CHAPTER FOUR

NEOPAGANISM1

THE PHENOMENON OF NEOPAGANISM

As a general term, "neopaganism" covers all those modern movements which are, firstly, based on the conviction that what Christianity has traditionally denounced as idolatry and superstition actually represents/ represented a pro­ found and meaningful religious worldview and, secondly, that a religious prac­ tice based on this worldview can and should be revitalized in our modern world. The very use of the term "neopaganism" as a self-designation clearly contains a polemical thrust towards institutionalized Christianity2, which is held respon­ sible for the decline of western paganism and the subsequent blackening of its image. The problems of the modern world, particularly the ecological crisis, are regarded as a direct result of the loss of pagan wisdom about man's rela­ tionship to the natural world, and a recovery of this wisdom is regarded not only as desirable but as urgently needed. The focus on ecological problems is particularly prominent in contemporary neopaganism, but it should be noted that-given the above definition-the phenomenon of neopaganism as such is not in fact synonymous with its postwar "New Age" manifestation. Commen­ tators of the contemporary neopagan movement( s) usually seem unaware of the fact that the term neopaganism is also used in quite different contexts, par­ ticularly in connection with certain religious and philosophical developments in prewar Germany3. The general definition of neopaganism given above encompasses both these often politically suspect movements and tendencies, and the contemporary "New Age" phenomenon. Of course it does not follow that the latter is therefore fascistic, although that opinion has sometimes been

1 General sources and special studies relating to neopaganism in general: Adler, Drawing down the Moon; Anon., 'Witchcraft (Wicca), Neopaganism and Magick'; Ruppert, Die Hexen kommen (also printed as 'Magie und Hexenglaube heute'; Luhrmann, Persuasions; id., 'Persuasive Ritu­ al'; id., 'Witchcraft, Morality and Magic'; Eilberg-Schwartz, 'Witches of the West'; Kelly, 'Neo­ pagans and the New Age'; Burnett, Dawning of the Pagan Moon; Hough, Witchcraft; York, Emerging Network, spec. 99-144; Weissmann, 'Erwachen'; Kelly, 'Update'. 2 Christianity as such is not necessarily rejected. Surprisingly many neopagans, including well­ known figures as Caithlin Matthews or Maxine Sanders, consider themselves both pagan and christian. They believe that the true esoteric core of Christianity is perfectly compatible with the pagan worldview and that it is therefore not Christianity as such which is to be rejected, but only a particular interpretation which happens to have become dominant in church institutions. These christian pagans find inspiration in Catholic ritual or in the remnants of Celtic Christianity, and generally regard christian gnosticism in a positive light. 3 Cancik, 'Neuheiden und totaler Staat'; Faber, 'Einleitung'; Spindler, 'Europe's Neo-pagan­ ism'. Cf. especially Von Schnurbein, Religion als Kulturkritik. 78 CHAPTER FOUR voiced4. It does imply that, in a strict sense, the term "neopaganism" is not sufficient in itself as a designation for the movements studied here. "New Age" neopaganism should be distinguished from other (earlier or contemporary) attempts to revitalize the worldview of pre-christian European cultures. When in the rest of the discussion I refer to "neopaganism", I will be referring to the New Age variety only. However, speaking of a "New Age variety" of neopaganism-and indeed, discussing neopaganism as part of the New Age movement-is to invite crit­ icism. Aidan A. Kelly, for instance, states that 'The Neopagan movement ... parallels the New Age movement in some ways, differs sharply from it in oth­ ers, and overlaps it in some minor ways' 5• Obviously, such a categorical state­ ment is possible only if both movements are already clearly defined and demar­ cated. It is a basic assumption of the present study, however, that at least the New Age movement is not. Kelly's comparison between the "New Age" and the "neopagan" perspective indeed turns out to be based on a rather selective view of the former, which occasionally exerts gentle pressure on the evidence6. It is difficult to escape the impression that his attempt to separate neopagan­ ism from the New Age as much as possible is inspired by apologetic consid­ erations-Kelly is not only a well-known researcher, but also a neopagan­ rather than by empirical ones. Tanya Luhrmann, in her ground-breaking study of magical groups in London, appears not to have encountered anything like Kelly's distinction: 'In whatever form magicians practice magic, they situate it within what is proclaimed the "New Age"' 7. Luhrmann's characterization of

4 There is some justification for associating contemporary neopaganism with fascism in the case of so-called "Norse paganism", which uses Norse/Germanic mythology as a source of inspi­ ration. Predictably-considering that neopagans are naturally interested in the mythological her­ itage of their own country-this variety is especially prominent in Germany, but it also exists elsewhere. Adler notes (Drawing Down the Moon, 273) that some groups use Norse paganism as a front for right-wing or outright Nazi activities, but blanket generalizations on the basis of such cases should be warned against. Each specific group should be judged on its own merits (or the lack thereof). Cf. Adler, Drawing Down the Moon, 273-282, and Weissmann, 'Erwachen'. In any case, Norse paganism is of only marginal significance for the present study. 5 Identical quotation in Kelly, 'Neopagans and the New Age', 311, and 'Update', 136. 6 For instance, it is true that neopagans 'reject the dualism of Eastern traditions' ('Neopagans and the New Age', 314 ), but so do many New Age believers. In general, Kelly ascribes a far stronger respect for traditional Eastern notions (such as the role of the guru) to the New Age than the evidence permits. Furthermore, when he says that 'Many New Agers assume ... that...' ('Neo­ pagans and the New Age', 314. My emphasis) he implicitly admits that not all of them do, but he nevertheless contrasts these assumptions to neopaganism, suggesting a far greater consensus among New Agers than in fact exists. A comparably artificial consensus is suggested by the state­ ment that neopagans are 'not particularly interested in a New Age in the future' ('Neopagans and the New Age', 314). As Part Two of this study will show, directly disconfirming evidence can easily be found in most of the standard neopagan literature. Finally, Kelly's statement that 'New Age bookstores rarely have sections labeled magic or witchcraft' ('Neopagans and the New Age', 313) is disconfirmed by my own observations in the Netherlands, Germany and England. 7 Luhrmann, Persuasions, 30.