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Ambivalent Remains China and the Russian Cemeteries in Harbin, Dalian and Lüshun

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Ambivalent Remains China and the Russian Cemeteries in Harbin, Dalian and Lüshun Ambivalent remains China and the Russian cemeteries in Harbin, Dalian and Lüshun Gotelind Müller Ambivalent remains China and the Russian cemeteries in Harbin, Dalian and Lüshun Gotelind Müller About the author Prof. Dr. Gotelind Müller-Saini is professor of Sinology at the Institute of Chinese Studies, University of Heidelberg. Her research interests are modern Chinese history and Sino- Japanese-Western cultural exchange. Published at CrossAsia-Repository, Heidelberg University Library 2019 This book is published under the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-Non Derivative 4.0 International (CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0). The electronic Open Access version of this work is permanently available on CrossAsia- Repository: http://crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/ urn: urn=urn:nbn:de:bsz:16-crossasiarep-41810 url: http://crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/4181 doi: http://doi.org/10.11588/xarep.00004181 Text and illustrations Gotelind Müller-Saini 2019 ISBN 978-3-946742-63-0 (PDF) Ambivalent Remains: China and the Russian cemeteries in Harbin, Dalian and Lüshun Introduction1 One of the visible legacies of Russia in China which reflect the ambivalence of the relationship in own ways, are cemeteries. While the most well-known of “foreigners’ cemeteries” in China today is in Shanghai, “hosting” mostly dead from the Western hemisphere in its present form and being conveniently located in the inner-city “Song Qingling Memorial Park” where it is integrated with the tombs of “famous Chinese” to flank the central figure of Song Qingling 宋庆 龄 (Madame Sun Yat-sen) and her parents,2 the largest extant “foreigners’ cemetery” in China is Russian and in Manchuria:3 the so-called “Soviet Martyrs’ Cemetery” in Lüshun 旅顺, formerly known in the West as “Port Arthur” (and now part of Dalian 大连 municipality). Notably, this cemetery is today part of Chinese patriotic education programs to honor the “martyrs” who died for the “liberation of China” from the Japanese in 1945, thus assigning to these foreigners a role in Chinese self-definition. De facto, this cemetery, though, not only “hosts” “Soviet Martyrs” (be it of the so-called “August Storm” of 1945,4 be it of the Korean War 1950-1953), but also the remains of people linked to tsarist times, most prominently to the Russo-Japanese War of 1904/05, which in Chinese eyes was a war fought between two foreign imperialists on Chinese (and Korean) soil.5 Thus, these dead stand for imperial Russia’s “aggression” in China, and their memorialization is anathema to the Chinese. This way, the cemetery, together with two further ones in the Dalian area where the Soviet Union held extraordinary rights after WW II well into the PRC (People’s Republic of China) times, embodies the tension and ambivalence surrounding Russian historical legacy in China. 1 I would like to thank my colleagues of the German-Russian project on “Chinese Perceptions of Russia and the West during the 20th century” for help with various details. For the financing of the necessary fieldwork, I am grateful to the DFG. A special thanks is due to my research assistant Anastasiia Dmitrenko. Several Chinese and Russian colleagues also helped with access to the cemeteries or to some materials. 2 See my previous study: Gotelind Müller: Between History, Heritage and Foreign Relations: Extant Westerners’ Cemeteries in Guangzhou and Shanghai, Heidelberg: CrossAsia-Repository 2018(a), pp. 13-31. Available online: DOI: https://doi.org/10.11588/xarep.00004163. Of the once substantial group of Russians in Shanghai, only few still appear in the “foreigners’ cemetery” in the “Song Qingling Memorial Park”. Cf. those individuated by Viktoriya Sharonova: Nekropol’ russkogo Shankhaiya (Necropolis of Russian Shanghai), Moscow: Staraya Basmannaya 2013, pp. XXXII-XXXVI . 3 The discussion of the appropriateness of the term “Manchuria” for the area which in China today is called “the Northeast” will not be repeated here: suffice it to say that I will keep the term here because it suggests a special characteristic of the area which has been under the influence of Russia (and Japan) in modern times that will concern us here. 4 On the “August Storm” from the Soviet side of things, see David M. Glantz: Soviet Operational and Tactical Combat in Manchuria, 1945: “August Storm”, London and Portland: Frank Cass 2003. 5 For various Chinese perspectives on the Russo-Japanese War at the time of the war itself, see Gotelind Müller: "Chinesische Perspektiven auf den Russisch-Japanischen Krieg" (Chinese Perspectives on the Russo-Japanese War) in: Sprotte, Maik / Seifert, Wolfgang / Löwe, Heinz-Dietrich (eds.): Der Russisch-Japanische Krieg 1904/05: Anbruch einer neuen Zeit? (The Russo-Japanese War 1904/05: Dawn of a New Era?), Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz 2007, pp. 203-239. English version: Chinese Perspectives on the Russo-Japanese War, Heidelberg: Heidelberg University Library 2013. Available online: DOI: 10.11588/heidok.00015406. 1 Ambivalent Remains: China and the Russian cemeteries in Harbin, Dalian and Lüshun While Lüshun and Dalian mark the southern end of the railway the Russians once built through Manchuria to connect to their East-West-linking Trans-Siberian Railway, at the northern nodal point in Manchuria, Harbin (Haerbin 哈尔滨), 6 Chinese perceived ambivalence of Russian legacy is further augmented due to the particularly strong influence of Russian (“White”) émigré culture in the interwar years there. In fact, to those opposing and fleeing the Soviets, Harbin was usually the first choice in the Far East. Still, not all “Russians” in the city belonged to this group, which means that Harbin hosted a mix of different political and religious outlooks. This, too, is reflected in the cemeteries where, in fact, three are extant today: one Orthodox, one Jewish, and an extra one for the Soviets since 1945, the smallest of the three here. Harbin, too, provides a “superlative” in claiming the “largest Jewish cemetery of East Asia”, most of the dead being, again, Russian. While many Jews were present in China also elsewhere, most notably in Shanghai, only Harbin has kept a large cemetery which is nowadays playing an important role in Sino-Israeli relations,7 while the Orthodox and the Soviet cemetery involve, above all,8 Sino- Russian relations. Thus, the cases presented below reflect the multi-facetted influence of Russia in China: between early Tsarists, later “Whites” and Soviets in terms of politics, and Russian Orthodox and Jews in terms of religion. Furthermore, the “Japanese factor” for much of the time before the PRC was established, cannot be totally ignored either. Seen from the Chinese side, finally, the dealing with the remains involved the issues of imperialism, colonialism, revolution and heritage in both their domestic and international-diplomatic dimensions. For contextualization, it should be pointed out that the cases addressed here, Harbin, Dalian (including Jinzhou 金州) and Lüshun, cannot claim to be the only Russian cemeteries in China still extant, though these are typically concentrated in Manchuria and along the railway line, making Manchuria the most pertinent area for the topic. Apart from some tombs connected to Soviet help to China in the early Anti-Japanese War (1937-1945) in the larger Yangzi region, typically by aviators Stalin had sent to Guomindang 国民党 (National Party)-governed China, there are some places closer to the border in Xinjiang and Mongolia (of which the “inner” part is PRC territory today) with casualties of 1945, i.e. the very last days of WW II. At some places in “China proper” like Beijing, Tianjin, Qingdao, Wuhan and Shanghai where Russians had settled in greater numbers since the late 19th century over a somewhat longer period of time, the Russian cemeteries have, however, disappeared (as have most of the one-time “foreigners’” cemeteries in China). In all of China and in Manchuria in particular, apart from civilian dead at the places of Russian residential presence, the military was a very sizable group of those buried. 6 I follow the most widely used form of transcribing the city as “Harbin” in English instead of Chinese “Haerbin” (or the romanized Russian “Kharbin”). 7 For Shanghai, where several single Jewish tombstones of the once large Jewish cemeteries have been found but only a memorial to the Jewish presence has been set up in the new Chinese Fushouyuan 福寿园 Cemetery, cf. the brief comments in Müller (2018a), pp. 31-32. 8 It should be kept in mind that the break-up of the Soviet Union means that today more countries are de facto involved, though Russia, of course, dominates. 2 Ambivalent Remains: China and the Russian cemeteries in Harbin, Dalian and Lüshun Major conflicts involved the Boxer Uprising (1900/1901) which spread from Northern China also into Manchuria, and then, most importantly, the Russo-Japanese War (1904/05) which affected, again, mainly the southern part of Manchuria (and neighboring Korea). Still, since the railway was the main South-North link through Manchuria and back to Russia, wounded and dead were often transferred to major nodal points and thus were also “centrally buried”. This was helped by the fact that the railway zone, i.e. a strip of land along the railway, was leased to the Russians by the Qing since 1898 to ward off Japanese influence, where the Russians could freely decide on the land usage, although the Russians lost the southern part of that leased territory soon to the Japanese due to their defeat in the Russo-Japanese War. After the traumatic Russo-Japanese War and the troubled times of the 1905 Russian Revolution, the Tsar ordered a first survey of Russian military tombs and cemeteries in Manchuria to be made, and in 1912 had several large crosses built to commemorate those soldiers that had lost their lives for “faith, Tsar and fatherland”.
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