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M U , C. COPYRIGHT This Is a Thesis Accepted for a Higher Degree of the University of London REFERENCE ONLY UNIVERSITY OF LONDON THESIS Degree Year Name of Author ?up Zoo i M u , c. COPYRIGHT This is a thesis accepted for a Higher Degree of the University of London. It is an unpublished typescript and the copyright is held by the author. All persons consulting the thesis must read and abide by the Copyright Declaration below. COPYRIGHT DECLARATION I recognise that the copyright of the above-described thesis rests with the author and that no quotation from it or information derived from it may be published without the prior written consent of the author. LOANS Theses may not be lent to individuals, but the Senate House Library may lend a copy to approved libraries within the United Kingdom, for consultation solely on the premises of those libraries. Application should be made to: Inter-Library Loans, Senate House Library, Senate House, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HU. REPRODUCTION University of London theses may not be reproduced without explicit written permission from the Senate House Library. Enquiries should be addressed to the Theses Section of the Library. Regulations concerning reproduction vary according to the date of acceptance of the thesis and are listed below as guidelines. A. Before 1962. Permission granted only upon the prior written consent of the author. (The Senate House Library will provide addresses where possible). B. 1962- 1974. In many cases the author has agreed to permit copying upon completion of a Copyright Declaration. C. 1975 - 1988. Most theses may be copied upon completion of a Copyright Declaration. D. 1989 onwards. Most theses may be copied. This thesis comes within category D. This copy has been deposited in the Library of UCL This copy has been deposited in the Senate House Library, Senate House, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HU. By kbin< Doctorate of Philosophy (PhD) Thesis____________ The Influence of Economic Factors on Settlement Continuity across the LBA/Iron Age Transition on the Northern Levantine Littoral. Carol Bell Institute o f Archaeology, University College London. January 2005 UMI Number: U591834 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U591834 Published by ProQuest LLC 2013. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 “Images are only images. But if they are numerous, repeated, identical, they cannot all be wrong. They show us that in a varied universe, forms and performances can be similar: there are towns, routes, states, patterns o f trade which in spite o f everything resemble each other. We are indeed told that there are as many ‘means o f exchange as there are means o f production But in any case these means are limited in number, since they are directed to solving elementary problems the whole world over. ” Fernand Braudel ‘At the core o f human history is a long tradition o f persistence in the face o f adversity and resilience in the throes o f crisis. ” Karl Butzer 2 A b s t r a c t Few attempts have been made to synthesise Late Bronze Age (LBA) and Iron Age trade patterns in the northern Levant on a regional scale, despite the availability of fine­ grained excavation data for individual sites. Even less attention has been given to the degree of continuity or change between the economic systems that obtained across the transition between these two periods, which was marked by a widespread destruction of sites across the Eastern Mediterranean. Long-distance trade was conducted at unprecedented levels in the Eastern Mediterranean at the close of the LBA. Ugarit was a strategic node between land and sea routes and its entrepreneurial merchants engaged in transactions for economic gain. Why Ugarit was never meaningfully resettled again after its destruction in the early 12th century BC is a question of regional importance with respect to gaining a better understanding of how and why the mechanisms of trade evolved at this critical time. That Phoenicia came to dominate maritime trade in the Mediterranean in the succeeding period is widely accepted, but the reasons behind this ascendancy are poorly understood. This thesis quantitatively examines contextualised imported ceramic data (Aegean and Cypriot wares) and the archaeological, textual and scientific evidence of the bronze industry and its supply chains. The evidence from the northern Levant is considered within its regional setting, with coastal Syro-Palestine divided into four zones of interaction in order to improve resolution on variations in long-distance trading relationships. The evidence from Cyprus is also assessed, given its importance as a leading supplier of both ceramics and copper to the Levant. A world-systems approach is then applied to this first stage of analysis to assess the intensity and directness of LBA trading contacts between producer and consumer and how these may have developed over time. Trading relationships between the Aegean and Cyprus with different parts of the Levant littoral were not uniform during the LBA, either in intensity or directness. Evidence for continuity in LBA trading relationships across the LBA/Iron Age transition is strongest between Phoenicia and Cyprus, particularly the west coast of the island. Interestingly, 3 the former is not only the sole part of the Levantine littoral to escape destruction at the close of the LBA but also may well have had the most direct and intense LBA trading relationships with the Aegean. 4 T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s Abstract ................................................................................................................................ 3 Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................8 Chapter 1: Introduction......................................................................................................11 Unanswered Questions from Previous Research ..........................................................13 Four Levantine Zones of Interaction ............................................................................ 16 Data Set........................................................................................................................... 22 Methodological Approach.............................................................................................27 Theoretical Model.......................................................................................................... 28 Structure of the Discussion ............................................................................................30 Chapter 2: Limitations of Previous Approaches and Theoretical Perspective..............32 Causes of the End of the LBA Order............................................................................ 33 The Textual Record of Ugarit and its Correspondents................................................43 Challenges in Eastern Mediterranean Trade and Political Economy......................... 49 Regional Studies of Trade .............................................................................................53 Lessons from the Aegean...............................................................................................62 Influence of the Sea Peoples on the Regional Economy.............................................62 The Problem of Tin ........................................................................................................ 63 Conclusions.....................................................................................................................69 Chapter 3: The Imported Ceramic Evidence in Context................................................. 72 Methodology...................................................................................................................72 Site Formation Issues ..................................................................................................... 74 Data Quality Issues........................................................................................................ 74 Contextual Comparison of Imported Ceramics............................................................81 Inland from Sarepta......................................................................................................103 Discussion..................................................................................................................... 109 Post-script from Tell Tweini........................................................................................116 Chapter 4: Metals and Eastern Mediterranean Trade....................................................120 Data Set and Definitions.............................................................................................. 122 Framework of Analysis................................................................................................ 124 Zone LI - Coastal and Inland Syria........................................................................... 129 Zone L2 - Phoenicia and its Hinterland....................................................................
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