CraigThompson Friend
Libertyis Pioneering: An American Birthright
n the generation following the Revolutionary War, pioneering agents for land companies that sought to convert western lands into became an American birthright. British restrictions on colonists’ commodities, and transform property into paper titles. Virginia’s and P Tmobility—particularly the Proclamation Line of 1763 (which for North Carolina’s governments favored these enterprises and their bade western settlement by prohibiting colonial governors from au wealthy backers over the potential free-for-all of thousands of smaller thorizing surveys or issuing land grants beyond the crest of the Ap pioneers, giving preference to speculators’ negotiations with resident palachian Mountains) and the Quebec Act of 1774 (which extended American Indians, acquiescing to their plans for land sales, and be the northern colony’s boundaries to include lands south to the Ohio traying the egalitarian promise of the West. State governments left the River and west to the Mississippi River)—had infuriated Americans regulation and implementation of land sales to speculators who, like who expected not only access to these “vacant”lands but eventual own William Blount and Richard Henderson, monopolized the best lands ership as well. Suggestively, upon receiving news of the Minutemen’s for their own profit (2). April 1775 uprising, a party of land surveyors ifiegally roaming central But as early as 1775, Benjamin Franklin recognized “many thou Kentucky named their campsite “Lexington,” relating their own rebel sands of families that are ready to swarm” westward to “secure land for liousness to the shrugging off of British control in Massachusetts. For their children.” As the war ended, and certain of their moral right to many Americans, westward exploration and eventual migration were a piece of the West, settlers crossed the mountains, invoking a home among the natural rights to which Thomas Jefferson appealed in the stead ethic to justify land claims and contest the dominance of the Declaration of Independence and for which American colonists were speculators. Few had legal title, so they preempted tracts of land by fighting a war. making unofficial surveys, building rudimentary cabins, and plant As military conflict raged, colonists expressed increasing interest ing corn in small plots. Virginia’s effort to make preemption illegal in the opening of western lands as a spoil of war. Still, the colonial ex in 1779 was fruitless; squatters continued to articulate their resent perience had been one of settlinglands, not pioneering.As a noun, “pio ment of large-scale speculation through their actions. Many were not neer” had been part of the English vocabulary since the mid-I500s, satisfied with small-scale acquisition, however, and claimed tracts that meaning one who prepared the way, usually referring to soldiers or exceeded conventional definitions of a family-sized farm, taking cues road-clearers. Following the Revolution, more traditional thinkers from larger proprietors about finding profit in good western lands. As assumed that residents of the new confederation of states would act squatters and speculators claimed, surveyed, and sold lands, a titular upon this definition. J.Hector St. John de Crèvecoeur, Georges-Henri- quagmire took shape in Kentucky and Tennessee that would remain Victor Collot, Harry Toulmin, and other foreign observers interpreted unresolved throughout much of the nineteenth century (s). American pioneers as preparing the way for “civilization”: opening Initially, a similar scenario manifested itself in the Old Northwest. new lands and making minor improvements before more permanent In the late 1770S and early 178os, squatters already were staking claims waves of migrants arrived. And initially, the earliest Americans who to Ohio lands. Without state governments to regulate land distribu wandered into trans-Appalachia seemed to act accordingly. In the tion, the Confederation Congress tried to stem the tide by refusing to 17705 and 1780s, single and unrooted men sought to make quick for defend against Indian attacks. But squatters persisted in claiming their tunes as long hunters, fur traders, and land surveyors before returning share of the West. With the Land Act of 1785,the federal government to the East. Daniel Boone, Simon Kenton, John Donelson, John Sevier, brought some order to the madness, sending Thomas Hutchins to sur and others engaged the western wilds of Kentucky and Tennessee, few vey the region systematically. Yet, by pricing land at $i per acre with intending to stay (i). a minimum purchase of 640 acres, the congressional system made it But pioneering as an activity,as a verb, was a revolutionaryidea. In virtually impossible for poorer pioneers to take advantage of the Land fact, the earliest usage of “pioneer” as a verb was 1780, just as Ameri Ordinance legally. Instead, speculators like John Cleves Symmes and can settlers began to traverse the Appalachians. Ironically, businesses Jonathan Dayton purchased millions of acres, resold smaller portions like the Transylvania Company were the first to pioneer trans-Appa to middling settlers, and failed to keep adequate surveying records. lachia. In accumulating invaluable knowledge of the region and its When approximately five hundred French immigrants bought a tract native inhabitants, Boone, Donelson, and other wanderers became of land from the Scioto Company and established Gallipolis, they dis
i6 OAH Magazine of History May 2005 Rivers often provided the best routes to the new land on the frontier. The men above demonstrate how to use a raft designed in i8i8 to make navigation easier. (Image courtesy of the Department of State Patent Office, National Archives and Records Administration, ARC#594909.) covered that their agent had not forwarded their payments to the com to roadways or waterways that would bind residents to economic and pany and that the company did not have actual title to the lands! As in social networks, and freedom from the threat of Indian attack. Areas Kentucky and Tennessee, early Ohio’s overlapping claims and confused east of the Appalachians—for example, William Cooper’s tract in up titles led to legal challenges well into the nineteenth century (4). state New Yorkand South Carolina’s Long Canes district—offered such Battles between squatters and speculators, often fought in the advantages and commanded high prices as a result. In trans-Appala courts, evinced the hunger for acquiring and retaining control of land. chia, however, land titles continued to be problematic, transportation Later, federal control of the public domain north of the Ohio and south was impeded by the mountains to the east and alternating Spanish and of Tennessee would redirect squatter animosity toward the government French control of New Orleans to the southwest, and Indians remained itself and transform a chaos of litigation into a chronic political con powerful deterrents to white migration both north and south of the troversy. But either way, private property and individual rights consti Ohio River. tuted the foundation of the republic, as James Madison conceded: “The Many Native Americans wished to maintain their traditional life rights of property are committed into the same hands with personal styles and viewed American encroachment on western lands as threat rights.” But ownership was not enough: land provided opportunity for ening to their cultural ways. Others had become economically involved private profit. with the earliest long hunters and fur traders, modifying cultural pat As James Fenimore Cooper described in his literary exploration of terns of reciprocal gift-giving to allow for profit and more materialistk The Pioneers(1823), the action of pioneering included immediate profit. consumption: alcohol, blankets, guns, clothing. Settlement in hunting ing from land ownership. “It is a singular feature in American life, that, grounds, in this case by increasingly large numbers of whites, contest at the beginning of this [nineteenth} century, when the proprietor of the ed the moral foundation for American Indians’ traditional cultures and estate, had occasion for settlers, on a new settlement and in a remote reduced Indian participation in the fur trade. Indians reacted violently. county, he was enabled to draw them from among the increased of the attacking white farmsteads and small settlements, trying to frighten former colony.”There was a steady stream of new settlers pouring from pioneers out of the West. Significantly, Indians who had joined in prof the East, particularly from the cities where population densities placed it-making and material consumption did not commodify land. While too large a strain on rudimentary infrastructures, from New England federal troops, waves of white settlers, and the loss of the hunting lands where land was at a premium, and from the southern backcountries certainly undermined native cultures, the Indians’ own emphasis on where fur traders and long hunters had already established ties with communal land usage rather than private property ownership may haw trans-Appalachia (5). been most detrimental. They could not conform to new land usages thai To be successful, settlers sought out lands with uncontested titles accompanied the commercial and consumer revolution overtaking theii (or at least with the appearance of clearly defined titles), accessibility villages,the cornerstone of which was the idea of private property (6).
OAH Magazine of Histoty May 2005 1 Even if successful in gaining some degree of security from the In could no longer rely on the patronage of Spanish officials in New Or dians, pioneers benefited little from land ownership if transportation leans, and neither could western secessionists. By curbing the Indiar routes were poor. Natural routes such as the Ohio River and the Wilder menace and opening the Mississippi River, Pinckney’s Treaty tempo ness Road through the Cumberland Gap connected eastern economic rarily quieted pioneer discontent. and social networks to western settlements. Merchants in Pittsburgh, Federalist actions laid the groundwork for economic and politica Marietta, Lexington, Louisville, Cincinnati, and St. Louis imported transformations over the next two decades that would sweep trans-Ap goods from eastern suppliers. Communication arrived in the form palachian pioneers into prosperity. Most pioneers took up farming, th of eastern newspapers. Eastern bank notes kept the west financially quintessential American activity, since it allowed one to benefit imme bound to Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Alexandria. Baptist, Methodist, diately from owning land. Nathaniel Hart was ten years old when hi Catholic, Episcopal, and Presbyterian officials sent ministers and cir family moved westward. A member of the generation born after th cuit riders into trans-Appalachia to extend denominational influence. Revolutionary War whose lives paralleled the ideological, economic The East maintained strong ties to the West (7). and territorial creation of the United States, he inherited the promis But the impediments of the Appalachian Mountains, inconsistent of libertythat his father and thousands of other Americans had secure access to the port of New Orleans, and other problems idiosyncratic to through war, including the conventional wisdom that the West was western life made pioneers’ sense of unity with the East tenuous. In place where that promise was most easily fulfilled. Unlike his father the 178os, the Confederation Congress attempted to bring some order who owned a ropewalk, Nathaniel aspired to be a farmer and projecte to the West, but the founding generations’ vision of a harmonious and his start-up costs as $6ooo for a house, $iooo for a distillery, $oo tc stable society led by aristocrats quickly disintegrated as landowners in construct a mifi, and another $500 for a barn. “When this is all don the SciotoValleyof Ohio, along the MaysvilleRoadin Kentucky,in Ten f I do not break in doing it,” he concluded, “I hope to be in a situa nessee’s Military Reservation, and elsewhere promoted private interest lion to make money.” Obviously, his farm was not the average yeomar as the cornerstone of the public good. Indeed, many pioneers began to homestead; his intentions, however, mirrored the aspirations of mos view the Land Ordinance and the few other Confederation measures pioneers (8). as restrictive and incompatible with private profit. Then, in 1784 the Rising European demands for agricultural produce stimulatec Spanish closed the Mississippi River to American shipping and pio western farming and exports and rewarded pioneers who pursued th neers pleaded with the Confederation Congress to intervene. For two market. Not surprisingly, therefore, westerners turned to the emergin years John Jay negotiated with his Spanish counterpart, Don Diego de Democratic-Republican Party to represent their interests and secun Gardoqui, but the treaty they produced in 1786 sacrificed western pio their inheritance of pioneering as liberty. With the election of i8oo neers’ needs to eastern merchants’ desires for direct trade with Spain. most of the West joined Jefferson in his vision of an agrarian repub Under pressure from the West, Congress would not ratify the treaty. lic in which pioneer farmers’ needs were paramount. But this westerr The terms of the failed Jay-Gardoqui Treaty deepened westerners’ agrarian republic was not the simplistic, subsistence-oriented econom distrust of the East, which had simmered since the beginning of the that has come to dominate historical understanding of the trans-Ap Revolution. Immediately after the war General James Wilkinson had palachian pioneers. Like their friends and relatives east of the Appala migrated to Lexington, Kentucky, to open a store, and within four years chians, westerners were too tempted by the market economy to settk he was privately advocating secession and protection under Spanish for mere subsistence. Regional newspapers celebrated not only thc rule, with a modicum of success. The rumblings of secession circulat agrarian ideal but also the profit that could accompany it: ed for a decade. Only Spairs agreement to Pinckney’s Treaty in 1795, which granted American navigation rights along the Mississippi River Look round your farms—how rich the prospect seems! subject to duties, quieted these persistent secessionist rumors. The orchard bends, the field luxurious teems! Bythe 1790s, with Federalists firmly in control of the newly formed Here Agriculture opens to our view, federal government, hundreds of pioneers sent petitions demanding A land of milk and honey, rich and new. free navigation of the Mississippi River through New Orleans, federal troops to fend off Native Americans, and resolution of land title dis Corn—which historically represented the first efforts at claimin[ putes. Their appeals should not be surprising: government, albeit in land and eking out an existence in the wilderness—quickly becam the form of county courts, had been a regulating force in economic de the major cash crop. Between 1799 and 1802, profits earned from th velopment throughout the settlement process. But pioneers and their export of Kentucky corn equaled the value of goods imported into th local courts had proved themselves incapable of resolving the Indian state. As pioneer migration accelerated, so too did market participa problem or the quagmire of land titles in the Southwest. Further, they tion. By 1802, so many farmers entered into the Ohio River Valleycon had no power to negotiate with foreign nations. National leaders re trade that regional prices plummeted to unprecedented levels. By 1805 sponded by sending John Jayto England in [794 to negotiate, success however, production was on the rebound; Kentucky merchant Danie fully, a reduction of the British presence on the northwestern frontiers. Halstead applauded how the profits from corn and other agricultura The following year, Thomas Pinckriey visited Spain and secured free productions again “over Balance the in ports.” The musings of one pio navigation of the Mississippi River for three years, restraint of Spanish- neer restated the point in a more lyrical manner: supported Indians on the southwestern frontiers, and recognition of West Florida’s boundary at the 31st parallel. Jay’sTreatyproved unpopu May the Lord be praised lar, especially for its failure to address eastern interests, but Pinckney’s how I am a mased Treaty was greeted enthusiastically. to see how things have mended Both, however, effectively transformed the West. Northwestern In hot cake and tea dians, chastised by federal troops under Anthony Wayne at the Battle of for supper I see Fallen Timbers in August 1794, found themselves deserted by British When mush and milk was intended. garrisons retreating under the terms of Jay’sTreaty. Forced to come to terms with American pioneers, they yielded a spacious tract of Ohio Subsistence was never the objective; it was just a temporary conse Valley land in the Treaty of Greenville in 1795. Southwestern Indians quence of relocation (s).
18 OAH Magazine of History May 2005 The mad rush of merchants into trans-Appalachia symbolized the Endnotes quick conversion of the region from subsistence into a pioneer market i. J.Hector St. John de Crèvecoeur, Lettersfrom an American Farmer (1782; reprint, economy.Any farmer could participate, and any merchant could become Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1968); Georges-Henri-Victor Collot, A Journey a middleman. It should not be too surprising, then, that many men of in North America: containing a surveyof the countrieswatered by the Mississippi, commerce became western political leaders, in both the Federalist and Ohio, Missouri,and otheraffluingrivers., followedb. a projectedline offrontiers andgenerallimits,2 vols.(1826; reprint, Florence,Italy0. Lange, 1924); Harry Democratic-Republican parties. The two parties shared the vision of a Toulmin,A Description of Kentuckyin North America, ed. Thomas D. Clark western republic led by aristocrats, and as men of commerce, local and (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, ‘945>;“Pioneer,” in Noah Webster, regional political leaders increasingly positioned themselves as that ar An American Dictionary ofthe English Language(New York: S. Converse, 1828), istocracy. It was Democratic-Republican farmers and merchants, how n.p. “Longhunters” were men who hunted for several months at a time in the ever, who argued that individual pursuit of profit contributed to larger trans-Appalachian West, consequently leaving their famifies abandoned east societal advancement. Indeed, it was not a market revolution that they ofthe mountains. feared (to the contrary, they 2. “Pioneer,” in Webster, An early and eagerly tapped into American Dictionary of the Eng lish Language, n.p. it), but rather unwelcome HUNTER’S OF KENTUCKY. 3. Benjamin Franklin, “A Plan federal, state, and corporate for Settling TwoWestern Colo regulation—including char nies,” in The Papers of Benjamin tered banks, inspection sta Franklin,ed. LeonardW. Labaree tions, and companies—that et al., 30 vols. (New Haven, CT: threatened individual pursuit Yale University Press, 1959-), and societal harmony. 5 456-62; Stephen Aron, How Jeffersonian partisans, the West Was Lost: The Transfor mation of Kentuckyfrom Daniel then, provided a political Boone to Henry Clay (Baltimore: context for the pioneering Johns Hopkins University Press, activity underway in trans 1996>, 8-ioi; John R. Finger, Appalachia. In contrast to the TennesseeFrontiers: Three Regions I78oS and early 179os, when in Transition(Bloomington:In westerners were hard pressed ( diana University Press, 2001), to find any government truly . 99-124. interested in their problems, 4. R. Douglas Hurt, The Ohio Frontier: Crucibleofthe Old North the late 17905 and early i8oos west, 1720-1830 (Bloomington: witnessed the mainstream Indiana University Press, 1996>, ing of pioneer concerns into 189-97; Andrew R.L. Cayton, partisan politics. Jeffersonian The Frontier Republic: Ideology Republicans wished to make and Politics in the Ohio Country, 1780-1825 (Kent, OH: Kent State the West accessibleto as many a.IL. UniversityPress, 1986), 12-50. pioneers as would take up the 1’ ‘. For e - ‘cee, Madison, Federalist54, in Clin thallenge, ensuring the suc a And half an . Kentucky, &.c. ton Rossiter, ed., The Federalist cess of a combined agrarian ‘,4’c. Theydid not let our patience tire, Papers: Hamilton, Madison, Jay and commercial economy (ic). I s’noae you’veread in the a, ‘ Before they show’d their faces; flowackenhana attempted p We did not choose to waste our fire, (New York: Mentor Books, 1961), kept our places. For the generation follow To make old Hickory Jackson wince, .r So snugly 339;JamesFenimoreCooper,“In But soon his scheme repented; But when so near we saw them w,nk, ing the Revolutionary War, For we, with nilea ready cock’d, . We thought it time to amp ‘em, troduction [1832],” in ThePioneers, then, pioneering allowedthem Thought such occasion lucky, And ‘iwould have done you good, I think, ed. JamesD. Wallace (NewYorlc And anon around the gen’al flack’d, . ‘I’oace Kentisekians drop em. to pursue private interests, ac The hunters of Kentucky. Oh Kentucky, &c. Oxford University Press, 1991). Oh Kentucky, 4’c. I 6. Colin G. Calloway, quire and sell land, grow and You’ve heard, I s’pose,how New-Orleans Thay found, at Iat, ‘twasvain to fight. export agricultural produc Is fam’d for wealth and beauty— Where leadwas all their 6ooiy, “Maquachake: The Perils of Neu There’s girls of cv’ry hue, it seems, And so they wisely took ta flight, trality in the Ohio Country” in tions, and construct an econ From snowy white to sooty. And left us all the betstdy. So Packenham he made his brags, And now, if danger c’er annoys, Calloway, The American Revolu what our trade is; omy (and consequently a pol If he in fight.was lucky, Remember tion in Indian Country: Crisisand He’d have their girls.and cotton bags, Just send for us Kentucky boys, ity and society) that reflected In spite of old Kentucky. Andwe’ll protect ye, ladies. Diversityin Native American Com their faith in private property, Oh Kcntucky, 8cc. Oh Kentuckr, &c munities (Cambridge: Cambridge individual pursuits, and other University Press,1995). 158-81;A. natural rights so eloquently Gwynn Henderson,“The Lower Shawnee Town on Ohio: Sustain phrased in the Declaration of “Hunter’s of Kentucky. Or half horse and half alligator.” This broadside includes a poem ing NativeAutonomy in an Indian Independence. The signifi describing the valor of Kentuckians at the Battle of New Orleans during the War of 1812. De ‘Republic,’”in CraigThompson cance of this opportunity was scribing them as “half-horse” and “half-alligator,” the poem emphasizes the fierce image of Friend, ed., TheBuzzelAboutKen the frontiersman. (Image courtesy of the Filson Historical Society.) most evident as the first gen tuck: Setting Up the PromisedLand eration of westerners reached (Lexington: University Press of their elder years. In the 184os, as Leatherstocking Tales and stories of Al Kentucky,1999), 25-56. Hgator-HorseMen transformed American culture, “pioneer” became an 7. CraigThompson Friend,AlongtheMaysvilleRoad:TheEarlyRepublicin theTrans-Ap adjective,labeling those who had opened the West and the future based palachian West(Knoxville:Universityof TennesseePress,forthcoming); Kim Gru on revolutionary ideals three generations hence. It revitalized the myth enwald, Riverof Enteiprise:The CommercialOriginsof RegionalIdentityin the Ohio of the pioneer in nineteenth-century America, and inspired continued Valley,1790-1850(Bloomington:Indiana UniversityPress, 2002>; Marion Winship, “Kentuckyin the New Republic:A Study of Distance and Connection,”in Friend, migration to the West where liberty continued to be pioneering (II). TheBuzzelAboutKentuck,101-24.
OAH Magazine of Histoey May 2005 19 MEMBERSHIP ENROLLMENT FORM Join online at
ADDRESS The BuzzelAbout Kentuck,125-52. 9. KentuckyGazette,October 2, 1798; Francois André Michaux, Travelsto th oftheAlleghanyMountains,in Early WesternTravels,1748-1846, CITY STATE ZIP ed. Reuber Thwaites, 32 vols. (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clarke, Co., 1904-1907), 3: 205 El Check enclosed (must be drown in U.S.funds,on U.S. bank) Wffliam Faux, MemorableDaysinAmerica,part I, in Thwaites, ed., EarlyW El Visa El MasterCard Travels,1748-1846,ii: 187; Lawsof K.entucky,2 vols. (Lexington, KY John ford, 1799), 2:411-3; Daniel Haistead to AlexSanders, i8o, Daniel Haiste. count Books, 1797-1830, CARD NUMBER EXPIRATIONDATE Filson Historical Society,Louisville,KYinside cc Mason County, Kentucky,Account Book 1797-1799, Filson Historical Soc SIGNATURE io. Drew R. McCoy,The ElusiveRepublic:PoliticalEconomyinJeffersonian ica (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980); Andrev Cayton, Frontier Indiana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, i History Educator Membership Fredrika Johanna Teute, “Land, Liberty, and Labor in the Post-Revolt Receive the OAHMagazine ofHistory, OAH Newsletter,and Annual ary Era: Kentucky as the Promised Land” (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins Meeting Program. versity, 1988) El $40 Designed especially for historians whose primary interest is. “Pioneer,” in Webster, An American Dictionaryof the EnglishLanguage, is teaching. Cooper, The Pioneers;Michael Allen, WesternRiver,nen, 1763-1861:Ohi MississippiBoatmenand the Myth oftheAlligatorHorse(Baton Rouge: L Student Membership ana State University Press, 1990). Receive the OAH Newsletter and the Annual Meeting Program, and in addition choose between receiving the Journal ofAmerican Suggestions for Further Reading History or the OAH Magazine of History. Aron, Stephen. Howthe Westwas Lost:The Transformationof Kentuckyfrom El $25 Check one: El Journal El Magazine 14 Booneto Henry Clay. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, i STATUS: — Brooks, Charles E. Frontier Settlementand Market Revolution:The Holland Sd-tOOl Purchase. Ithaca, NY:Cornell University Press, 1996. ADVISOR: Cashin, Joan E. A FamilyVenture:Menand Womenon the SouthernFrontier. York: Oxford University Press, 1991. Standard Membership Cayton, Andrew R. L. Frontier Indiana. Bloomington: Indiana Univl Receive the Journal ofAmerican History, OAH Newsletter,and the Press, 1996. Annual Meeting Program.(Check appropriate income/dues category) TheFrontierRepublic:Ideologyand Politicsin the Ohio Country,1780 El $40 Income under $20,000 Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1986. El $55 Income $20,000—29,999 Dupre, Daniel S. Transformingthe Cotton Frontier:Madison County, Alab El $75 Income $30,000—39,999 1800-1840. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1997. El $85 Income $40,000—49,999 Faragher, John Mack. Sugar Creek:Lifeon the Illinois Prairie. New Haven El $95 Income $50,000—59,999 Yale University Press, 1986. El $105 Income $60,000—69,999 Finger, John R. TennesseeFrontiers:ThreeRegionsin Transition.Bloomingtoi El $115 Income $70,000—79,999 diana University Press, 2001. El $130 Income $80,000 and over Friend, Craig Thompson. Alongthe MaysvilleRoad:TheEarlyAmerican Repul the Trans-AppalachianWest.Knoxville:University of Tennessee Press, 20 Other Membership Categories —, ed. The Buzzel About Kentuck:Settling the PromisedLand. Lexin Receive the Journal ofAmerican History, OAH Newsletter,and the University Press of Kentucky, 1999 Annual Meeting Program. Hinderaker, Eric. ElusiveEmpires:ConstructingColonialismin the Ohio o $150 Contributing Member (extra support for the organization) 1673-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ,997. Hurt, R. El $55 Associate Member (not employed as a historian) Douglas. The Ohio Frontier: Crucible of the Old Northwest, 1720- El $45 Emeritus or Retired Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996. Linklater, Andro. MeasuringAmerica: How the b El $25 50 Year OAH Member (50+ years of membership) United States was Shaped Greatest Land Sale in History. London: HarperCollins Publishers, 2002. El $40+ Dual—share OAH publications but receive all other indi Mitchell, Robert D., Commercialismand Frontier Perspectives the Early Sht vidual benefits (Select income category for first member, on doah Valley.Charlottesville: University Press Virginia, and add $40 for second.) of 1977. Perkins, Elizabeth A. Border Life: Experienceand Memoryin the Revolutk DUAL MEMBER NAME Ohio Valley.Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998. Overseas Postage Rohrbough, Malcolm J.The Trans-AppalachianFrontier People,Societies,an stitutions, 1775-1850. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978. El $20+ Add extra fee for shipping outside the U.S. Thornton, J.Mills, III. Politicsand Powerin a SlaveSociety:Alabama z8oo-: For additional information on OAH membership =— Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978. benefits, or institutional subscriptions, please visit: A
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