NATIONAL LEAGUE OF CITIES

REIMAGINING POLICING: How State and Local Governments NATIONAL LEAGUE Can WorkOF TogetherCITIES to Create Better, Safer Communities NATIONAL LEAGUE OF CITIES Table of Contents

About the National League of Cities Acknowledgments 2 Introduction The National League of Cities (NLC) is the voice of The authors would like to thank Yucel Ors, Kirby America’s cities, towns and villages, representing Gaherty, Erin Peterson, Brooks Rainwater, Jordan 4 Approaches to Policing more than 200 million people. NLC works to Carter, Katherine Carter, and Anita Yadavalli for strengthen local leadership, influence federal policy their collaboration and expertise in crafting this 14 Roadblocks to Reimagining Policing and drive innovative solutions. report. NLC’s Center for City Solutions provides research The authors would also like to thank Katey Haas 18 Innovations in Policing and analysis on key topics and trends important who edited the report, and Karen Nava who to cities, creative solutions to improve the quality designed the report. 24 Conclusion of life in communities, inspiration and ideas for local officials to use in tackling tough issues, About the Report 26 Additional Resources and opportunities for city leaders to connect This report is the seventh project outcome of with peers, share experiences and learn about a research collaborative between NLC and the innovative approaches in cities. state municipal leagues. We are grateful for the guidance, data verification and information they About the Authors provided. Brenna Rivett is a program manager, Kyle Funk is a program specialist, Rose Kim is a program specialist, and Spencer Wagner is a program specialist in NLC’s Center for City Solutions..

© 2020 National League of Cities. All Rights Reserved. HOW STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS CAN WORK REIMAGINING POLICING: TOGETHER TO CREATE BETTER, SAFER COMMUNITIES

Introduction

merica’s cities, towns and villages urgently to question whether the traditional J Roadblocks to reimagining policing preempt—local police reform efforts by Aare facing a national reckoning on understanding of policing—one focused on including police union collective leading or working with recommendations racial justice and law enforcement. Blaring, enforcing local, state, and federal laws—still bargaining and funding streams; and coming from the municipal level. Rhode passionate demands for the government to prevails today. Gone are the days where Island has created a statewide panel that J Innovations in policing including the reimagine public safety and policing have law enforcement officers are responsible provides standard guidance on training for creation of civilian oversight boards persisted with every murder of an unarmed for enforcing the law alone. Officers may law enforcement officers. Indiana has worked and the renewed interest in community individual by police officers, with George now be expected to treat overdoses, de- for the last five years on reforming the policing approaches. Floyd’s and Breonna Taylor’s names at the escalate behavioral health crises, address criminal code to place greater emphasis on forefront. At latest count, over 2,000 cities homelessness and/or respond to disciplinary As cities and towns grapple with how to recovery and treatment. The state has also and towns have protested the senseless concerns in schools. The expansion of duties maintain public safety and reckon with the provided a framework for the use of body murders of Black individuals in 2020.1 Some begs policy makers to reimagine public safety, need for long overdue racial justice, there cameras at the local level without mandating have called for a reevaluation of use-of- and within it policing, in a way they may never is a push and pull that looks different in local governments adopt it. Lastly, the Utah force policies and recognition of overtly have anticipated. every community. For example, not every League of Cities and Towns is conducting the militarized weapon use. Others have called community is at the same point of reckoning Love, Listen, and Lead initiative. This group While many cities and towns are ready and for civilian oversight boards and community as an Albuquerque or a Los Angeles. But one is composed of local elected officials and willing to reimagine public safety for their policing models as an alternative to the thing is clear: public trust in law enforcement public safety representatives with the aim communities, they are oftentimes constrained traditional “tough-on-crime” approach. officers has decreased considerably, and our of examining current public safety practices by preemption or the resources needed Perhaps the most radical demand has nation must return to a point of high trust and how they impact communities of color to establish new emergency response been to defund the police and invest in the where external interfacing is common and in Utah. The initiative will soon report a list of departments and staff. This presents an community, with the city of Newark, New criminal activity is proactively addressed. recommended policy changes and reforms. opportunity for state governments to aid local Jersey as one instance where part of the Local leaders must be at the forefront of Through these types of creative, iterative leaders by providing resources and support police budget has been reallocated to create conversations to reimagine public safety policy changes working across the local, as they work through this process in their an office of violence prevention.2 for all. By creating accountable, equitable, state, and federal level, public safety reforms communities. This guide demystifies today’s innovative, and improved systems, local can be both effective and reflective of the Despite the presence of a virulent virus that most urgent policing topics: leaders can begin to address the blemished communities they serve. shows no signs of slowing down, and an J Approaches to policing including police history of law enforcement in our nation. election that reveals an expanding political misconduct data sharing, body camera divide in America, the renewed passion There is also ample opportunity for states usage, militarized police response, civil for racial justice has inspired many of and cities to work together to address these asset forfeiture, and use of force policy; America’s cities and towns to listen and work systemic issues. States can support—not

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records. Limited states allow for public records to be released only under certain circumstances. The terms of release vary from state to state. States such as Arkansas Approaches to Policing only allow records to be released if the records pertain to an officer’s suspension or termination and have a “compelling public interest” to be disclosed.3 Other states like Michigan are much more limited and only allow Public record laws on police misconduct at the records to be released if, “there is an overriding state level can be sorted into the three broad public interest in the disclosure.”4 Court cases Police Misconduct Data across the nation on what data is collected categories of confidential, limited, and public. and what data is available for public viewing. can also determine if records should or need Tracking data on police misconduct is one NLC policy supports the establishment of a g 21 states have laws that keep police to be made public. Many states that fall into policy tool to minimize misconduct and National Database of Decertified Officers that conduct data confidential; the limited category are experiencing ongoing identify concerning behavioral patterns of litigation to determine where those limits fall. local governments can use to vet officers who officers. This data set would be used by hiring g 16 states and the District of Columbia have have been dismissed for such issues such as managers and executives of law enforcement laws that fall into the limited category; and unnecessary or excessive use of force, abuse Public agencies to vet police officers. This information Only 13 states fall into this category. These of power, racial discrimination, and violation of g 13 states allow police conduct records to can also aid in the creation of disciplinary states make their police conduct records individuals’ civil rights. State governments can be made public. measures when needed. However, there is generally available to the public, but may make help in these efforts by creating a statewide currently no national public database on records of unsubstantiated complaints or database until a national database is created. Confidential police misconduct records, as state law varies A majority of states fall into the confidential ongoing investigations confidential. Arizona, category. These states do not allow a police for example, makes all police disciplinary officer’s disciplinary record to be made public, records available to the public, but only after the internal investigation is finished and any Police Conduct Public Records even with a public records request. Some of these state laws exempt all public employee appeals process has concluded. The state of personnel files from disclosure. Other state Florida, however, remains the most famous laws place police departments under a general for their open reporting records. Disciplinary privacy exemption from public disclosure. records in Florida only remain confidential until For example, Delaware’s law on the matter an activate investigation ends. explicitly makes law enforcement officers’ personnel records confidential. Court cases, With renewed calls from residents across the such as those in Maryland, have upheld these country to make police misconduct records laws tightly, stating that police disciplinary available to the communities they serve, there records are confidential even when a requester is increased pressure on states to create legal Confidential seeks a record about the investigation of his or pathways for doing so. Municipalities and her own complaint. states will need to work together to determine Limited how to best utilize and share this data— whether that is with local elected officials, Public Limited Sixteen states and the District of Columbia community members such as civilian oversight place limited restrictions on releasing public boards, or the public at large. Source: https://www.wnyc.org/story/police-misconduct-records/

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Photo by David McNew/Getty Images

CASE STUDY: NEW YORK Body Cameras 1. Prohibiting audio-only recordings (30 states) Until this year, the state of New York had a not going to allow the police to police.”5 The The use of body cameras by police law known as the New York Civil Rights Law new law went into effect immediately and departments proliferated after 2014-2015 that 2. Requiring two-/all-party consent to § 50-a, which kept all police, firefighter, and now makes disciplinary records subject to the included the murder of Michael Brown by record (14 states) corrections officer personnel disciplinary Freedom of Information Law. This will allow police officers in Ferguson, Missouri; Walter 3. Restricting recordings where privacy is records confidential and undisclosed from the journalists and the public to make requests Scott in North Charleston, South Carolina; and expected (41 states and the District of public. This law was changed as part of a larger for records on disciplinary action within police a $23 million federal grant program launched Columbia) law enforcement reform package by the New departments.6 by the Obama administration for police York State Legislature over the 2020 summer departments of all sizes to purchase body 4. Exempting investigative records 7 session after the death of George Floyd. cameras. Acquiring body cameras is only one (including body camera footage) from During the bill signing Governor Cuomo stated, cost for local governments, even with grants, public records requests (48 states and “If there’s no trust, the police can’t effectively as footage and data storage costs can be even the District of Columbia) police. If there’s no trust, the community is more expensive for local governments. As of 2020, five states—South Carolina, Nevada, 5. Creating or recommending a study California, Connecticut, and Florida—require at group or pilot program on the usage of least some officers to use body cameras.8 body cameras (15 states and the District of Columbia) But with greater use of body cameras came 6. Prescribing where, when, and how questions on the usage of the footage cameras can be used (16 states and the produced by them. According to the Urban District of Columbia) Institute, all states and the District of Columbia have provided guidance or action on eight key 7. Setting rules for public access to footage facets of body cameras:9 (29 states and the District of Columbia)

8. Prescribing video storage time (22 states and the District of Columbia)

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States That Have Laws Specific to Police Body Cameras creating or recommending a study group Militarization of the Police or pilot; prescribing where, when, and how Since the protests in Ferguson, Missouri after cameras can be used; setting rules for public the murder of Michael Brown by police officers, access to footage; and prescribing video communities have grappled with questions storage time. While these laws can be used to about the weapons that police departments preempt localities, they can also be used to set obtain and use. The police response to the minimum standards and regulations that work protests included overtly militarized vehicles with—rather than dictate—local governments. and weapons. This type of militarized response Does Not Have For instance, when South Carolina required again became a topic of discussion after the Laws Specific 2020 protests following the murder of George to Police Body agencies to acquire and use body cameras, the 12 Cameras state set up funding to help departments acquire Floyd by Minneapolis police officers. the technology and required agencies to submit Does Have Local departments have been able to acquire their own policies for using the cameras.10 Laws Specific such military-grade equipment through a to Police Body Cameras Additionally, body cameras have presented federal program known as the 1033 Program. challenging questions for advancements in This program allows law enforcement public safety technology. Their capabilities will departments and agencies to apply for military continue to advance, and further questions vehicles, weapons, and equipment that the and issues will arise, such as the implications Department of Defense no longer wants. of facial recognition technology.11 These are The program also distributes clothing, office 13 policy areas where states and municipalities supplies, and other non-weapon equipment. The nature of these policies depends on the existing laws were originally meant only to can work together to determine the best However, there is little-to-no oversight of the state. Some set minimum requirements, such apply to general police records but have since way to utilize and deploy these technologies program. According to Pew, the program as California’s law prescribing video storage been applied to body camera footage, without and ensure that resident privacy and officer has granted 47 mine-resistant vehicles and time. Their state requires departments to keep an explicit statute specifying this application. conduct accountability are both considered 36 grenade launchers to law enforcement in non-evidentiary data for at least 60 days, Laws in the following four categories were when setting policy. and evidentiary data for at least two years. existing state statutes and/or case law Departments can also elect to keep the data around recordings that apply to body camera for longer. usage and footage: 1) prohibiting audio- only recordings; 2) requiring two-/all-party Other states create preemptive ceilings, consent to record; 3) restricting recordings setting one policy that departments must where privacy is expected; and 4) exempting follow. This would include states within the investigative records from public records “prescribing where, when, and how cameras requests. Fourteen states, as of 2018, rely on can be used” category, whereas states such these previous statutes to regulate police body as New Hampshire specifically require officers cameras and their footage. to start recording when engaged in any law enforcement encounter with civilians. Conversely, 36 states and the District of Columbia have passed laws or have case law Every state has at least one law that applies specific to body cameras and their footage. to body cameras. However, some of these Laws specific to body cameras include:

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regulation to local entities by requiring each law suspect.”16 Most of these reports must be given enforcement agency to adopt their own polices annually or tracked in real time. or guidelines concerning officers’ use of force. Additionally, under Oklahoma law, officers are Limitations on Special Kinds of held to the same criminal penalty for using Use of Force excessive force as civilians would. Seven states—Colorado, Connecticut, Illinois, Nevada, New York, Tennessee, and Utah—and Investigations of Use of Force the District of Columbia regulate or prohibit Fourteen states—Colorado, Connecticut, the use of neck restraints. Some states such as Georgia, Hawaii, Illinois, Maine, Nebraska, Utah held special legislative sessions over the New Jersey, New Hampshire, New York, summer of 2020 to vote on banning knee- Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wisconsin— on-neck chokeholds. States such as California have created procedures to improve the and Washington have issued executive orders transparency and integrity of investigations restricting the use of chokeholds in restraining into officer-involved deaths or allegation of suspects.17 Some states such as Vermont have

police abuse of force. Almost all these states even started to regulate the use of electronic require investigations to take place outside control devices, also known as “tasers”. This Photo by Elsa/Getty Images of the police department. The states of law requires each local department to have a Nebraska and Oregon require that a part of the policy on electronic device use of force that Florida; 16 helicopters to agencies in North similar laws. With the death of George Floyd investigation team be from another agency. was developed by the state Law Enforcement Carolina; and over 1,000 rifles to departments in May 2020, excessive use of force has come Colorado and Illinois mandate that all police Advisory Board.18 in Utah.14 up again in policy making, as his murder was departments in the state have policies on how caused by an officer’s neck restraint. internal investigations are to be conducted These discussions happening at the state level In response to attention to the 1033 program, when an officer discharges a weapon that have considerable implications for localities; states introduced legislation that required Legal Rulings and Statutes causes injury or death (Colorado) or for all thus, it is crucial that city leaders are involved greater transparency and oversight in New The U.S. Supreme Court in 1985 struck down a officer-involved deaths (Illinois). in state-level discussions. Local leaders can Jersey, California, Tennessee, and Montana, Tennessee statute that followed common law communicate the needs of their communities but of these four states, only New Jersey allowing for police officers to “use all necessary Data Collection on Use of Force which should inform decisions being made at successfully passed a bill to increase oversight. means to effect the arrest” of a person fleeing Twelve states—Alabama, California, Colorado, the state level. Local control and guidance over these types of or forcibly resisting arrest.15 The Supreme Connecticut, Illinois, Maryland, New York, purchases by police departments is crucial for Court ruled in 1989 that use-of-force cases can North Carolina, Oregon, Tennessee, Texas, Civil Asset Forfeiture regaining community trust in public safety. be evaluated using an “objective standard of and Virginia—require the collection of data Civil asset forfeiture policies enable law reasonableness” under the Fourth Amendment. for cases when deadly force is used by police. enforcement officials to seize and sell property, These Supreme Court rulings have led most Most of these states require reports and Chokeholds and money or assets from an individual suspected states to codify their use of deadly force for statistics to be tracked and sent to state justice Use of Force of involvement with a crime or illegal activity, law enforcement officers. Some states such as departments, attorneys general offices, or The murder of Eric Garner by police in 2014 regardless of the owner’s guilt or innocence.19 Montana and Michigan do not have statutory similar state executive agencies. The states of brought the use of neck restraints, chokeholds, Civil forfeiture law was intended to target standards that apply to use of deadly force. Oregon, California, and Colorado require law and excessive use of force into question by and defund organized crime of their “working These states then fall under general use- enforcement agencies to report specifically policy makers. The use of chokeholds was capital and their profits” and utilize the sales of of-force provisions and are subject to local on gender, race/ethnicity and, under Colorado already prohibited in the state of New York, but property and proceeds to aid law enforcement departments’ policies and constitutional law. law, on sexual orientation and, “medically since then, several other states have passed agencies against future crimes.20 However, over States like Oklahoma also delegate substantial documented physical or mental ailment of the

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time the policy has evolved into a controversial connected to the crime. In 2015, New Mexico Asset Forfeiture Map legal tactic due to its minimal standards. A was the first state to pass legislation restricting suspected individual does not require a civil forfeiture by abolishing the law; instead, conviction or a criminal charge for the seizure the state solely uses criminal forfeiture in asset and permanent loss of property or assets. As forfeiture proceedings.26 Further, new forfeiture a result, law enforcement agencies may be proceeds are transferred to the state’s general financially incentivized to misuse profits from the fund instead of to law enforcement agencies.27 seizure and sale of property, money, or assets.21 Thirty-two states and the District of Columbia Growing concerns of abuse have garnered allow for the seizure and forfeiture of civil bipartisan support on the need for civil property, money, and assets without a forfeiture reform. While every state has passed criminal conviction requirement. Civil asset some form of legislation to address the seizure forfeiture law varies by state including the Abolished and forfeiture of civil properties and assets, state’s burden of proof for seizing property, Criminal only a select number of states have introduced law enforcement’s reporting requirements Conviction reforms (including criminal conviction (if any such requirement exists), and which Allowed requirements and the abolishment of civil entities have access to forfeiture proceeds.28 forfeiture) to eliminate abuses of the current Cities in these states have addressed minimal asset forfeiture law and provide protections for standards of civil forfeiture law through Source: https://ij.org/activism/legislation/civil-forfeiture-legislative-highlights/ innocent property owners.22,23 local reforms. For example, in the city of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 25,000 individuals g Abolished (3 states): abolished civil have been suspected and affected by the in these states. The burden of proof varies While there are some aspects of civil asset forfeiture laws entirely.24 practice of asset forfeiture. Over 1,200 homes, depending on the value or type of property, forfeiture that have been habitually misused, 3,500 vehicles, and $50 million from residents money, or asset; therefore, not all civil forfeiture it is important to recognize when applied g Allowed (32 states and the District of were confiscated.29 In 2018, the city took proceedings require a criminal conviction lawfully, civil asset forfeiture is an effective tool Columbia): allow for the seizure and steps to reform its controversial civil asset requirement for some states. However, these for law enforcement agencies to weaken drug forfeiture of civil property, money, and forfeiture program by changing which entities states have raised the minimum standards and human trafficking networks, take back assets without a criminal conviction. have access to sales of forfeitures. Monetary within civil forfeiture law by extending ill-gotten gains, and prevent new crimes from 32 g Criminal conviction requirement (15 proceeds received from any forthcoming protections to property owners through a being committed. Government leaders must states): require a criminal conviction or forfeiture programs will be given to local criminal conviction requirement. In 2018, work together to identify areas of local and proof beyond a reasonable doubt to communities to assist with drug prevention Wisconsin changed the state law to require statewide reform within the civil asset forfeiture engage in civil forfeiture proceedings. and treatment programs.30 In addition, the city a criminal conviction for civil asset forfeiture program without preemptions, including the established a $3 million fund to compensate proceedings.31 In addition, the state transferred establishment of appropriate requirements that According to the Institute for Justice, three those affected by the practice. new forfeiture revenues to the state school safeguard individual rights and remove financial 25 states have abolished civil forfeiture entirely. fund instead of to law enforcement agencies. incentives for potential misconduct. Instead, any seizures of properties or assets Fifteen states require a criminal conviction are handled as criminal forfeiture, which or proof beyond a reasonable doubt for civil requires the property owner to be charged and forfeiture proceedings. This is different from convicted in criminal court. Then, the same states that abolished civil forfeiture laws, court must determine if the seized property is as civil forfeiture law still exists and applies

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Roadblocks to

Reimagining Policing as barriers for cities to reimagine policing at reforming policing. According to a study because they stop elected officials from conducted by the Guardian, “police unions in Police Unions These CBAs that combine standard union holding unelected city employees (i.e., police Los Angeles, New York, and Chicago alone negotiations with officer conduct have officers) accountable. spent a combined $87 million over the last As cities and towns across the country grapple 36 put local elected officials in an impossible decade on state and local politics.” Whether with how to reimagine policing, police unions These six core provisions are present across position: mayors may be forced to acquiesce it is endorsing and/or financially supporting consistently act as a barrier to meaningful the U.S. in both cities and states:35 to demands such as reducing or eliminating political candidates or lobbying state and local change. In August 2020, the U.S. Conference use-of-force provisions if their other option governments to dismantle things like civilian of Mayors released a report highlighting g Disqualifying misconduct complaints: (25 is agreeing to pay raises that can’t be review boards or access to police misconduct how police unions are stemming the tides of cities and four states) funded with the city’s available budget. records, police unions hold considerable reform.33 The main way police unions inhibit political power.37 The combination of wage negotiations and g Preventing officers from being effectively reimagining public safety efforts is through conduct guidelines leave many city leaders questioned: (50 cities and 13 states) collective bargaining agreements (CBA). Police Police unions have created a reality in which unable to hold law enforcement officers unions, like other unions across the country, g elected city officials are not able to hold accountable in cases of misconduct. Cities Providing officers under investigation negotiate basic provisions such as salary those sworn to protect and serve accountable and states have both encountered this issue, with information civilians would not get: and benefits, but they also negotiate control when they fall short of that oath. The CBAs providing an opportunity to push back (41 cities and nine states) over internal procedures and processes such and political influence stemming from police together against these powerful institutions.34 as dealing with misconduct allegations and g Limiting disciplinary actions for officers: unions negatively affect both cities and states, (64 cities and seven states) disciplining officers accused of misconduct, Campaign Zero, through their Nix the Six creating an opportunity for municipalities and making it difficult for cities to hold officers states to work together to create a system initiative, has identified six common collective g Requiring municipalities to cover costs accountable. bargaining agreement provisions acting relating to police misconduct: (40 cities whereby reforms are enacted by elected and three states) officials to hold all public servants accountable, including police officers. g Erasure of misconduct records: (43 cities and three states) Police Funding In a study conducted by Campaign Zero, out For the last 50 years, policing funding has of the 81 cities studied, 72 had at least one of remained steady at the local and state level. these barriers in place. These CBA provisions While it is difficult to get a complete picture of are an impediment for cities because they how police departments are funded because block innovations in public safety (such of their numerous funding streams, overall as civilian review boards and independent policing spending has remained just under four investigations), and local leaders elected by percent as a share of state and local direct the community are left out of the process for expenditures from 1977-2017.38 Of the $155 handling issues and complaints. billion spent in 2017 on policing at the state and local level, 86 percent of this was by local Beyond CBAs, police unions also wield governments.39 Two-thirds of this spending is power when it comes to legislation, often used for payroll. blocking local and state legislation aimed

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Besides these intergovernmental revenue Agency, and other agencies.43 The two major sources, other streams of revenue include increases in federal spending for state and things such as punitive policing and fines local government are the Community Oriented and forfeitures that were magnified following Policing Services (COPS) in 1994 and the an investigation into the Ferguson Police Byrne Justice Assistance (JAG) Grants in 1988. Department after the murder of Michael Brown However, over time these two programs have by police officers in 2014.40 These streams lost funding. The COPS program received of revenue add additional complexity to over a billion dollars in its first four years understanding how police departments operate. of funding.44 Since 2011, funding for COPS grants has remained below 500 million.45 JAG Federal law enforcement spending meanwhile funding, while remaining more consistent has increased throughout the decades. As in top-line appropriations, has not seen an a share of GDP, federal police spending has increase with inflation and has seen more of increased from 0.05 percent in the 1980s, its budget set-aside for specific congressional President-elect Biden has called for increasing g The Department of Defense 1033 program on average, to 0.26 percent over the past purposes. In 2020, the JAG grant saw 36 federal spending on law enforcement (which has increased the militarization decade.41 This increase was 354 percent faster percent of its top-line appropriation set- programs. of the police) has transferred $7.4 billion than both local and state spending combined 46 aside. From 2007-2011, the amount set aside of military property to over 8,000 law between 1982 and 2015.42 Most of this law 47 was less than four percent. These and the Federal grants impacting the local level include enforcement agencies.49 enforcement spending has gone to federal other federal programs below can continue to the following:48 enforcement arms such as the FBI, Customs be a net positive for local governments, as they g The Equitable Sharing Program allows and Border Protection, the Drug Enforcement offer much needed resources and expertise. g The Community Oriented Policing local police departments to seize property Services Program (COPS Program) was associated with federal crimes and enacted as part of the 1994 Crime Bill. receive up to 80 percent of the proceeds. Since its passage, the COPS program has Since the start of the Equitable Sharing provided $14 billion to hire and train local Program in 1984, over $5 billion has been Police Spending by Level of Government 50 police in community policing. distributed to local governments. Spending as share of direct general expenditures, 2017 g The Edward Byrne Memorial Justice As federal and state funding continues to feed Assistance Grant has largely created into local policing budgets, advocating for 0% 5% 10% 15% funding for joint task forces, most notably more local accountability and more targeted approaches is key. Justice reform at the state State multijurisdictional drug enforcement task forces. There was $264 million available and local level can also play a role in changing Municipal for fiscal year 2019. the cost of policing. A total of $47 billion from state and federal expenditures can be saved County g The Preparedness Grant Program has by ending the prosecution of drug-related Township nearly $1.8 billion for communities. offenses (these constituted 20 percent of arrests in 2018).51 Local governments need g Rural Development Community Facility to think about the various revenue streams grant program under the Department feeding into their local police departments and Source: U.S. Census Bureau’s Annual Survey of State and Local Government Finances, 2017. of Agriculture helps towns under 5,000 think critically about how the funds they utilize Note: Graph from https://www.urban.org/urban-wire/what-police-spending-data-can-and- in population construct new facilities or cannot-explain-amid-calls-defund-police affect how policing is conducted. purchase new equipment.

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Innovations in Policing

Civilian Oversight Boards 80 percent of civilian review boards are at the city level while the remainder oversee county One mechanism that cities, towns and or sheriff departments.54 counties utilize to hold police accountable is the establishment of civilian oversight boards According to NACOLE, across the civilian CASE STUDY: TEXAS (also known as citizen oversight, civilian review, review boards in the U.S., there are five key Cities in Texas provide an interesting look at The Austin civilian review board has the most external review, or citizen review boards). goals that tend to emerge: 1) improving public the diverse forms that civilian review boards power. The board does not report to the police These boards focus on providing community trust, 2) ensuring the complaint process is can take and provide lessons learned for other or include officers on the board, so it remains input into the operations, conduct, and accessible, 3) establishing or safeguarding cities or counties looking to implement similar independent. The board hears cases and

complaint processes of the local police force. thorough and fair investigations, 4) increasing oversight structures. makes a recommendation to the police chief. transparency, and 5) serving as a deterrent If the board feels the police chief didn’t follow Generally, these boards follow one of three for police misconduct. In order to achieve In San Antonio, there is a 14-person review their recommendations, they can appeal to oversight models: 1) monitor and audit, these goals however, the civilian review boards board made up of 50 percent civilians and 50 the city attorney, allowing even for oversight 2) investigate, or 3) review and handle need to have the authority to make changes percent sworn officers who are responsible for on the police chief that doesn’t exist in other complaints. It is very rare for these boards and their decisions need to be influential. making a recommendation to the police chief civilian review boards.59 to take part in the discipline of officers. The Challenges from state preemption and police on matters of police misconduct. The board is monitor and audit model focuses on larger unions threaten even the strongest review given access to the supporting information and In Galveston, the civilian review board is tasked patterns of police misconduct and behavior boards, so state and local partnerships are the officers in question in order to come to a with overseeing investigations on five core rather than on specific incidents or concerns. crucial to protecting the future of these consensus and make their recommendation. areas of concern: 1) excessive use of force, 2) The investigation model utilizes trained community organizations and building public The final say in the matter remains with the official oppression, 3) discharge of a firearm, civilians to conduct independent investigations 58 trust.55 police chief. In Dallas, the civilian review 4) serious bodily injury, or 5) another area on claims of police misconduct. Finally, the board has a similar structure but has slightly as identified and requested by the chief of review-focused model consists of a board of While in places like Austin, Texas civilian review more power than in San Antonio. The board police.60 In Galveston, as in San Antonio, the community members who are responsible for boards continue to grow, there are also places can hire external investigators, hear sworn board makes a recommendation to the chief overseeing internal police investigations and where there has been considerable setback. testimony, and even subpoena witnesses. of police, who has the final say. There is no making suggestions for changes to operations For example, in August 2020, the New Jersey recourse for appeal as in Austin. 52 and internal review processes. Supreme Court struck down key provisions in Newark, New Jersey’s 2016 ordinance that As of this publication, there are 144 civilian created a civilian review board.56 In this case, oversight boards in the U.S. and there are only the police union, Fraternal Order of Police, four states—Alabama, North Dakota, South fought to block the city’s effort to create Dakota, and Mississippi—that have no civilian civilian oversight over local police conduct.57 oversight bodies.53 The National Association This is an area where cities and states can work for Civilian Oversight of Law Enforcement together to ensure resident voices are heard (NACOLE) currently follows civilian oversight when it comes to public safety and policing in boards in 111 cities across 38 states. A little over their communities.

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Community Policing and about, while gaining the trust and support of Cities, such as Indianapolis, Indiana, have specially trained unit to serve as a mental government resources, residents, the media, pioneered a potential solution for an health resource for officers, community Alternative Responses and local businesses. This approach also emergency response to the opioid crisis by members, and health care providers. The MHST’s Community policing dates back to the start looks different for every municipality, as it creating a Mobile Crisis Assistance Team. The co-responder program, which started in 2017, of the 20th century, first uplifted by the incorporates community input to determine team is composed of an emergency medical pairs an MHST officer with a licensed mental conservative Peelian U.K. government and what the role of police officers should be. provider, a licensed mental health professional, health clinician. The pair ride together, allowing then popularized in the U.S. under the Johnson and a police officer. This team is intended to for rapid dispatch of both services. The teams Administration, before being institutionalized The major criticism of community policing help deescalate situations and lower arrest rates, wear civilian clothes and drive unmarked cars by the 1994 Crime bill through the Office today is that this solution-orientated approach as part of the city’s larger efforts to reform the to help proactively defuse situations. of Community Oriented Policing Services, to policing has gone outside of the original criminal justice system. These new response an office inside the Department of Justice. intent or scope, resulting in too full a plate methods to mediate issues beyond traditional Creating units such as a Mobile Crisis Community policing differs from traditional for officers who are not properly trained law enforcement tactics means residents are Assistance Team and Mental Health Support policing in a few ways. Traditional policing to problem-solve such issues. For example, better served and law enforcement remain Team are examples of how local governments focuses on swift incident response, clearing officers are effectively being asked to manage within the bounds their training provides, can play a key role in shaping new outcomes up emergencies as quickly as possible, the opioid crisis in America. Police officers are leading to better community outcomes. for community policing. While local and protecting citizens from criminals neither health experts nor social care workers governments are limited in what they can do often through whatever means necessary. or mental health experts, and yet are being The NLC and Policy Research report, once someone is in the criminal justice system, Community policing meanwhile focuses expected to fill these roles in emergency Responding to Individuals in Behavior Health they can influence what happens before that. on assisting the public in establishing and situations.61 They are the enforcers of the law Crisis Via Co-Responder Models: The Roles The fundamental philosophy of community maintaining an orderly environment by solving as it stands and is written. of Cities, Counties, Law Enforcement, and will likely remain popular and a viable tool for crimes that the community is concerned Providers, looks at how local governments maintaining public safety and dealing with across the country are adopting the co- crimes, but the creation of additional roles for responder model to improve how first officers should be re-examined. Lines will need responder departments engage with people to be drawn by municipalities about what role COMMUNITY POLICING experiencing behavioral health crises. One and capacity officers are to have, given their The Department of Justice defines community policing as “philosophy that example of this is how the Pima County law enforcement powers. promotes organizational strategies that support the systemic use of partnerships Sheriff’s Office and the Tucson Police and problem-solving techniques to proactively address the immediate Department’s Mental Health Support Team A return to the initial intent of community conditions that give rise to public safety issues such as crime, social disorder, (MHST) in Arizona were established as a policing is one direction to go—one where and fear of crime.”68

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trust with officers is high with the community, and liaises with other units. For the 2014-2015 external interfacing is common, and criminal year, there were 5,647 armed officers amongst activity is proactively addressed. Another the 14,666 police operations in England and would be to return to a more traditional Wales.62 role of policing where officers are removed largely from patrolling, only responding to Each municipality will have to work with its emergencies or when arrest and conviction are residents and police officers to find the right certain. innovative solution for their community. The expansion of response teams to include a Lastly, an idea that has gained popularity variety of trained professionals as a form of because of the Black Lives Matter movement is community policing is gaining popular support CASE STUDIES: the unarmed community response unit, meant and alleviating a burden on police officers, ALBUQUERQUE, NEW MEXICO AND EUGENE, OREGON to problem-solve issues that require little or no allowing them to focus their attention on the law enforcement powers. The U.K. has done issues they were trained to address. This will Cities, towns, and villages are reimagining which will deploy social workers, housing something like this by creating distinctions require both policy changes and additional public safety through alternative policing and homelessness specialists, and violence between sworn persons and non-sworn resources from the state level to aid these models and reforms to improve relations with prevention coordinators to respond to persons. The U.K. has also created a special efforts. State governments can best serve the community. The city of Albuquerque, calls related to inebriation, drug addiction, 65 firearms unit because most British police these reimagining efforts by creating resources New Mexico has introduced new approaches homelessness, and mental health. officers do not carry firearms on standard for pilot programs at the local level, allowing to policing by reforming its local police Similarly, the city of Eugene, Oregon addressed patrol. The city of London, for example, has for experimentation before institutionalizing department and gaining the trust of the growing concerns of mental health and the Specialist Firearms Command unit where these efforts in the long term. the community. Through the creation of substance addiction in the community through each armed vehicle operates with three the Community Police Council (which is the nonprofit mobile crisis intervention officers: a driver, a navigator, and an observer comprised of members from the community program called Crisis Assistance Helping who gathers information about the incident independent of the city and the police department), the council aims to “engage Out on the Streets. In collaboration with in candid, detailed and meaningful dialogue the police department, the city responds to between Albuquerque Police and the citizens non-emergency calls by dispatching social they serve.”63 The council identifies issues, workers instead of officers. This model relies successes, and opportunities for improvement on “trauma-informed de-escalation and harm by making recommendations on policies and reduction, which reduces calls to police, procedures within the city’s police department. averts harmful arrest-release repeat cycles, Other community policing efforts include and prevents violent police encounters.”66 partnerships with community organizations Furthermore, in 2017, the program responded to increase community engagement and to 17 percent of overall call volume and saved outreach by creating an internal database of the city on average more than $8 million.67 This services—such as drug abuse counseling and program, considered the longest-running in free meals for the homeless—for officers to the U.S., has inspired similar programs in other share with community members.64 cities including the Denver Alliance for Street Health Response in Colorado and the Mobile Recently, Mayor Tim Keller announced the Assistance Community Responders of Oakland formation of a new public safety department in California. called Albuquerque Community Safety

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Conclusion

eimagining policing is a complex and g Collaboration: Reimagining policing multi-faceted topic. Local and state requires a multi-jurisdiction approach. R leaders across the country are stepping up Working across cities, counties, and policing reform and public safety more states have hurt both levels of government. to address resident concerns and making even states is important when it comes broadly. Local elected officials are thinking Federal preemption, interference, and changes to strengthen their communities. to public safety. Sharing best practices, about not only how to reimagine policing in mandates have similarly eclipsed the ability of As these changes are taking place, there problem solving, combining resources, and their communities but also how to grapple both city and state officials to do their jobs. are a few key considerations local leaders working together is important to creating with the fear of preemptive action from state The need for responders who can effectively should keep in mind: effective change. and federal governments. Policing is a topic deal with calls involving mental health that highlights how important city and state situations are jointly needed and wanted. g g Community input: Continuing Partnership: It is clear that for many cities cooperation is: without true partnership on communication with residents, providing and states, reimagining public safety this issue, communities will be left without Residents across the country have told their platforms for all voices to be heard, and means bringing trained professionals into the changes they need. Local leaders are in a state and city leaders what changes they incorporating resident feedback into the fold and changing the way emergency unique position of understanding their city’s want to see. With the combined forces of policy planning is crucial for community response is operated. These partnerships specific issues and needs and state leaders local elected leaders’ knowledge and state buy-in and effectiveness. with social workers, mental health have resources that can help localities bring resources, there is real potential for positive professionals, housing and homelessness solutions and change to fruition. change in communities across the country. g Iterative change: Many cities are trying experts, and many others is imperative to new approaches and pioneering new success. Reimagining policing is also a unique topic programs and policies. Creating flexible where cities and states are naturally aligned on policy that allows for real-time resident Ahead of the 2021 state legislative sessions, a number of issues. The unbridled power that feedback and iteration is crucial to finding state and local elected officials are expecting police unions have wielded against cities and long-term solutions. both discussions and legislative action around

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Additional Resources Endnotes

1 12 • Responding to Individuals in Behavioral Health Crisis Via Co-responder Burch, A. S., et al. (2020, June 13). How Black Lives McHarris, P. (2020, May 28). Perspective: Why does Matter Reached Every Corner of America. The New the Minneapolis police department look like a military Models: The Role of Cities, Counties, Law Enforcement, and Providers. York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes. unit? Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost. com/interactive/2020/06/13/us/george-floyd- com/outlook/2020/05/28/explaining-militarized- • Defund the Police is a Bad Slogan, but Some Aspects Are Worth Considering protests-cities-photos.html police-response-protesters-after-killing-george-floyd/ 2 Anthony, C. (2020, September 18). Engaging Leaders 13 Grovum, J. (2015, March). Can States Slow the Flow of • Community Policing Rightly Understood Voices: New Visions of Public Safety. National Military Equipment to Police? Retrieved from https:// League of Cities. Retrieved from https://www.nlc.org/ www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/ article/2020/09/18/ engaging-leaders-voices-new- stateline/2015/3/24/can-states-slow-the-flow-of- visions-of-public-safety/ military-equipment-to-police

3 Lewis, R., et al. (2020, October). Is Police Misconduct 14 Ibid. a Secret in Your State? WNYC 93. Retrieved from https://www.wnyc.org/story/police-misconduct- 15 Law Enforcement Overview. (2020). National records/ Conference of State Legislatures. Retrieved from https://www.ncsl.org/research/civil-and-criminal- 4 Ibid. justice/law-enforcement.aspx

5 Moynihan, E., et. al. (2020, June 12). Cuomo signs 16 Ibid. historic 50-a repeal bill, making N.Y. police disciplinary records public after decades of secrecy. Daily News. 17 Kaur, H., & Mack, J. (2020, June 16). The cities, Retrieved from https://www.nydailynews.com/ states and counties finally putting an end to police news/politics/ny-cuomo-police-reform-disciplinary- neck restraints. CNN. Retrieved from https://www. records-20200612-5zryohkuwjew7ksjowhtswmsk4- cnn.com/2020/06/10/world/police-policies-neck- story.html?utm_medium=notification&utm_ restraints-trnd/index.html source=onesignal 18 Law Enforcement Overview. (2020). National 6 Ibid. Conference of State Legislatures. Retrieved from https://www.ncsl.org/research/civil-and-criminal- 7 Van Ness, L. (2020, January 14). Body Cameras May justice/law-enforcement.aspx Not be the Easy Answer Everyone Was Looking For. The Pew Charitable Trusts. Retrieved from https:// 19 Freivogel, W. (2019, February 18). No drugs, No Crime www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/ and Just Pennies for School: How Police Use Civil stateline/2020/01/14/body-cameras-may-not-be-the- Asset Forfeiture. Pulitzer Center for Crisis Reporting. easy-answer-everyone-was-looking-for Retrieved from https://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/ no-drugs-no-crime-and-just-pennies-school-how- 8 Body-Worn Camera Laws Database. (2018, February). police-use-civil-asset-forfeiture National Conference of State Legislatures. Retrieved from https://www.ncsl.org/research/civil-and-criminal- 20 History of Asset Forfeiture. (n.d.). State of Hawaii justice/body-worn-cameras-interactive-graphic. Criminal Justice Division. Retrieved from http:// aspx#/ ag.hawaii.gov/cjd/history-of-asset-forfeiture/

9 Police Body-Worn Camera Legislation Tracker. (2018, 21 What is Civil Forfeiture? (n.d.). Institute for Justice. October). The Urban Institute. Retrieved form https:// Retrieved from https://endforfeiture.com/what-is-civil- apps.urban.org/features/body-camera-update/ forfeiture/

10 Van Ness, L. (2020, January 14). Body Cameras May 22 State Trends in Law Enforcement Legislation: 2014- Not be the Easy Answer Everyone Was Looking For. 2017. (2018, September). National Conference of State The Pew Charitable Trusts. Retrieved from https:// Legislatures. Retrieved from https://www.ncsl.org/ www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/ research/civil-and-criminal-justice/state-trends-in-law- stateline/2020/01/14/body-cameras-may-not-be-the- enforcement-legislation-2014-2017.aspx easy-answer-everyone-was-looking-for 23 Civil Forfeiture Reforms on the State Level. (n.d.). 11 Erondu, N. (2018, October 26). Five trends in police Institute for Justice. Retrieved from https://ij.org/ body camera legislation. The Urban Institute. activism/legislation/civil-forfeiture-legislative- Retrieved from https://www.urban.org/urban-wire/ highlights/#:~:text=Today%2C%20three%20 five-trends-police-body-camera-legislation states%E2%80%94North%20Carolina,criminal%20 law%20to%20forfeit%20property

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24 Despite abolishment of civil forfeiture law, states and uploads/2020/07/Levin-Whats_Wrong_with_Police_ 49 Barrett, B. (2020, June 6). The Pentagon’s Hand- http://opioidaction.wpengine.com/wp-content/ localities have found loopholes such as the federal Unions.pdf Me-Downs Helped Militarize Police. Here’s How. uploads/2018/03/NLC_OPIODS_bckgrndr_ equitable sharing program. Under the recently Wired. Retrieved from https://www.wired.com/story/ FINAL_032618_r2.pdf expanded federal law, local and state law enforcement 35 McKesson, D. et al. (2016, June 29). Police Union pentagon-hand-me-downs-militarize-police-1033- officials can work with federal agencies and receive Contracts and Police Bill of Rights Analysis. Campaign program/ 62 Police use of firearms statistics, England and Wales: up to 80 percent of amount seized in civil asset Zero. Retrieved from https://static1.squarespace. April 2014 to March 2015. (2016). Retrieved from forfeiture cases. com/static/559fbf2be4b08ef197467542/t/5 50 Emshwiller, J., & Fields, G. (2011, August 22). County https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/ 773f695f7e0abbdfe28a1f0/1467217560243/ Sheriff Enjoy Fruits of Forfeitures. The Wall Street police-use-of-firearms-statistics-england-and-wales- 25 Civil Forfeiture Reforms on the State Level. (n.d.). Campaign+Zero+Police+Union+Contract+Report.pdf Journal. Retrieved from https://www.wsj.com/articles/ financial-year-ending-31-march-2015/police-use-of- Institute for Justice. Retrieved from https://ij.org/ SB10001424053111903596904576514583716653122 firearms-statistics-england-and-wales-april-2014-to- activism/legislation/civil-forfeiture-legislative- 36 DiSalvo, D. (2020, September). The Trouble march-2015 highlights/#:~:text=Today%2C%20three%20 with Police Unions. Retrieved from https://www. 51 Miron, J., & Partin, E. (2020, July 18). Reduce Spending states%E2%80%94North%20Carolina,criminal%20 nationalaffairs.com/publications/detail/the-trouble- on Police by Limiting What They Must Enforce. 63 Community Policing Council. (n.d.). City of law%20to%20forfeit%20property with-police-unions Cato Institute. Retrieved from https://www.cato.org/ Albuquerque. Retrieved from https://www.cabq.gov/ publications/commentary/reduce-spending-police- police/community-policing-council 26 Cary, N., & Ellis, M. (2020, January 17). 5 states 37 Ibid. limiting-what-they-must-enforce that reformed civil forfeiture laws – and one 64 Willham, T.J. (2019, July 16). Take the Test: Is that didn’t. Greenville News. Retrieved from 38 Auxier, R. C. (2020, June 9). What Police Spending 52 Ajilore, O. (2018, June 25). How Civilian Review Boards Albuquerque doing community policing and is it https://www.greenvilleonline.com/in-depth/ Data Can (and Cannot) Explain amid Calls to Defund Can Further Police Accountability and Improve the answer? KDAT Action News. Retrieved from news/taken/2019/02/12/civil-forfeiture- the Police. Urban Institute. Retrieved from https:// Community Relations. Scholars Strategy Network. https://www.koat.com/article/take-the-test-is- reforms-new-mexico-north-carolina-wisconsin- www.urban.org/urban-wire/what-police-spending- Retrieved from https://scholars.org/brief/how-civilian- albuquerque-doing-community-policing-and-is-it-the- massachusetts/2458072002/ data-can-and-cannot-explain-amid-calls-defund- review-boards-can-further-police-accountability-and- answer/26580189 police improve-community-relations 27 Ibid. 65 Ramsey, A. R., & Kornfield, M. (2020, June 15). 39 Ibid. 53 DiAngelis, J., Rosenthal, R., & Buchner, B. (2016, Amid calls to defund police, Albuquerque creates 28 Asset Forfeiture Laws by State. (2019, February). September). Civilian Oversight of Law Enforcement: an alternative department. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://criminal.findlaw.com/criminal- 40 Gordon, T., & Gault, S. (2015, April 8). Ferguson City Assessing the Evidence. Retrieved from https:// Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/ rights/asset-forfeiture-laws-by-state.html Finances: not the new normal. The Urban Institute. d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/nacole/pages/161/ nation/2020/06/15/wake-calls-defund-police- Retrieved from https://www.urban.org/urban-wire/ attachments/original/1481727974/NACOLE_ albuquerque-creates-an-alternative-department/ 29 Hunter, B. (2018, December 12). Philadelphia’s ferguson-city-finances-not-new-normal AccessingtheEvidence_Final.pdf?1481727974 Perverse Civil Asset Forfeiture Machine Has Finally 66 Smith, A. V. (2020, June 11). There’s already an Come to An End. Foundation for Economic Education. 41 Edwards, C. (2020, June 8). Police Spending Soars at 54 Ibid. alternative to calling the police. High Country News. Retrieved from https://fee.org/articles/philadelphias- the Federal Level. CATO. Retrieved from https://www. Retrieved from https://www.hcn.org/issues/52.7/ perverse-civil-asset-forfeiture-machine-has-finally- cato.org/blog/police-spending-soars-federal-level 55 Hopkins, J. S., & Villanueva, K. (2020, June 11). The public-health-theres-already-an-alternative-to-calling- come-to-an-end/ Long Battle for Civilian Oversight of the Police. The the-police#:~:text=CAHOOTS%20%E2%80%94%20 42 Lee, N. (2020, June 25). Here’s How Two Federal Center for Public Integrity. Retrieved from https:// a%20free%2C%2024%2F,%2D19%2Drelated%20 30 Ibid. Programs Helped Expand Policing Funding by Over publicintegrity.org/inequality-poverty-opportunity/ budget%20cuts 200% since 1980. CNBC. Retrieved from https:// the-long-battle-for-civilian-oversight-of-the-police/ 31 Cary, N., & Ellis, M. (2020, January 17). 5 states www.cnbc.com/2020/06/25/two-federal-programs- 67 Ibid. that reformed civil forfeiture laws – and one helped-expand-police-funding-by-over-200percent. 56 Shearn, I. T. (2020, August 20). State Supreme Court that didn’t. Greenville News. Retrieved from html Limits Powers of Newark’s Civilian Review Board. 68 Community Policing Defined. (n.d.). U.S. Department https://www.greenvilleonline.com/in-depth/ NJ Spotlight News. Retrieved from https://www. of Justice. Retrieved from https://cops.usdoj.gov/RIC/ news/taken/2019/02/12/civil-forfeiture- 43 Edwards, C. (2020, June 8). Police Spending Soars at njspotlight.com/2020/08/civilian-review-board- Publications/cops-p157-pub.pdf reforms-new-mexico-north-carolina-wisconsin- the Federal Level. CATO. Retrieved from https://www. newark-subpoena-power-nj-supreme-court-police- massachusetts/2458072002/ cato.org/blog/police-spending-soars-federal-level unions/

32 Freivogel, W. (2019, February 18). No Drugs, No 44 Congressional Research Service. (2019). Community 57 Ibid. Crimes and Just Pennies for School: How Police Oriented Policing Services (COPS) Program. Retrieved Uses Civil Asset Forfeiture. Pulitzer Center on Crisis from https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/IF10922.pdf 58 Blain, C. (2016, September 29). Civilian Oversight Reporting. Retrieved from https://pulitzercenter. Boards in Texas. Restore Justice. Retrieved from 45 org/reporting/no-drugs-no-crime-and-just-pennies- Ibid. http://www.restorejusticetx.com/civilian-oversight- school-how-police-use-civil-asset-forfeiture boards-in-texas/ 46 Congressional Research Service. (2020). The Edward 33 Trotta, D. (2020, August 13). U.S. mayors identify Byrne Memorial Justice Assistance Grant (JAG) 59 Ibid. police unions as an obstacle to reform. Reuters. Program. Retrieved from https://crsreports.congress. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/article/us- gov/product/pdf/IF/IF10691 60 Civilian Review Board. (n.d.). Retrieved from global-race-usa-police/u-s-mayors-identify-police- https://library.municode.com/tx/galveston/codes/ 47 unions-as-an-obstacle-to-reform-idUSKCN2592N1 Ibid. code_of_ordinances?nodeId=PTIICOCI_CH2AD_ ARTIVBOCOCO_DIV7CIREBO 48 34 Levin, B. (2020). What’s Wrong With Police Naylor, B. (2020, June 9). How Federal Dollars Fund Unions? Columbia Law Review, 120, 1333. Retrieved Local Police. NPR. Retrieved from https://www.npr. 61 Horton, K. B., et al. (2018). Opioid Use Disorder: from https://columbialawreview.org/wp-content/ org/2020/06/09/872387351/how-federal-dollars- City Actions and Opportunities to Address the fund-local-police Epidemic. National League of Cities. Retrieved from

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