main variables. See Table 2 for frequencies of the study’s covariates and demographic variables.
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics (n= 586)
Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Skewness SE Kurtosis
MVS 10.00 41.00 23.8208 5.64206 .299 .101 -.466 .202 Mental Health 10.00 23.00 14.9761 2.15457 .485 .101 .409 .202 Physical Health 6.00 18.00 16.4266 2.82460 -1.906 .101 2.727 .202 RAS 7.00 35.00 29.2440 5.49780 -1.300 .101 1.560 .202
Table 2
Frequencies of Covariates (n = 586)
Frequency Percent
Gender
Male 31 5.3
Female 555 94.7
Race
White or Caucasian 501 85.5
62
Black or African American 8 1.4
Hispanic 34 5.8
Asian 22 3.8
Other race/ Multi-racial 21 3.6
Relationship Length Less than one year 72 12.3
One to five years 198 33.8
Six to ten years 138 23.5
30.4 Eleven years or more 178
Childhood Finances no 258 44.0
yes 328 56.0
Current Finances no 171 29.2
yes 415 70.8
Previous Counseling no 198 33.8
yes 388 66.2
Preliminary and Bivariate Analyses
A series of Pearson correlations were conducted to better understand the relationship between the study’s dependent and independent variables. Findings from the correlation analyses indicated there is a statistically significant positive correlation between materialist values and mental health, (r(584) = .184, p = .000). The correlations indicated that there’s not a statistically significant correlation between materialist values and physical health, (r(584) = .027, p = .520). Additionally, there’s a statistically significant negative correlation between materialist values and relational satisfaction,
(r(584) = -.118, p = .004). There are also correlations between the dependent variables.
Correlation analyses indicated there’s a statistically significant negative correlation between physical and mental health, (r(584) = -.113, p = .006). It was also found that
63 there is a statistically significant positive correlation between physical health and relational satisfaction (r(584) = .148, p = .000). Lastly, there is a statistically significant negative correlation between mental health and relational satisfaction (r(584) = -.113, p =
.006). See Table 3 for more information about these analyses.
Table 3. lations between MVS and Dependent Variables
MVS Mental Health Physical Health RAS
MVS Pearson Correlation 1 .184** -.027* -.118**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .520 .004
N 586 586 586 586
Mental Health Pearson Correlation .184** 1 -.113** -.113**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .006 .006
N 586 586 586 586
Physical Health Pearson Correlation -.027* -.113** 1 .148**
Sig. (2-tailed) .520 .006 .000
N 586 586 586 586
RAS Pearson Correlation -.118** -.113** .148** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .004 .006 .000
N 586 586 586 586
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). Prior to running multivariate analyses, the researcher ran preliminary analyses, including correlations, independent samples t-tests and one- way ANOVAs. These analyses were conducted to examine the relationships between the variables within the study and the results from these analyses informed which of the covariates were to be included into the hierarchical multiple regression models to answer each of the research questions. The covariates had to be statistically significant with one of the main independent and dependent variables in order to be included in the multivariate analyses.
For relationship satisfaction, analyses indicated a statistically significant group difference
64 between the relational satisfaction and both childhood finances (t(584) = -1.99, p = .047) and current finances (t(584) = -4.88, p = .000). All other preliminary findings examining relational satisfaction and other covariates were not statistically significant. For physical health, independent t-tests and ANOVA analyses indicated significant group differences for the following covariates: race (F(4, 581) = 4.658, p = .001), relationship length (F(3,
582) = 5.495, p = .001), childhood finances (t(584) = -3.0882, p = .002), current finances
(t(584) = -2.879, p = .004), and counseling (t(584) = 4.025, p = .000). The preliminary analysis indicated that the relationship between physical health and gender was not statistically significant. For mental health, bivariate analysis indicated that relationship length was the only covariate that was statistically significant (F(3, 582) = 8.869, p =
.000). All other preliminary analyses between mental health and the covariates were found to be non-significant.
Research Question 1
A hierarchical multiple regression was conducted to determine if there is an impact between living a materialistic lifestyle and relational satisfaction. The researcher hypothesized that there will be an impact between living a materialistic lifestyle and relational satisfaction. Both childhood finances and current finances were utilized as control variables in the multivariate analysis due to being statistically significant in the preliminary analyses. Control variables were included in Step 1 of the model, the MVS was included in Step 2, and relationship satisfaction was included as the dependent variable. The final regression model was statistically significant (F (3, 582) = 10.019, p <
.001). Childhood and current finances explained 4% of the variance in relational satisfaction. The R2 for the final model was .049, explaining 4.9% of the variance in
65 relational satisfaction predicted by the covariates and materialist values. Childhood finances was not statistically associated with relationship satisfaction in the final model (t
= .741; p = .459). Both current finances (t = 4.153; p = .000) and the MVS (t = -2.383; p
= .017) were statistically significant predictors in the final model. Therefore, the researcher’s original hypothesis was supported. Results from the regression can be found on Table 4.
Table 4.
Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Examining Association between MVS and Relationship Satisfaction (n = 586) Model 1 Model 2
Variable B SE B β B SE B β
Block 1
Childhood .290 .470 .026 .347 .468 .031 Finances Current 2.300 .513 .190 2.140 .515 .177 Finances
Block 2
MVS -.095 .040 -.097
Research Question 2
Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were used to answer research question two: Is there an impact between living a materialistic lifestyle and physical health? The researcher hypothesized that there will be an impact between living a materialistic lifestyle and physical health. Preliminary analysis results indicated controlling for the following variables in this model: race, relationship length, childhood finances, current finances, and counseling. These covariates were utilized due to being statistically significant in the preliminary analyses. Control variables were included in Step 1, the
MVS was included in Step 2, and physical health was included as the dependent variable.
66 In the first model, the covariates explained 4.9% of the variance in physical health. Current finances (t = 1.988; p = .047) and counseling (t = -3.609; p = .000) were the only two control variables that were statistically significant predictors in the final model. The final regression model was not statistically significant (F (5, 580) = -.733, p =
.464). The R2 for the final model was .050 in the final model explaining 5% of the variance in physical health predicted by the control variables and materialist values. The findings from the regression displayed that the MVS was not a statistically significant predictor of physical health. Thus, the original hypothesis was not supported. Results from the regression can be seen on Table 5.
Table 5.
Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Examining Association between MVS and Physical Health (n = 586) Model 1 Model 2
Variable B SE B β B SE B β
Block 1
Race/ ethnicity -.049 .114 -.018 -.047 .114 -.017
Relationship -.147 .113 -.053 -.165 .116 -.060 Length
Childhood .463 .244 .081 .466 . 244 .082 Finances
Current .552 .264 .089 .529 .266 .085 Finances
Counseling -.883 .244 -.148 -.881 .244 -.148
Block 2
MVS -.015 .021 -.031
Research Question 3
A hierarchical multiple regression was conducted to answer research question three: Is there an impact between living a materialistic lifestyle and an individual’s
67 mental health? The researcher hypothesized that there will be an impact between living a materialistic lifestyle and an individual’s mental health. Preliminary analyses yielded the usage of just one covariate: due to being statistically significant in the preliminary analyses- relationship length. The control variable, relational length was included in Step
1, the MVS was included in Step 2 of the model, and mental health was included as the dependent variable. Results from Model 1 indicated relationship length is a significant predictor of mental health and explains 4.3% of the variance. The final regression model was statistically significant (F (2, 583) = 19.829, p =.000). The R2 for the final model was
.064 explaining 6.4% of the variance in mental health predicted by the control variables and materialist values. Both relationship length (t = -4.310; p = .000) and
MVS (t= 3.554; p = .000) were statistically significant predictors in the final model. Therefore, the original hypothesis was supported. Results from the regression can be seen on Table 6.
Table 6
Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Examining Association between MVS and Mental Health (n = 586) Model 1 Model 2
Variable B SE B β B SE B β
Block 1
Relationship -.437 .085 -.208 -.371 .086 -.177 Length
Block 2
MVS .056 .016 146
Summary of Chapter 4
Chapter four described the process of the statistical analyses performed as well as results of the current study. The chapter began by explaining measures taken to prescreen
68 the data and data clean. Missing data and ineligible participants were removed from the study’s sample. Thus, the study’s final participants total was 586. Next, univariate statistics were conducted to describe the participants. Preliminary and bivariate analyses were conducted to better understand the participants and variables. The three research questions were answered by multivariate statistical analyses: hierarchical multiple regressions. The results for research question one supported the hypothesis as it displayed statistically significant results for relational satisfaction. The results for research question two did not support the hypothesis as it displayed statistically insignificant findings for physical health. Finally, the results for research question three supported the hypothesis as it showed statistically significant results for mental health.
69
CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this project was to explore the role of materialism in reference to impacts on relationship satisfaction, physical health, and mental health. This chapter examines the statistical analyses provided in chapter four. This chapter discusses interpretations of all three of the study’s hypotheses. Clinical implications for marriage and family therapists to work with individuals, couples, and families to better their relationships will also be discussed. Additionally, this chapter lists limitations and future directions to continue research on minimalism and relational satisfaction.
Interpretation of Hypotheses Hypothesis 1
Research question one asked, “Is there an impact between living a materialistic lifestyle and relational satisfaction?” The researcher hypothesized that there would be an impact between living a materialistic lifestyle and relational satisfaction. The hypothesis was supported as the results of research question one were statistically significant, meaning that materialist values did negatively impact relational satisfaction. There has been plenty of literature that has documented a negative relationship between materialism and life satisfaction (Belk, 1984, 1985; Dawson & Bamossy, 1991; Kau et al., 2000;
LaBarbera & Gurhan, 1997; Richins, 1987; Richins & Dawson, 1990, 1992; Ryan &
Dziurawiec, 2001; Sirgy et al., 1995, 1998). Additionally, a study has shown that individuals who are less materialistic are happier (Howell et al., 2012). Lower
70 materialism was found to be associated with increased happiness and decreased depressive symptoms (Muniz-Velazquez et al., 2017). Individuals that spend more of their money on experiential purchases have more happiness in their lives as they expend income on their memories, which are deemed not replaceable or upgradeable (Howell et al., 2012). Thus, spending money on activities that contribute to happiness would also increase relational satisfaction. Another reason for this could be that individuals engaging in materialistic endeavors such as shopping, may have less time to engage in other activities with their romantic partner which may contribute to overall relational satisfaction.
Hypothesis 2
Research question two asked, “How does living a materialistic lifestyle impact an individual’s physical health?” The hypothesis stated, “Living a materialistic lifestyle will negatively impact an individual’s physical health.” The hypothesis was not supported as materialist values did not statistically significantly impact physical health. The results from this study does not match the available literature discussed in earlier chapters.
Previously reviewed literature connected physical health and materialism (Belk, 1985;
Burroughs & Rindfleisch, 2002; Lee, Chang, Cheng, & Lin, 2018; Rindfleisch et al.,
2009; Ryan & Dziurawiec, 2001). The findings of this study do not coincide with prior literature and one reason for this may be due to the scale utilized to measure physical health. Limitations of the scale utilized to measure physical health may explain the lack of statistical significance between the independent and dependent variable. However, current finances and previous counseling were statistically significant predictors of physical health which are important factors to consider. The findings from the current
71 study display that the answer to what impacts physical health may be other contributors such as mental health which was found statistically significant (research question three).
In addition, there may be different measures for physical health that would better capture the aspects of physical health that more relate to MVS such as assessing for chronic health conditions like heart diabetes, cancer, stroke, addiction, etc.
Another reason for statistically insignificant results could be that the scale only assessed for physical limitations. For example, a person could have diabetes or high cholesterol but have no limited abilities in terms of climbing stairs or walking a block. All six questions asked about an activity and the amount of time it was limited for, thus, someone may have had physical limitations over a year ago but since it is just asking about “three months or longer,” past limits would likely not be accounted for. Lastly, there may be other constructs to include as covariates in future research that may be more statistically significant such as life satisfaction, age, geographic location, and family structure.
Hypothesis 3
Research question three asked, “How does living a materialistic lifestyle impact an individual’s mental health?” The researcher hypothesized that living a materialistic lifestyle will negatively impact an individual’s mental health. The results from the hierarchical multiple regression displayed that the hypothesis was supported that living a materialistic lifestyle negatively impacts an individual’s mental health. This finding aligns with past research that states materialism has been linked to lower levels of mental and emotional health (Belk, 1985; Kasser et al., 2004; McCullought et al., 2002; Puente-
Díaz & Cavazos-Arroyo, 2015). Additionally, prior research has stated that engaging in
72 experiences is significantly linked with psychological well-being, more so than having material goods (Muniz-Velazquez et al., 2017). Therefore, it is important to note that living a materialistic lifestyle may decrease an individual’s mental health. It is important that individuals understand the negative effects of living a materialistic lifestyle as the mental health impacts can be extremely detrimental.
Clinical Implications
The findings from this dissertation displayed statistically significant results between materialistic value’s impact on both relational satisfaction and mental health.
With the knowledge of these effects and how materialistic values can negatively impact people, it is important to discuss the clinical implications. These clinical implications are recommendations for marriage and family therapists to implement within their clinical practice with individuals, couples, and families.
Results from this study indicated that both current finances and materialist values were statistically significant predictors of relational satisfaction. This finding coincided with previous research. A study pursued ways to decrease impulsive, emphasizing the reduction of impulsive online shopping (Li et al., 2019). Findings displayed process simulation and downward outcome simulation could be an easy and efficient tool for materialistic individuals to reduce their online impulsive buying (Li et al., 2019).
Financial habits can be emulated by your partner, for example if your partner is bad with saving and finances it may affect you. It certainly makes sense to go off what your partner is doing because they are socialization agents, they influence you (Curran et al.,
2018). Therapists should advise that these financial conversations happen both at home and in the context of therapy and there on after.
73 Additionally, issues of power and control may arise if these things are not discussed (Curran et al., 2018). Making decisions together and talking about them help in becoming closer and more satisfied (Curran et al., 2018). It may be beneficial for MFTs to assess partners for materialistic tendencies specifically when overconsumption is impacting the couple relationship. MFTs can facilitate important and transparent conversations about these habits. Additionally, female partners have been blamed for relational issues due to spending and overconsumption (Hendrick, 1981). A partner blaming their partner for a lifestyle choice for materialism is a necessary discussion for
MFTs to bring up during sessions, especially in how it can be detrimental to the relationship. Further, MFTs are advised to not blame due to societal gender norms as male partners may also engage in this type of lifestyle.
Findings from this study showed that materialistic values are significant predictors of poorer reported mental health and relational satisfaction. These findings show why it is so important to live more minimalistically to be able to improve these outcomes. However, what if a couple doesn’t want to live a minimalistic lifestyle?
Although, the study’s results showed that materialistic values can negatively impact mental health and relational satisfaction, it doesn’t seem appropriate to force that type of lifestyle on someone. “A clutter- free existence exerts a constant pressure that’s oppressive in its own way” (Havrilesky, 2018, p. 77). Further, as previously cited in the literature, the minimalism lifestyle must be chosen to obtain the corresponding benefits.
Millburn and Nicodemus (2015) explained that “organizing is well planned hoarding” (p.
29). Additionally, they connect how it all equates to the accumulation of stuff and utilize metaphor for a war between the two: the organizers and hoarders. Whether one is
74 organizing a collection of items or have it all in a mess array, the overconsumption is still present.
This study found that materialistic values are significant predictors of both mental health and relational satisfaction. Havrilesky (2018) wrote a series of essays that incline people to reject society’s concept of ‘enough’ and rather, personally define it. She also addresses the ‘broken’ American culture which she claims could be attributed to the dream of the consistent pursual of the ‘bigger and better.’ It has been said that the
American dream is simple, just buy stuff and the happiness will come (Millburn &
Nicodemus, 2014). The whole process starts so young; American children are taught that the American Dream, being infatuated with overconsumption, is crucial to success and happiness (VanderPyl, 2019). “We first-world humans have always had a conflicted relationship with our belongings” (Havrilesky, 2018; p.72). Every celebration and holiday is centered around giving and receiving material items (Havrilesky, 2018). MFTs are urged to not only discuss the relationship with their materials, but how couples with children can mitigate these risks associated with materialistic values as found in this study. Engaging in overconsumption, is something that is taught and reinforced frequently MFTs may assist couples in understanding how these patterns are passed down and repeated.
Relational quality doesn’t assume that couples are happy or do not have problems, rather, it runs under the idea that couples are working at meeting the needs and expectations the couple has in place for their relationship (Chonody et al., 2018; Gabb &
Fink, 2015). An article suggested daily logs to assess relational satisfaction, they explained how tracking this subjective report would provide more insight into
75 communication and interactions which would be contributing to the scores (Duck, 1994;
Hendrick et al., 1998). Therefore, therapists are advised to work with couples to determine their expectations of materialism and minimalism to create their own expectations and be able to meet them as well as to increase relational quality. Further, therapists may also urge couples to do activities together. It makes sense that the findings of this study showed materialism negatively impacts relational satisfaction. These findings can inform how to proceed clinically to help facilitate better romantic relationships as well as future research on factors to improve these relationships.
The findings from this study display that materialistic values are a significant predictor of relational satisfaction. “Not only do modern consumer choices rarely bring us long-term satisfaction, but they’re exhausting. It takes a lot of energy to recognize which signifiers will place you in the dreadful almost-past with the know-nothings who aren’t always moving forward, always casting off and acquiring more, always focused on what comes next” (Havrilesky, 2018, p. 78). Thus, it is difficult to be satisfied if nothing ever seems like it is enough. People all believe they are entitled to a life of luxury
(Havrilesky, 2018). But what if luxury was a relationship in which both couples have their needs met and are satisfied with their partnership? There needs to be an alteration in the ideology people hold about material items by mental health professionals helping people to put the focus on what they have already (Tsang et al., 2014). MFTs and other mental health professionals are advised to process the meanings and feelings they associate with such materials.
Medical Family Therapy
76 MedFT employs a biopsychosocial approach to assess presenting problems in the context of the client’s family, community, health care system, and culture (McDaniel,
1995; McDaniel et al., 2014; Tadros et al., 2019). Individual’s biological, psychological, and social experiences interrelate and effect each other in intricate ways (McDaniel,
1995). MedFT’s goal is to encourage the healing and well-being of clients (McDaniel et al., 2014; Zubatsky et al., 2017), therefore, this encompasses multiple types of health.
However, typically, in our society mental health services have been deemed as less significant of an issue than medical care when considering overall well- being (Pelletier,
2002). Therefore, this study’s results were particularly interesting as materialism was found to be a significant predictor of mental health, but not physical health.
Signs (2015) connected narrative therapy’s letter writing to MedFT by urging patients to write about their pain and associated feelings. This would additionally aid in finding new meanings and reauthoring their stories (Signs, 2015). MedFT strives to lessen the stigma about mental health as it looks at health holistically and in a comprehensive manner which coincides with the findings of this study as both.
Furthermore, in clinical practice, it is also recommended to utilize this approach.
Although, the findings of this study found materialist values was not a significant predictor of physical health, both having undergone counseling and current finances were found to be significant predictors of physical health. In assessing for physical health problems within the therapy room, therapists are advised to also inquire about current finances and how couples manage them together. The conversations therapists have with clients may reveal struggles couples are having in references to finances as well as spending habits, overconsumption practice, and materialist values. The intersection of
77 these topics is clear as previous studies have noted negative impacts of overconsumption on physical health (Ryan & Dziurawiec, 2001). Thus, a discussion of current finances and how to best manage them may be particularly beneficial to physical health. A model of therapy that includes physical as well as mental health would be optimal due to these findings. Therefore, counseling that employs MedFT concepts may be useful in discussing issues pertaining to physical health. Further, MedFT ideologies could be used as an adjunct in the discussion of finances as they have also shown to be a predictor of physical health problems. These findings can inform clinical practice and especially the importance of conceptualizing with MedFT lens. Thus, MFTs are advised to apply principles of MedFT into their clinical practice.
Mindfulness
Based on the findings from this study displaying that materialistic values are a significant predictor of mental health and relational satisfaction, mindfulness is a recommended strategy for increasing mental health and relational satisfaction while decreasing materialistic values. Mindfulness is “the awareness that emerges through paying attention, on purpose, in the present moment and non-judgmentally to the unfolding of the experience moment by moment” (Kabat-Zinn, 2003, p. 145).
Mindfulness entails gaining knowledge to control the concentration of attention (Lynch et al., 2006). It has been found that mindfulness-based techniques are associated with healthier decision-making, awareness, acknowledgement of emotions, and increased focus (Christopher & Maris, 2010). By being mindful, people can concentrate on both their external environments and their internal experiences (Kabat-Zinn, 2003).
78 Mindfulness has been used in conjunction with Dialectical Behavioral Therapy
(DBT) in a recent study (Finney & Tadros, 2019). Mindfulness assists with the regulation of difficult emotions (Siegel, 2014) as well as can be used to de-escalate periods of crisis in couples (Finney & Tadros, 2019). MFTs can assist clients to develop awareness of themselves and their partner. “Mindfulness is a powerful antidote to the human tendency toward automatic responding, which corporations and advertisers exploit in the service of consumerism” (Rosenberg, 2004, p. 115). Therefore, mindfulness can be used to acknowledge issues within consumerism. One being the unconscious psychological processes that advertisers hope to speak to and life dissatisfaction’s brief solution by consumption (Rosenberg, 2004).
Vollmann, Sprang, and van den Brink (2019) found that gratitude interventions were discovered to have positive effects on relational outcomes, for example, relationship satisfaction, perception of the person, and ease in expressing relationship concerns.
Individuals with the will to practice mindfulness have been shown to be linked positively with the usage of constructive conflict strategy use (Harvey et al., 2019). In addition, willingness to practice mindfulness is negatively linked with damaging conflict strategy usage when individuals have a disagreement with their romantic partner. Thus, aiding distressed and high-conflict couples in implementing a new interaction pattern that will assist in the increasing of intimacy and relational satisfaction necessitates each partner to stop their current customary patterns and trust the therapeutic process (Zrenchik, 2015).
The findings from this dissertation displayed that materialist values negatively impacted both relational satisfaction and mental health; thus, therapists can utilize mindfulness to mitigate this impact.
79 Cultivating Change: Increasing Relational Satisfaction via Minimalism
This study’s findings showed that materialist values negatively impacted both relational satisfaction and mental health. These findings display a need for change. The goal of this section is to discuss creating meaningful advancement towards a lesser materialistic lifestyle with the goal of increasing relational satisfaction within couples.
Cultivating change necessitates more sweeping solutions than just the development of new products and product replacements amongst consumers. The anti-consumption task poses some critical questions about how to encourage such notions to make them conventional among consumers. It must be considered what role marketing plays within this process as well (Barr et al., 2011). All groups of people including governments, businesses, families and communities, the public sector, voluntary and community organizations need to make different life adaptations if we are to realize the vision of sustainable expansion (Barr et al., 2011). Studies have been done that show community- based changes are more likely to be successfully than people working individually to make changes to their lifestyles. Community support and engagement leads to higher rates of success (Middlemiss, 2011). Therefore, changing a societal view on this will also contribute to making more micro-level changes, such as, in romantic relationships.
Sustainable living is an option for reaching this goal of a more minimalistic society and it will be introduced below.
Sustainable Living
Sustainability is often researched in regard to environmental science and finances, but it is rarely studied to measure social impact of a minimalist or materialist lifestyle.
Unlike overconsumption and consumerism practices, sustainability is a completely
80 opposite lifestyle choice. Sustainability is defined as reconsidering our ways of living, what we buy and how we consolidate our everyday lives (Sustainable Lifestyles
Taskforce, 2010). It is also about changing and transforming how we socialize, exchange, share, educate and build identities. It means altering our societies and living in accord with our environment (Axon 2017; Sustainable Lifestyles Taskforce, 2010). A variety of research has shown that there are significant toxic effects on environment due to overconsumption (DesJardins, 1999; Garcia-Ruiz & Rodriguez-Lluesma, 2015; Gardiner,
2004; Peifer et al., 2019). Environmental effects are of particular interest in the media due to ‘debates’ about global warming. It is crucial that we minimize the negative effects of human behavior to reduce the harmful consequence to the environment. Minimalist lifestyles aid in preserving the environment; thus, this is one of the many benefits of this lifestyle.
Sustainable living is a relatively new concept and has not been studied extensively compared to other concepts in mental health. An article focused on the concept of sustainable happiness where people are responsible for how they pursue happiness
(O’Brien, 2013). The article focuses on how happiness does not occur in isolation and that an individual’s happiness cannot come at the expense of other people or the environment (O’Brien, 2013). A pilot study assessed sustainable behavior and topic areas such as pro-ecological, frugal, altruistic, and equitable activities (Fraijo-Sing et al., 2013).
This study also assessed for happiness, and a positive correlation was found between engaging in sustainable behaviors and happiness (Fraijo-Sing et al., 2013). Therefore, this study showcases the positive correlation between living sustainably and happiness.
81 Knowing this, it may be presumed that relational satisfaction may also increase as a sustainable lifestyle is employed.
A biological aspect to consider that opposes sustainability is acquisitiveness; acquisitiveness is widely considered as a primary human feature (Preston et al., 2009). It motivates people to not only obtain items that increase our survival or reproductive potent, but to also acquire, passively obtain, and fail to shed a wide assortment of items that we may never even use. People vary widely in this acquisitive inclination (Preston et al., 2009). The range is immense varying from minimalists to compulsive hoarders (Frost,
Steketee et al., 2000; Steketee et al., 2001). In a culture where items are superfluous it is easy to acquire items but difficult to manage and let go of (Wang et al., 2012).
People many not recognize the direct effects between environmental issues and how it could affect our long-term relational networks, but researchers such as Kantola et al. (1983), Baldassare and Katz (1992), and Segun et al. (1998) have argued that environmental concerns serve as tangible threats to the self and a wider network of family and friends. They note that a higher level of participation in environmental issues in needed (Barr & Gilg, 2006). The ripple effect is currently unknown and we do not know what could happen to humanity if these conservation concerns are not addressed. The sustainability concept openly incorporates both the fulfilment of human needs and the need of protecting the natural environment (Tapia-Fonllem et al., 2013). Attitudes about the environment and their relationship to behavior have been a major topic of study (e.g.,
Dunlap & Van Liere, 1978; Lipsey, 1977). One study began to look at the various short, medium, and long-term barriers to implementation to sustainable lifestyles. A multitude of factors, both enablers and barriers, were found to impede the establishment of
82 sustainable lifestyles (Axon, 2017). The above section discussed how a sustainable lifestyle coincides with living minimalistically and therefore can cultivate change.
More recent research surrounding sustainability has documented the link between ecology and materialism which may be of interest within policy (Thyroff & Kilbourne,
2018). sustainability is connected to living a minimalistic lifestyle. Consumerism has been frequently been confused for power and can tell an incorrect narrative of an individual (Makant, 2010).
The marriage and family therapy/ counseling field has shown much interest and the ecological movement display a pronounced curiosity in overall family sustainability and well-being. (First et al., 2012). While broad interest in this topic has generated buzz over recent years inquisitiveness alone is not enough to propel this concept forward into something tangible. Sustainable happiness is another concept that intersects with sustainable living. Sustainable happiness contributes to individual, family, community and global well-being without exploiting others, the environment, or future generations
(O’Brien, 2013).
Despite the overlap between minimalism, environmental sustainability, and systemic thinking, marriage and family therapists (MFTs) have remained quiet about the implication of sustainability in training and clinical practice (Blumer et al., 2012). This study shows us that while MFTs are aware of our place in the eco-system it is often a system that is overlooked for various reasons, such as not knowing practical applications for treatment, disinterest and ambiguity of the topic (Blumer et al., 2012). Others felt the topic was too broad to connect back to treatment for families (Blumer et al., 2012). There is an inherent link between family systems and ecosystems that could provide bases for
83 different treatments such as eco-informed therapy, but more research needs to be done to see if this can improve treatment outcomes for families (Blumer et al., 2012).
It has also been noted that sustainability from a psychological lens has been somewhat limited and more needs to be done to give us more of a lens on how environmental issues confront humanity in a real way. Multidisciplinary research and policy change are urgently called for to create hope for a sustainable future (McKenzie-
Mohr, 2006). If people do not work together in an interdisciplinary fashion, it would be a disserve to neglect the ways to solve long term problems that may plague humanity. A dissertation that explored happiness and sustainability submits that a sustainable society can be achieved by scaling back expectations of consumption and consumerism, but this can only be achieved through fostering cultural changes through social policy
(Kantenbacher, 2018). Sustainable living is form of cultivating change; it is also a way to live militaristically.
Limitations
Despite the various strengths of this study, there are limitations that must be transparently discussed. There are limitations to this study due to survey research. Survey responses were limited to those who have internet access to be able to participate. Thus, participants who do not have access to the internet based on socioeconomic status may have been excluded due to this. This may be a limitation because there may be individuals of a lower socioeconomic status that are not represented. Also, people must be able to read the English language to participate in the study. Therefore, the perspective of individuals who live in the U.S., but do not speak English were excluded. This could be a limitation by not having these perspectives reflected.
84 Also, the limitations of the research design are that researchers can try to manipulate the variables before enough information is known about a particular phenomenon (Heppner et al., 2016). Reliability and validity of the observations and the generalizability of the sample are key issues in descriptive research but using random sampling can help reduce bias in the study (Heppner et al., 2016). Sample bias may be an issue as 94% of the survey participants were women and 85% of the participants were
White. This calls for a more diverse sample in terms of gender and race. Further, these results may not be generalizable to other cultures being from the U.S.
Additionally, in reference to scales utilized, the lack of significance between physical health and materialistic values may be due to the SF-20. The SF-20 permits the calculation of a global rating yet does not allow for an individual to rate the severity or importance of these issues (Aaronson et al., 1989; Carver et al., 1999; Donovan et al.,
1993; Gill & Feinstein, 1994). Thus, a limitation of this particular scale may be that not all physical health concerns or even the majority of health concerns cannot be examined with this scale.
Another limitation is in reference to independence of the data. Independence of the data cannot be an assumption made as people who were partners participated and there is no way of knowing if two partners in a romantic relationship but participated.
Further, it is known that partners may have other reasons to continue a relationship in which they are dissatisfied, however, partners in a romantic relationship are expected to be more satisfied than dissatisfied, otherwise they may not stay in the relationship. This may account for the high scores in terms of relational satisfaction. Lastly, while significant the variance accounted for was relatively small and more work is needed to
85 better understand the relationships between minimalism and health and minimalism and relational satisfaction. It is a limitation to have a smaller variance and the researcher advocates for future research especially due to this.
Future Directions
Speaking from a marriage and family therapist and counselor’s point of view, it is vital that clinical implications, advocacy steps, and research directions be provided. In suggesting areas of growth in all three of these subsections provide ideas as well as practical solutions to the issues discussed. To begin building off what this study has found it is important to discuss the major strength of this study which was 1) looking at minimalism from a MFT lens and 2) bridging the connection between materialist values and different dimensions of health: physical, mental, and relational.
The study’s limitations shed light on what can be improved in future studies. The limitations section explained that the sample was not diverse in reference to both gender and race, this calls for a more diverse sample, specifically more males and people of color. The diversity within the sample may yield different or more statistically significant predictors of physical health, mental health, and relational satisfaction. Another demographic piece of information that was not collected was age and future studies may want to explore how age/ life experience may have some different data points.
Additionally, this study did not assess for sexual preference. Research has not documented differences in reference to relational satisfaction amongst lesbian and gay couples and heterosexual couples (Patterson, 2000; Peplau & Cochran, 1990; Peplau &
Fingerhut, 2007; Pepping & Halford, 2014). In a future study, it would be interesting to look at differences between individuals with diverse sexual preferences in terms of
86 materialistic lifestyles. In addition, the limitations of this study were surrounding the assumption of independence within the data. However, since this data wasn’t necessarily independent or dyadic, a future study could be enhanced by using dyadic data. This future study could include couples and look at differences between partners as well as other potential predictors that may directly impact the couple relationship.
Looking at minimalism through a systemic lens, specifically MedFT, allowed for a biopsychosocial approach to the conceptualization of mental and physical health problems. Not using a systemic approach may lead to the bypassing of MFTs in healthcare as well as who is actually the focus of treatment, individuals versus individuals and families (Christenson et al., 2011; O’Farrell et al., 1996). Rationalization for the amalgamation of mental and physical health services has been long overdue (Christenson et al., 2011; Kiecolt-Glaser & Newton, 2001). Future researchers are urged to continue the usage of a MedFT lens when studying the relationship between physical health and materialism or minimalism. The MedFT framework may guide future studies that go beyond the scope of this dissertation by studying intersections of other systems that require a more comprehensive view of healthcare.
Kahneman (2011) elucidates that happiness and satisfaction are distinct constructs. He explains that happiness is a short-term experience that occurs spontaneously and is brief. Satisfaction on the other hand, is a long-term sensation, constructed over time and founded on achieving goals and building the kind of life one loves. He contests that people don’t seem to want to be happy and that they actually want to increase their satisfaction with themselves and with their lives which leads in entirely different directions than the augmentation of happiness (Kahneman, 2011). Thus, it is
87 wondered how this satisfaction is achieved relationally if Kahneman’s theory is correct.
Additionally, would this pursuit of satisfaction be similar if an individual is seeking this relationally? New research is needed to explore this.
Hendrick (1981) found that high reciprocity between partners, found a positive relationship between self-disclosure and marital satisfaction. He also found that self- disclosure was a significant predictor of marital satisfaction. Hendrick’s (1981) study is a springboard for future studies, specifically, surrounding self-disclosing habits of overconsumption and materialistic values prior to marriage. Qualitative or quantitative analyses can be used to assess for potential differences prior to marriage and while or post- marriage. This would also serve to promote open and honest communication between romantic partners and potential predictors of better relational satisfaction.
MFTs are great facilitators of such conversations and can advocate for their occurrence.
As previously discussed, it was found that the emotion of ‘awe’ may reduce feelings of loneliness as well as aid in overcoming materialistic tendencies (Kaplan-Oz &
Miller, 2017). Perhaps if feelings of awe were incorporated into a relationship, this could be a protective factor for couples experiencing loneliness and/or hold materialistic values.
Thus, increasing positively deemed emotions into romantic relationships may additionally lower materialistic propensities. This is certainly something to explore in a future study surrounding strategies to increase positive emotions within a relationship while also examining if these techniques helped lower materialistic tendencies. In addition, a study found that gratitude was found to be a direct mediator between materialism and life satisfaction (Tsang et al., 2014). A new study could potentially build
88 off these results and examine how gratitude towards a partner could facilitate better relational satisfaction.
There are longitudinal links of materialism and sexual satisfaction within couples
(Leavitt et al., 2019). Thus, there is a need for future research to explore materialism impacts on intimacy and assess for sexual frequency and satisfaction. Intriguingly, the
RAS is highly correlated with the commonly used Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS)
(Hendrick et al., 1998). Therefore, a future study could use both the DAS and RAS along with the MVS to assess dyadic adjustment and how materialist values impact couple’s adjustment. Additionally, to date, there is not a single article that utilizes MedFT to understand minimalism or materialism.
In future studies, a major necessity is to develop a measure to directly assess minimalism not through materialism. It was stated as a limitation of this study that a materialism scale was utilized rather than one for minimalism. Unfortunately, a minimalism scale has yet to exist. One must be created to be able to most accurately assess and understand a minimalistic lifestyle. Lastly, minimalism literature is not academic, typically one must rely on books, blogs, or magazines to find such information. There is a need for peer-reviewed, scholarly articles on minimalism and it’s impacts on relationships and health.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to explore the role of materialism in reference to impacts on relationship satisfaction, physical health, and mental health. These findings display the need for a change in how people view their relationship with possessions as it has shown to have negative impacts on mental health and relational satisfaction. This
89 study found that materialist values effected relationship satisfaction as well as mental health. It is imperative that these findings are utilized to enhance overall health and relationships. The researcher hopes these findings will help create new avenues in clinical research to benefit family systems and lead to further research on this lifestyle choice to improve relational satisfaction within couples.
90
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APPENDIX A
Informed Consent for Participation in Research
Title of Research Study: Understanding minimalism through a Medical Family Therapy lens
Introduction: My name is Michelle Cappetto and I am a doctoral student in the Counselor Education and Supervision Marriage and Family Therapy program at The University of Akron. For my dissertation, I am conducting a study on relationship satisfaction and minimalism.
Purpose: The purpose of this dissertation is the add to the extremely small pool of literature on minimalism, address the physical and mental aspects that are engrained in engaging in this type of lifestyle, and understand its potential impacts in terms of relationships.
Procedures:
You will be asked to rate statements about how you feel in your current relationship, your attitude towards materialism, how often you engage in different physical activities, and how often you have different feelings. Approximately 250 adults will be recruited for the study. You will be recruited via email, social media, or through the School of Counseling listserv. For this online survey, all questions asked are multiple choice. The entire survey will take approximately 15 minutes.
Inclusion: To participate in this study, you must be: ● 18 years of age, or older ● Currently in a romantic relationship
Individuals will be excluded from the study if they do not meet the above criteria.
Risks and Discomforts: (See note to clearly list specific referral numbers here or at end) Answering questions regarding one’s mental and physical health may lead to some discomfort. If you find participating in this survey causes distress, you may discontinue from participating. If you experience any emotional distress, contact the National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) helpline at 1(800)950-NAMI.
Benefits:
126 At the end of the survey, you have the option to enter your e-mail to be entered into a raffle for a $25 Visa gift card. Four gift cards will be raffled off. The researcher will contact the winners by e-mail once data collection is completed. Your e-mail will not be linked to your survey responses.
It is hoped that the findings can be used to better understand minimalistic lifestyles and its impact on relational satisfaction and further contribute to research in the field of marriage and family therapy. Also, the findings will be used to inform treatment strategies in the field of marriage and family therapy.
Right to Refuse or Withdraw: Participation in this study is voluntary. You may refuse to participate or withdraw from the study at any time by exiting the survey. There is no penalty or loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled for not agreeing to participate or withdrawing from the study.
Confidentiality of Records & Limits to Confidentiality: Your responses will be kept confidential (e.g. by only accessing via a password-protected computer) and used only for research purposes. In the event that you report any serious harm or intended plan to harm to themselves, another person, building, disabled person, a child, or elderly person, etc., the researcher, due to being a mandated reporter, is required to file proper documentation and/or consult with her advisor and dissertation chair, Dr. Rikki Patton, and/or necessary figures of authority. All efforts will be made to maintain participant confidentiality. It is noted that part of the project includes information pertaining to their relationship with their romantic partner. Data will only be presented or published in aggregate form.
Who to Contact with Questions: As a participant, you have the right to ask questions about the study at any time. If you have any questions regarding this study, please contact the research, Michelle Cappetto, at [email protected]. The University of Akron Institutional Review Board has reviewed and approved this project. If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, you may call the university’s IRB at (330) 972-7666.
Agreement: Click below to either agree or disagree to consent to participate in the study. By consenting to participate, you are agreeing that you: ● Have read this consent form and are willing to participate in the study ● Have been informed of the potential risks ● Are 18 years of age or older ● Understand that your participation in this research is completely voluntary and that you can stop participating at anytime
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APPENDIX B
Institutional Review Board Form
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APPENDIX C
DEMOGRAPHICS SURVEY
1. What is your gender?
1 = male
2 = female
3= other gender
2. What is your race/ ethnicity?
1= White or Caucasian
2= Black or African American
3= Hispanic
4= Asian
5= Other race/ Multi-racial
3. Are you currently in a romantic relationship?
1= no
2= yes
4. How long have you been in your current romantic relationship?
1= Less than one year
2= One to five years
3= Five to ten years
4= Ten years or more
136 5. Do you believe you and your family were financially well-off during childhood?
1= no
2= yes
6. Do you believe you are currently financially well-off?
1= no
2= yes
7. Have you ever been to individual, couple, or family counseling?
1= no
2= yes
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APPENDIX D
The following statements are about life and material items. Rate each statement from 1 to 5 where 1 is strongly disagree and 5 is strongly agree.
1. I admire people who own expensive homes, cars, and clothes.
1 2 3 4 5
2. The things I own say a lot about how well I’m doing in life.
1 2 3 4 5
3. I like to own things that impress people.
1 2 3 4 5
4. I try to keep my life simple, as far as possessions are concerned.
1 2 3 4 5
5. Buying things gives me a lot of pleasure.
1 2 3 4 5
6. I like a lot of luxury in my life.
1 2 3 4 5
7. My life would be better if I owned certain things I don’t have.
1 2 3 4 5
8. I’d be happier if I could afford to buy more things.
1 2 3 4 5
9. It sometimes bothers me quite a bit that I can’t afford to buy all the things I’d like.
1 2 3 4 5
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APPENDIX E
For how long (if at all) has your health limited you in each of the following activities?
1. The kinds or amounts of vigorous activities you can do
1. Limited for more than 3 months 2. Limited for 3 months or less 3. Not limited at all
2. The kinds or amounts of moderate activities you can do
1. Limited for more than 3 months 2. Limited for 3 months or less 3. Not limited at all
3. Walking uphill or climbing a few flights of stairs
1. Limited for more than 3 months 2. Limited for 3 months or less 3. Not limited at all
4. Bending, lifting or stooping
1. Limited for more than 3 months 2. Limited for 3 months or less 3. Not limited at all
5. Walking one block
1. Limited for more than 3 months 2. Limited for 3 months or less 3. Not limited at all
6. Eating, dressing, bathing or using the toilet
1. Limited for more than 3 months 2. Limited for 3 months or less 3. Not limited at all
7. How much of the time, during the past month, have you been a very nervous person:
139 1. all of the time 2. most of the time 3. quite a lot of the time 4. some of the time 5. a little of the time 6. none of the time
8. During the past month, how much of the time have you felt calm and peaceful:
1. none of the time 2. a little of the time 3. some of the time 4. quite a lot of the time 5. most of the time 6. all of the time
9. During the past month, how much of the time have you felt downhearted and blue:
1. all of the time 2. most of the time 3. quite a lot of the time 4. some of the time 5. a little of the time 6. none of the time
10. During the past month, how much of the time have you been a happy person:
1. none of the time 2. a little of the time 3. some of the time 4. quite a lot of the time 5. most of the time 6. all of the time
11. How often, during the last month, have you felt in the dumps that nothing could ever cheer you up:
1. all of the time 2. most of the time 3. quite a lot of the time 4. some of the time 5. a little of the time 6. none of the time
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APPENDIX F
RELATIONSHIP ASSESSMENT SCALE
Please mark on the answer sheet for each item which best answers that item for you based on a traditional likert scale (1= low, 5= high):
1. How well does your partner meet your needs?
1 2 3 4 5
2. In general, how satisfied are you with your relationship?
1 2 3 4 5
3. How good is your relationship compared to most?
1 2 3 4 5
4. How often do you wish you hadn’t gotten in this relationship?
1 2 3 4 5
5. To what extent has your relationship met your original expectations:
1 2 3 4 5
6. How much do you love your partner?
1 2 3 4 5
7. How many problems are there in your relationship?
1 2 3 4 5
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APPENDIX G
SURVEY DEBRIEF
Thank you for your time. I appreciate you partaking in my dissertation survey. If any emotional distress is caused or experienced, you are encouraged to contact the National
Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) helpline at 1(800)950-NAMI to obtain mental health treatment and follow-up, as well as referrals in your area. Please enter your email if you would like to be considered for the $25 gift card, if not click 'complete.'
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