The Psychology of Education 2Nd Edition
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The Psychology of Education 2nd edition Written in an accessible and engaging style, this second edition of The Psychology of Education addresses key con- cepts from psychology that relate to education. Throughout the text the author team emphasise an evidence- based approach, providing practical suggestions to improve learning outcomes, while fictional case studies are used in this new edition to provide students with a sense of what psychological issues can look like in the class- room. Activities around these case studies give students the chance to think about how to apply their theoretical knowledge to these real- world contexts. ‘Key implications’ are drawn out at appropriate points, and throughout the book students are provided with strategies for interrogating evidence. Key terms are glossed throughout the book and chapters are summarised and followed by suggestions for further reading. A chapter on learning interactions and social worlds is new to this edition. The following chapters have all been extensively updated: Learning Assessment Individual differences and achievement Student engagement and motivation The educational context Society and culture Language Literacy Inclusive education and special educational needs Behaviour problems Dealing with behaviour problems This book is essential reading for undergraduate students of Education Studies and Psychology as well as trainee teachers on BA, BEd and PGCE courses. It will also be of use to postgraduates training to be educational psychologists. Martyn Long has taught in secondary schools and further education institutions. He is currently an educational psychologist in Cambridgeshire. Clare Wood is Reader in Developmental Psychology at Coventry University, and a chartered psychologist. Karen Littleton is Professor of Psychology in Education at the Open University. Terri Passenger is a Chartered educational psychologist working in schools and at the Nuffield Hospital, Cheltenham. Kieron Sheehy is Senior Lecturer at the Centre for Childhood, Development and Learning at the Open University. The Psychology of Education 2nd edition Martyn Long, Clare Wood, Karen Littleton, Terri Passenger and Kieron Sheehy First edition published 2000 by RoutledgeFalmer This edition published 2011 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2011. To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk. © 2011 Martyn Long, Clare Wood, Karen Littleton, Terri Passenger and Kieron Sheehy The right of Martin Long, Clare Wood, Karen Littleton, Terri Passenger and Kieron Sheehy to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging- in-Publication Data The psychology of education/Martyn Long . [et al.]. – 2nd ed. p. cm. Prev. ed. cataloged under Long, Martyn. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Educational psychology. 2. Teaching. I. Long, Martyn, 1948– II. Long, Martyn, 1948– Psychology of education. LB1051.L774 2011 370.15–dc22 2010020643 ISBN 0-203-84009-7 Master e-book ISBN ISBN13: 978-0-415-48689-7 (hbk) ISBN13: 978-0-415-48690-3 (pbk) ISBN13: 978-0-203-84009-2 (ebk) Contents List of illustrations vi Preface ix Acknowledgements x 1 Introduction to psychology and education: some essential background 1 2 Learning 13 3 Assessment 50 4 Individual differences and achievement 78 5 Student engagement and motivation 111 6 The educational context 141 7 Society and culture 166 8 Learning interactions and social worlds 185 9 Language 209 10 Literacy 241 11 Inclusive education and special educational needs 265 12 Behaviour problems 309 13 Dealing with behaviour problems 347 Appendix: statistics 382 References 389 Index 433 v Illustrations Figures 2.1 Classical conditioning of school phobia 16 2.2 Programmed learning sequence 19 2.3 The structure of memory 22 2.4 Working memory 23 2.5 An example of a conceptual hierarchy 24 2.6 The structure of long- term memory 27 2.7 Interference processes 30 2.8 Knowledge map for trees and the environment 31 2.9 Keyword mnemonic learning 32 2.10 Assimilation of information – in a state of equilibrium 34 2.11 Assimilation of information – in a state of disequilibrium 34 2.12 Accommodation 35 2.13 Liquid and number conservation tasks 36 2.14 The zone of proximal development 39 2.15 Simplified neural network for word analysis 46 2.16 Network trained to identify the word ‘sit’ 46 3.1 Teacher and pupil feedback cycles 51 3.2 NC reading guidelines 53 3.3 Mathematics question involving use of knowledge 54 3.4 Normal distribution (Bell) curve 60 3.5 Repeated word reading test scores with one subject 62 3.6 Normal distribution of test scores and standard errors 63 3.7 Correlation between actual and ‘true’ test scores 64 3.8 Typical item from the Raven’s Matrices test 70 3.9 Comparison of School A and School B on typical KS1 and KS2 test results 75 4.1 Possible relationships between intelligence and literacy 81 4.2 Relationship between parenting index and IQ scores at age three years 87 4.3 Gifted children and the distribution of abilities 90 4.4 Key stages in the creative process 94 4.5 Problem space for fraction- to-decimal conversion 97 4.6 ‘Towers of Hanoi’ problem 97 vi Illustrations 4.7 Achieving the intermediate goal 98 4.8 Moving to the final goal 98 4.9 GCSE science results in relation to school intake 101 4.10 Embedded figures test 103 4.11 The wholistic–analytic continuum 104 4.12 Achievements of different subjects according to their cognitive style 105 4.13 Overall recall of verbalisers and imagers 105 4.14 Dimensions of extraversion and intraversion 106 5.1 Reciprocal effects of self- esteem and achievement 127 5.2 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 128 5.3 Arousal and performance: the Yerkes–Dodson law 134 5.4 Effects of changing stimulation on arousal 138 6.1 Academic progress with different catchments 143 6.2 Relationship between individual pupils’ initial abilities and their final achievements 144 6.3 Hall’s zones of personal space 152 7.1 Social processes in schools 171 9.1 Structure of the study of language 211 9.2 Examples of Stroop stimuli 215 9.3 Approximate vocabulary growth rate 219 9.4 Differences in the production of a figure after verbal labelling 228 9.5 Egocentric conversation 231 9.6 An ambiguous figure 233 9.7 Substitution immaturities 237 10.1 The simple view of reading 246 10.2 The basis of readability 261 10.3 Readability chart 261 10.4 Cloze and readability 262 11.1 Distributions of behavioural and literacy attainments 270 11.2 Levels of functional reading 271 11.3 Percentage of pupils by each primary type of need at School Action Plus and with statements in 2009 279 11.4 The range of specific learning difficulties 280 11.5 Percentages of primary type of need among pupils aged seven years at School Action Plus in 2009 284 11.6 The autistic puppet show 285 11.7 Audiogram graph 289 11.8 Distribution of hearing abilities 289 11.9 A Snellen test chart 292 11.10 Test of print size reading ability 292 12.1 Permanent school exclusions, 1997–2008 311 12.2 Levels of emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD) in relation to social class of intake in 13 Aberdeen schools 328 12.3 The interaction between child temperament and environmental variables 332 12.4 Sociometric analysis 341 13.1 The key elements in behaviour modification 351 13.2 Key elements of the counselling approach 362 vii Illustrations 13.3 Diagnostic criteria for attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder 374 13.4 Hypothetical arousal states for children with ADHD and normal children 376 A.1 Normal distribution of reading abilities at ten years of age 382 A.2 Distribution showing the standard deviation 383 A.3 A sample that is part of the normal range 383 A.4 A sample that is different from the normal range 384 A.5 Effect size of two 384 A.6 Correlation between intelligence and reading attainments 385 A.7 Path diagram of factors related to reading ability 386 A.8 Path diagram showing reciprocal effects between motivation and reading 387 A.9 Answers to a simple personality questionnaire 387 Tables 1.1 Five key perspectives in psychology 7 2.1 An illustration of the meaning of ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ in the context of reward and punishment 17 3.1 The National Curriculum Key Stages 52 3.2 Scales and sub- tests of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children 68 4.1 IQ correlations for different family relationships 83 4.2 Family context and intellectual climate 84 5.1 Types of motivation described in Ryan and Deci’s self-motivation theory, and how they relate to perceived locus of control 118 5.2 The cognitive basis of emotions 137 10.1 Final scores in reading and spelling for experimental and control groups given different training 248 11.1 Level of reading ability at different stages of the education system 272 12.1 Prediction of delinquency by early aggression and parental background 325 12.2 Average correlation coefficients for parents’ assessments of twins’ behaviours 332 12.3 Psychiatric classification of childhood disorders 338 12.4 Major dimensions of British social-adjustment guides 339 13.1 Sample Circle Time plan 360 13.2 Outcomes for assertive discipline training 377 viii Preface A tremendous amount is known about educational psychology which is useful to people involved in teaching and learning.