sign in sign up
<<
Home , Bozorgmehr, Buffer state, Counties of Iran, Dariush, Deioces, Esfand

: An Old Civilization and a New

by

Pirouz Mojtahed-Zadeh

This is the first part of a two-part article. Part I, “The Iranian Tradition of Statehood,” discusses the ramifications for present-day Iran of political relations in association with the political organization of space in the ancient world.

Part II, “Iran's Geopolitical in the 21st Century,” will be published in a future issue of FOCUS on .

Part I. The Iranian Tradition of Statehood

Introduction: An Ancient State and geopolitics that started in late 18th north; by and to Its Many Neighbors century and ended in World I and the east; by and to the west; II in the 20th century. and by the , Strait of Iran has functioned for at least 5000 During World II, the Hormuz and Gulf of (including years as a civilization and as fertile was occupied by Anglo-Russian forces the of , , ground for the emergence of the on the unsubstantiated allegation that , , Oman, and the United world's first state in the modern sense Iran had joined with Nazi ; in Arab [U.A.E.]), and the of the word. The administration of Iran fact, had officially declared its northwest corner of the has historically been plagued with impartiality in the war and adequately to the south (see map on pages 18-19). difficulties of exerting authority defended that impartiality. The Allies With such a large number of neighbors, outside the main areas of population had to invade and occupy Iran in order Iran has had to derive a set of highly and, therefore, in fixing its national to turn it into a land bridge for logistic complicated border arrangements, frontiers. supply between Britain and the Soviet resulting in substantial impacts to The word Iran means “the land of Union, and they termed it the “bridge relations with all these entities. the .” Politically, Iran is a of victory” at the end of the war. This Iran is a vast and diverse country, country situated in southwest in article examines the political with only a tenth of its area under the part of the globe generally known as 's position from settled forms of economic use. The rest the . With a land area of ancient to modern times using ancient is desert, steppe, and high mountains. 1,648,195 square kilometers, Iran is ideas to illuminate Iran's present-day Until the early 20th century, the country bounded by no less than 15 countries complex position on the global stage. was comprised of a set of diverse ethnic and autonomous regions, making it the and linguistic groups unified under a country with the largest number of Brief Geographical Background federal-style system of government neighbors. Most of them at one time or and sharing a common literature, social another in history have been part of the Iran is a country in the Middle East, ethos and culture, and a distinct famous Persian (a term used by which is bounded by the civilization. Apart from the central many Western historians), which and the republics of , , the largest single provincial disintegrated during and as a result of , the Russian , by population size is the Anglo-Russian “Great Game” of , and Kazakhstan to the Azerbaijan, where there is a

20 FOCUS on Geography Volume 49, Number 4 The author, Professor Pirouz Mojtahed- Zadeh, on a television discussion program. Kaaledj, the author's birth place, a on the mountain tops of the Elborz Range (Nour), concentration of Azeri speakers of the Perso-Turkic group of languages. ethnicity. There are two exceptions. There are indications that ancient Other coherent areas with a regional The first is a few -speaking tribes civilizations were familiar with the consciousness include Kurdistan in the of Mesopotamian origin ( notion of the state in connection with west, the Arab zone of the Khuzistan was part of the Persian federative t e r r i t o r i a l a n d b o u n d a r y lowlands in the southwest, the system for over 2,000 years), who form characteristics, similar to modern Turkmen steppe of the northeast, and a small minority in the province of states. References in ancient Persian the Baluch area of the southeast (1). Khuzestan and defend their Arab literature discuss states, , and Geographically, the term “Iran” identity within their Iranian nationality boundaries in a strikingly modern way, covers an area much greater than the (as they did in the face of the Iraqi which probably influenced ancient state of Iran. It includes the entire of Iran during Saddam Greek and Roman governance. A , a highland region Hussein's rule). The second is a small combination of traits from the ancient located between the on the number of Turkmen tribes who live in G r e e k , R o m a n , a n d P e r s i a n east and on the west. the plain of , civilizations is said to have been a Culturally, the term includes all who also fiercely defend their identity major source of contributions to what peoples speaking , a as being part of Iran. culturally constitutes the West in our of the Indo-European time. Considering the extent to which family of languages: those who speak The Iranian Tradition of Statehood Greek and Roman civilizations Persian, (Afghani), Dari (Tajik), interacted with that of ancient Persia, K u r d i s h , L u r i , M a z a n d a r a n i , There are unmistakable indications little doubt remains about the validity Khorasani, Guilak, Baluchi, and Azeri in the historical record that Iran was the of French geographer Jean Gottmann's Turkish (a Turkish local dialect of first civilization to fashion the concept assertion in his letter to this writer Azerbaijan that is more Persian in of “state,” here used to mean a set of (1987) that: words and characters than the g o v e r n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s w i t h Mongolian and/or Anatolian Turkish). sovereignty over a defined . Iran must have belonged to Iran as a nation today is composed Although there is little doubt that the the 'Western' part of mankind, of several ethnic groups, including the modern concepts of state and territory and I suspect that this was what , Baluchis, Mazandaranis, were developed in modern , it is A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t o f Guilaks, , Khorasanis, and hard to overlook the fact that they are Macedonia, a pupil of Aristotle, , all of whom are from the Indo- rooted in periods older than their 15th- therefore, in the great Western Iranian branch of Indo-European century emergence in Europe. philosophical tradition, found in

Spring 2007 FOCUS on Geography 21 Iran and that attracted him so satrapies (up to forty). Each was The best that certain political interests much that he wanted to establish a governed by a local , a of our time – such as the former Baath harmonious, multi-national Khashthrapavan or vassal king. This Party in Iraq – could come up with was cooperation between the Iranians was a commonwealth of global to equate Cyrus with a warmongering and Greeks within the large empire proportions, including the lands of king supporting Zionists (the Jews in he was building. (2) Trans-Oxania, Sind, and Trans- captivity in ). Those of this , which stretch from today's political viewpoint blame Cyrus for Verification can be found in Romania east across the Middle East waging wars on several nations, historical events as when, upon and North . implying that the vast commonwealth conquering Persia in 333 CE, the Greek It was also a political system of of the Achaemanid state came about leader, the Great, claimed in universal aspirations ruled by a solely through force and that that he was a true successor Shahanshah (), hence were among Cyrus's victims. to the Iranian leader, Achaeminid referred to as the Shahanshahi system. These criticisms are based on Darius III. The significance of this The king of kings in this system was not b l a t a n t a n a c h r o n i s m s a n d declaration is provided by , a lawgiver but the defender of laws and misrepresentations. Babylonia was not th the famous 11 -century Persian poet, in for all in the federation (6). an Arab state but an Acadian , Book of the Kings (3). Having Glover notes the Achaemenids' “good civilization. Arabs only reached conquered Iran, Alexander wrote to the g o v e r n m e n t ” a n d C y r u s ' s Mesopotamia much later, first nobles of the country apologizing for proclamation in Babylonia (7) stated appearing in the southern Iraq of having done away with their king, that all were “equal in his realm.” Al-Hirah by the 5th century CE Darius III. In Ferdowsi's poetic Ethnic and cultural groups enjoyed a according to Arab historian/ retelling, Alexander assured them “if measure of independence in the geographers Masudi (9) and Maqdasi Dara is no more, I am here and Iran will practice of their language, , and (10). These sources relate that Arab remain the same as it has always been economies. To uphold their settlement of southern Mesopotamia since its beginning” (4). He kept the independence and to respect their increased after the advent of in existing political organization of space, religions, the king of kings did not lay the early 7th century CE. Finally, of modified later by his successors. claim to any specific religion. course, the captive Jews in ancient Alexander also proclaimed justice to be Consequently, the peoples of Babylonia have nothing to do with the goal of his mission in Iran. ancient Iran's conquered territories Zionism, a 20th-century phenomenon. Eminent researcher Nayer Nouri were free to keep their religions, laws, Moreover, war is an inherent part quotes fellow expert Glover on the and traditions. Upon conquering of mankind's political behavior. Even nature of ancient Persian civilization: Babylonia in 539 BCE, in this age of modernity when war is found thousands of Jews in captivity detested as an act of immorality, there The Persians (Iranians) set there. He freed them and sent them are moralists who defend the so-called new ideas before mankind, ideas back to their place of worship. His “just war.” Babylonia was an Acadian for the world's good government respect for the captive Jews' religious civilization ruled by a , and, with utmost of unity and cohesion freedom guaranteed their good will therefore, Cyrus's war easily qualifies it combined with the largest possible towards the Iranians. He became their as such both in the Old and New freedom for the development of prophet, and they became voluntary Testaments as well as in the holy Koran. race and individual within the citizens of the Persian federation. On the other hand, our knowledge larger organization. (5) Cyrus commissioned the building of of ancient Persia and its role in the their temple, and their reaction was to ancient world is largely shrouded in Other writers, ancient and modern, assess his work as fulfillment of the obscurity, and our information, all too confirm that the “state” was central to prophecy of Isaiah, where it says: scanty, is derived from foreign sources Iran's governance from early times. (11) that were at war with Iran most of Greek historians/geographers th I am the lord…that saith of the time. and (5 century Cyrus, he is my shepherd, and BCE) confirm that Iran's Achaemenid shall perform my pleasure: even Justice as a Cornerstone of the Iranian Dynasty (559-330 BCE) founded a saying to Jerusalem, thou shalt be State System federal state, a vast commonwealth of built: and to the temple, thy autonomous nations. This federation's foundation shall be laid. (8) Considering that justice was a founder, Cyrus (Kurosh) the Great (559- cornerstone of ancient Iranian political 529 BCE), together with his successors, Many have tried hard to detect a philosophy, it is reasonable to argue substantially expanded their new “dark side” to this early example of a that Iranian spatial arrangements have commonwealth, dividing it into many federative state and good government. contributed to the evolution of the

22 FOCUS on Geography Volume 49, Number 4 concept of in the West. short intervals and caused a canal to be and the to the east. The political Some claim that when Cyrus the Great dug in to link the Red Sea to the organization of space in the Sassanid founded the federative state of many Nile (17). federation (224-651 CE) was marked by nations in what was to become known In matters of state politics, while the development of such concepts as in the West as the Persian Empire (12), the Athenians were busy with their internal and external frontier-keeping h e di d n ot i n v e n t t ol e r a n ce , particular version of citizenship- states, buffer states, and boundary righteousness, and happiness for the o r i e n t e d d e m o c r a c y , I r a n ' s pillars. There are even hints in ancient people but was following a deep- Achaemenids were forging a state literature of a well-defined river rooted, age-old tradition of how an system based on independence for boundary between Iran and in ideal king should behave. He may cultural groups or nationalities. It was (20). have inherited the tradition of good a federative system in which peoples of government – based on justice, varying cultural backgrounds were Sassanid Use of Territory and toleration of others and respect for given the right to govern their affairs Boundary varying religious beliefs from the 7th- autonomously, with respect for their century BCE , whose king religious and cultural identities. It A look at the works of Persian (Diaxus) first gathered all seems safe to say that equality and literature relevant to Iran's ancient Iranians into a single empire (13). justice were important to governance in , such as the poet Nevertheless, Cyrus's decree of this federative system of statehood. Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, reveals that the freedom and equality in 539 BCE is the The administration of justicreached its Sassanids helped develop the concept earliest documented evidence that zenith nearly a millennium later in the of territory within the framework of justice was basic to good government in Sassanid period during the rule of defined boundaries. The founding the ancient Persian tradition of Anushirvan the Just (531-579 CE), Sassanid, , revived the statehood. discussed in greater detail below. It is Achaeminids' political organization of This tradition was observed by plausible to assume that these early the state, dividing it into 20 many who succeeded Cyrus in Iran Persian traditions of political autonomous countries. He initiated a throughout its pre-Islamic history. philosophy have contributed to the government-style cabinet, assigning According to the stales found at development of modern concepts of m i n i s t e r s o f s t a t e i n c l u d i n g Naghsh-e in , democracy in the West. Some suggest B o z o r g m e h r t h e p h y s i c i a n - Darius I (Dariush), known as Darius the (18) that the concept of empire is philosopher, and revived the ancient Great (521-486 BCE), organized thirty perhaps a Roman adoption of the notion of the “four corners of the satrapies, each under an autonomous Persian Shahanshahi system; and thus it realm,” (the Iranian federation), with king assisted by a Satrap representing is plausible too that the Romans based four separate armies. He also created the central authority of the king of their idea of a senate on the ancient an advisory board of the nobles by kings. He appointed commanders of Persian Mehestan, the House of the dividing the political structure into the army and secretaries of political Elders. seven classes. The ministers, the affairs. He fixed the tributes of each priesthood, supreme judges, and four satrapy, designating tribute-collectors Evolution of State and Boundary from generals commanded the four armies and traveling inspectors, called the the Parthians to the Sassanids (21). “eyes and ears” of the great king, to Most celebrated of the Sassanid watch over the and army The Parthians, who succeeded the kings was Khosro I, Anushirvan the commanders. He introduced Macedonians in Iran between 247 BCE J u s t ( 5 3 1 5 7 9 C E ) , w h o s e currencies of darics and silver and 224 CE, created two kinds of administration of justice has widely siglus, thus facilitating trade exchange autonomies in the federation: internal been praised by Arabs and early in the federation (14). Darius built the satrapies and peripheral dependent Islamic historian-geographers (22). 2,700 kilometer-long Royal Road from states, with 18 of the latter enjoying This wise ruler gave practical meaning , northwest of the Persian Gulf, to greater autonomy (19). to the Achaemanid concept of the four Sardis on the Aegean Sea, with Around the dawn of the Christian corners of the realm by placing the 20 branches to Persepolis and other era, the concepts of state and territory countries of the Persian federation in political and commercial centers (15). assumed greater sophistication as the four major Kusts or Pazgous. Each was He ordered that the map of this road notion of frontier or boundary became ruled by a viceroy or regent called and civilized countries along it be more important in Iran. This was Pazgousban or Padusban, and an engraved on a plate of bronze (16), primarily the result of greater espahbad, or general, commanded the perhaps the first detailed geographic centralization of power in the face of army of each Pazgous. In his epic map in history. He established a postal new threats from powerful adversaries, Shahnameh, Ferdowsi describes the four service with relays of men and horses at such as the to the west Pazgous as follows:

Spring 2007 FOCUS on Geography 23 Khorasan included the western periphery of the Iranian would form the boundary between the territories of and ; Plateau in Mesopotamia, which played two sides, Bahram Azarabadegan or Azerbaijan the same role in the pre-Islamic era included the territory of between the Persian and Roman constructed pillars of stone and Armanestan (Armenia) and . chalk (plaster); thereby ensuring Ardebil; included Persia, in Desert ecologist Mitrani's theory of that no one from Iran or Turk or , , and Khazar the “Middle Zone,” in his usage others would pass beyond unless (most likely Khuzestan); and Iraq applied to (27), can be permitted by the who has included the territory of Iraq and used here to help explain the status and also made Jeyhun (River Oxus) a the Roman territories of and geographical position of Iran within its median in the way. (29) Anatolia (23). regional setting. This geographical situation has prevented other cultures Thus, it is Ferdowsi who asserted a Development of the concept of from overwhelming the Iranian Plateau thousand years ago that boundary territory in the Sassanid era went hand throughout history. pillars were erected six hundred years in hand with the evolution of the On their eastern flank, the earlier and that Iranians, Eastern Turks, concept of boundary. Governors Sassanids faced the Turans, who, like and third party nationals were (Padusbans) were appointed for the the Romans to the west, engaged in prohibited from going beyond them vassal states, and mayors (Shahrigs) numerous wars with the Iranians. In unless permitted by the king himself. were appointed for the ; frontier contrast to the imprecise The king also defined the River Oxus as zones were delineated to the west of the established with the Romans, the part of the boundary between the two federation and boundary lines to its Iranians on at least one occasion created political entities. This is a good east. precise boundaries with the Turans. example of the creation of a boundary This difference – buffer zone versus line in ancient Persia, corresponding to Buffers and Boundaries to the East and precise border – must have been the the modern understanding of the West result of differing pressure exerted on concept. Similarly, the permission the federation by these powers to their from the king for passing beyond the In the west, the Sassanids east and west. Rivalries with the boundary might be considered as an developed two kinds of frontier- Romans to the west were geopolitical, early form of a passport, in today's protection states: the internal frontier evolving into a situation similar to the terms. states within their four Kusts and the th Anglo-Russian “Great Game” of the 19 external frontier states, the most century in Central Asia. Rivalries with Territories and Boundaries to the famous of which was Hirah or the Turans to the east were intensely South Manazerah in Mesopotamia (24), on the strategic, culminating in many wars, northwestern corner of the Persian Gulf and requiring the demarcation of There are indications that the at the meeting place of the Iranian and boundary lines to separate the two. Parthians (250 BC - 224 CE) made Roman Empires. This vassal kingdom Not only did the Sassanids revive substantial progress in seafaring, but was created in the 5th century by the the Achaemanid organization of the there is no evidence to suggest how Sassanids on the river not far state and territory, they also fashioned they or the more ancient Achaemenids from their capital . This the term Iranshahr (the country of Iran), treated the issue of territoriality and frontier state was funded and protected arguably the first time that a state or a boundary in coastal areas along the by the Iranians, effectively forming a nation had assumed an identity and/or Persian Gulf. The Sassanids, by buffer state for Iran, defusing pressures a name independent of its ruling contrast, organized the southern Gulf emanating from the Romans (25). In a dynasties (28). into two states or satrapies after they similar move, the Romans created the th Poet Ferdowsi provides glimpses gained control of this area during the 4 vassal kingdom of Ghassan in the region of Iran's political geography in his century CE. To the west, they created now known as Syria (26). verses. Describing a debate between the kingdom of Hagar, embracing By virtue of its struggle against the Persian king Bahram Gour (Bahram ancient Aaval, covering an area that Arab rule, Iran played the role of a I, 421-438 CE) and a Roman emissary on today includes Bahrain, Qatar, and the cultural barrier throughout the Islamic their differing styles of and Hasa and Qatif of Saudi era, guaranteeing its cultural survival statesmanship, Ferdowsi informs the Arabia. To the east they created the in subsequent periods. Islam found its reader that, victorious in his campaign v a s s a l k i n g d o m o f M a s u n , way to Iran after 630 CE, supplanting against eastern Turks, Bahram Gour encompassing an area that in our time as the main religion, had boundary pillars built, between includes Oman and the United Arab but Arab culture was kept at bay. The Iran and its Turkish adversaries. Emirates. precise location of the line of this Deciding that the River Oxus (Jeyhun) The original population of these cultural barrier can be defined as the

24 FOCUS on Geography Volume 49, Number 4 areas was Iranian long before Arabs testimonies, the state organization had some intermediate steps. found their way to the coastal south. created by the Achaemanid kings was Specifically, he points to the Arab Arab immigration began in the 2nd based on culture groups and not , which succeeded the Iranian century CE. When the Kawadh (Qobads) territorial conquest. By developing Sassanid federation across the Middle ruled Masun in the 6th century CE, they their own version of a federative state East in the Islamic era. Levy identifies were faced with a rising tide of based on the notion of justice for all, the the Caliphate as an intermediate immigrant Arabs. The Iranian rulers Iranians created a commonwealth of culture through which the Iranian- treated the newcomers as citizens semi-independent nations (or a Persian tradition of statehood (Shahrvandan in Persian, Ahlalbilad in federation of autonomous states) and influenced the modern Western world. Arabic), giving them some autonomy arguably laid the foundation for the Quoting early Arab and Islamic under their own tribal leadership (30). idea of state democracy or democratic records, he states that, Thus, the ancient Iranian federation state. was still at work a thousand years after This political structure of statehood the Fakhri, an early- fourteenth its creation and in a distant, vassal w a s t a k i n g s h a p e i n I r a n century manual of politics and kingdom. However, the Sassanid era simultaneously with the advent of the history, relates how the caliph, was coming to an end as the Arab influx Greek version of citizenship-centered Umar, when at his wits end to became a flood fueled by Islam. The democracy. In 539 BCE, Iran's first know how to distribute the spoils Arabs captured the Sassanid capital of Achaemenid leader, Cyrus the Great, of war which were pouring in, Ctesiphon in the , and the empire issued the charter in Babylonia sought the advice of a Persian who collapsed by 650. (discussed above, the text is in the had once been employed in a British Museum) declaring equality government office (of the Sassanid Summing Up: Impact of the Iranian and justice for individuals, as well as time). His suggestion was that a Tradition of Statehood on the West freedom for religious-cultural entities , a register or bureau, in the realm. These notions formed the should be instituted for controlling income and this There is no doubt that the political fabric of the Iranian-Persian became the germ out of which Athenians initially developed the state; Cyrus' successor, Darius the grew the government machine concept of democracy, specifically Great, also referred to justice in the that served the caliphate some , in which citizens do stales he bequeathed to posterity. This hundreds of years. (34) not elect representatives to vote on suggests that, while the Athenians were their behalf but vote in their own right. concerned about the rights of Of the influence of the Persian However, this practice applied only to individuals in society, the Iranian- legacy of state and statesmanship on the social strata of the Athenian city- Persians were anxious to promote the the Arab Caliphate, an early Islamic state, which became a democracy in 500 rights of communities within their state historical account quotes Caliph Umar BCE. A nationwide application of system. as saying: democracy had to wait until Alexander Few other sources discuss the the Great conquered Persia in 331 BCE extent to which these ancient Iranian- Verily have I learnt justice from and adopted the Persian way of Persian traditions influenced the Kesra (Khosro, Anushirvan the organizing the political space – as a evolution of the Western concepts of Just). (35) quasi-federal state divided into state, boundary and democracy. discrete territories. The Achaemenids Examples include Durant (31) and the In his writings on the tradition of no doubt developed the original philosopher Nietzsche, who may have sacred kingship in Iran based on concept of state, but the idea of a formed his view of the civilized reliable Roman sources, Filippani- vertically organized state with distinct Western man based on his readings of Ronconi, states that: and clearly demarcated boundaries the ancient Persian philosophy of life matured under the Sassanids and (32). Nondemocratic traditions were if we want to look into the b e g a n t o i n f l u e n c e W e s t e r n also passed on to the West: the scholar successful diffusion in the civilizations. Ghirshman (Iran, 1962) states that, Western world of certain When assessing the influence of “under Alexander, 'monarchy by institutions connected with ancient Iran on the concepts of state divine right' of the Iranians became an kingship, in either the religious or and boundary in medieval Europe, institution of Hellenism and later was the lay domain, we must go back to Biblical references abound on the topic taken up by many European states” the Roman Empire, which was the of Iranian statehood and its tradition of (33). first Western state to absorb a respect for the rights of varying peoples The scholar Levy suggests that the great deal of such outside (Isaiah 44; Esther 1:1; Ezra 1:1; and connection between the ancient influence, especially in its political others). According to these Iranian-Persian tradition and the West and administrative institutions

Spring 2007 FOCUS on Geography 25 regarding the status of the eventual revival of the concepts of This process continued in 1923 in the Emperor. (36). Iranian territoriality and statehood. south, where the main tribes, the Eventually Iranian identity and Bakhtiari and Qashqai, were put down Examples of the influence of the empire revived under the Safavid and Sheikh Khazal, the regional ruler of Persian tradition of statehood on the Dynasty (1501-1722). Originating in the Arab tribes of Khuzestan, was Western civilization are provided: n o r t h e r n I r a n , t h e S a f a v i d s ousted. The heritage handed down by reestablished a unified Iran, although Reza Khan was able to seize the Iran to the West and still living in it was transmuted in many ways by government and legitimized his its ideological conceptions and acceptance of as the official p o s i t i o n a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y cultural institutions is manifold. religion. What they revived in terms of consolidated his (and the central If its patterns are sometimes territorial organization of space was a government's) power through difficult to recognize and trace vague adaptation of the Arab Empire's means. In 1925, he sealed the unity of back to their origin, that is due to interpretation of the Sassanid system, the nation (40) by deposing the last of the fact that this legacy has been not the original version. This suggests the , Ahmad Shah, received through intermediate that, during the centuries dominated crowning himself as “” cultures and westernized by the Arabs and Sunni Islam, Iran Pahlavi, head of the House of Pahlavi. models… The leading elements of departed from its own ancient T h e n e w k i n g ' s c a r e f u l l y what we could call the 'vertical traditions of state and boundary. This constructed state and national frontiers organization' of the state are part was a powerful handicap that has were far from strong. The illusion of of this age-old heritage. They were th manifested itself during the 20 centralization worked only for the handed over to the modern world century in the face of the conceptual innermost provinces. Iran's abilities to through the late Roman imperial confront challenges from the outside structure and its medieval and physical onslaught of modern renaissance: through the European ideas about nationality and world were limited in spite of its institutions of chivalry and statehood. modern defense force. The new state knighthood that, obscurely was successful in its first legal battles Emergence of the Nation-state in the with the British over control of the transmitted to European society th in a Celtic-Germanic garb, were 20 Century Anglo-Iranian Oil Company in the later Christianized … (36). south, and it made some gains in a 1933 The came into oil agreement (41). Summing Up: Impact of the Iranian power in Iran in February 1921 out of a As II commenced, Iran Tradition of Statehood on Iran in coup d'etat against the Qajar Dynasty. declared its neutrality, but this was the Post-Islamic Era The founder of this new Dynasty jeopardized by political affairs in gained a short breathing space, 16 years neighboring Iraq and growing British What happened to these concepts of strong central control of the country, suspicions concerning the activities of in Iran and in its neighbors following during which the idea of a modern German agents in Iran. The invasion of the arrival of Islam? The Arab nation-state was imposed on Iran. This the USSR by German forces in June Caliphate of (Abbasid experience enabled the government to 1941 added to Iran's difficulties: with Caliphate, 750 to 1258 AD) mimicked tie its formerly federated and varied its sensitive geographical location on the Sassanid organization of territories provinces firmly to the central the one hand and the Anglo-Soviet almost in its entirety (37). They too government. alliance on the other, the country was created frontier states, one of which, the Beginning in 1921, Reza Khan exposed to simultaneous pressures Khozeimeh Amirdom of Qaenat (in Pahlavi put down regional revolts by from the north and the south. ), lasted until the 1930s (38). the tribes of the Khamseh and others Increasingly perceived by the In the post-Sassanid era, as Islam before beginning the process of Allies as a strategic supply corridor for spread into Iran, the embrace of Shia reducing rebellion elsewhere in the transferring war material to aid Islam over Sunni was essentially a west (39). He took advantage of the 's defense (42), Iran's oil also was desire to revive the country's cultural Russian withdrawal from Iranian soil seen as a key commodity, to be denied and national identity. The ancient in September of that year to put down the Axis powers (43). In 1941, an Persian concept of justice gained new the Russian-backed revolt of Kuchak allegedly pro-German revolt by the currency, transmuted into one of the Khan in the northern province of Gilan, Iraqi Prime Minister, Rashid al- five basic principles of Shia Islam. In marking the clear beginning of the Guilani, resulted in British and Russian th the following centuries, the expansion centralization process. In the following occupation of Iran on the 25 of August, of Shia in Iran merged with other year, Reza Khan attacked rebel forces in bringing the Middle East directly into notions of identity in the face of the Azerbaijan and Kurdistan and settled the Second World War. Reza Shah was Arab Caliphate, paving the way for the the northeast province of Khorasan. deposed and sent into exile by a joint

26 FOCUS on Geography Volume 49, Number 4 Anglo-Soviet decision. agreement for exploration in the five during the events of the late 1970s and occupied northern provinces– early 1980s, tested by both the Islamic The Challenge of the Autonomous Asterabad, Azerbaijan, Gilan, Revolution of 1979 and the Iran-Iraq Republics in the 1940s Mazandaran, and Khorasan – provided War (1979-1988). None of the that Soviet forces were withdrawn and peripheral provinces broke away from The overthrow of Reza Shah put subject to ratification of the concession the Iranian state during the period of the country's internal structure and by the Majlis (parliament) when it was unrest in 1979-80 or during the Iraqi international borders into question. reconvened. The matter was of 1980. This was in part a The Anglo-Soviet alliance opposed the complicated by a British military function of the internal cultural accession of Reza Shah's son, the landing near and the start of a cohesion of the country and in part a second Pahlavi, to the throne. The major tribal rebellion in the south of result of prompt action by the central 's occupation in the north Iran supported by the British (46). government to put down secessionist included their pursuit of additional In December of that year, the movements in their infancy. Also, the territory, achieved by seizing parts of decided to support development of Iran as a nation-state northern provinces. Qavam as-Saltaneh against the Soviet with a comparatively sophisticated At the end of the War, Iran faced Union's attempt to rig the elections in economy between 1946 and 1978 the first challenge to its territorial Azerbaijan. This ensured that Iranian brought about considerable rural- integrity. In December 1946, an government troops were able to enter urban migration and trans-province of Azerbaijan Azerbaijan to supervise elections for movements to new work places. was declared in under Ja'far the Majlis on December 7th. The Together with a growth in national Pishevari. This coup against the central eventual Soviet withdrawal and the consciousness, these changes largely government in Tehran was backed by collapse of the Pishevari republic re- eroded traditional tribal and ethnic the presence of the armed forces of the established Iranian sovereignty in the lines of separation. USSR. It was feared that this might northwest, and permitted a return to Today, the only remaining foreshadow the total loss of Azerbaijan the prewar boundaries with the USSR challenge to Iran's territorial cohesion to them. Similar concerns applied to in that region. The republic from its ethnic and linguistic minorities the Kurdish People's Republic, set up in met the same fate at the same time. is in Kurdistan, tribal parts of Mahabad in the west of Iran in the same From 1951-1953, Prime Minister Khuzistan, and more recently in parts way and at the same time. Many in the Mossadeq's government, elected into of Azerbaijan. In the case of Iranian West viewed the two new autonomous office in accordance with the laws of the Kurdistan, the creation of an republics as designed to move Soviet Iranian constitution like those internationally sponsored Kurdish frontiers southwards in accordance p r e c e d i n g i t , s u c c e e d e d i n state in Iraq would be disruptive to the with the will of Peter the Great and nationalizing the Anglo-Persian oil present balance. The majority of according to the objectives of the USSR industry. However, this was a success Iranian Kurds see themselves as laid out in the Four Power Secret Pact on paper only, as the subsequent oil ethnically as Kurds but also as citizens of November 1940 between the Soviet agreement with the Anglo-American sharing Iranian heritage and values Union, Germany, , and Italy (44). Consortium held back actual with the rest of the Iranian populace. The eventual survival of Iran's 1941 nationalization until the early 1970s. Since the start of the conflict in Iraq, the frontier in the northwest was due to Then, with OPEC support, Iran governments of Iran, Turkey, and Syria several combined factors: pro-Iranian regained independent control over its pledged to maintain Iraq's territorial Azeri resilience, Iranian political oil industry, from production to integrity. The United States, , adroitness, and Western pressure on exports as well as pricing. and the have the USSR (45). In January 1946, the Mossadeq was deposed in 1953 by reassured the United Nations Security Soviet government refused to a combination of internal, U.S., and Council that Kurdistan will not be withdraw its armed forces from Iran, British interests. From then until he hived off as a separate state. The stating that its troops would remain in was deposed in 1979, Shah Mohammad prospects for an autonomous Kurdish place until the originally agreed upon Reza Pahlavi ruled Iran with an iron fist nation seem therefore to be very small nd deadline of 2 . The Iranian with the help of SAVAK, his notorious on current evidence (47). government protested to the United intelligence and security service. Nations Security Council against these The Islamic Revolution and Recovery Soviet prevarications. However, help The 1979 Revolution and the since 1979 from the UN was feeble and slow in Restatement of Territorial Integrity coming. It was left to Iran's Prime Iran's 1979 Islamic Revolution gave Minister Qavam as-Saltaneh to fight the The strength of the modern nation- the illusion of opportunity for ethnic battle alone. He offered the USSR an oil state in Iran was seriously challenged groups to break away from central

Spring 2007 FOCUS on Geography 27 stopped. With the exception of persistent, isolated unrest in Kurdistan, Iran returned to its state of national cohesion by 1981.

The Iranian Awakening

What is taking place in Iranian domestic life at the start of the 21st century, two decades after the Islamic Revolution, appears to be a belated realization of the goals set by the country's constitutionalism a century earlier. A constitutional revolution awakened the Iranian elite at the beginning of the 20th century, and the I s l a m i c R e v o l u t i o n , w i t h i t s tumultuous aftermath, appears to have caused the universal awakening of all Iranians at the start of the 21st (50). T h a t i s t o s a y t h a t t h e postrevolutionary euphoria, which has Professor Pirouz Mojtahed-Zadeh (with hat in his hand) at number 10 Downing Street, further slackened the shaky rule of law, London, with R.H. Tony Benn (former British energy secretary) and Professor Abbas as well as the consequences of the eight- Edalat of London Imperial College and others delivering a petition to Prime Minister year war, together with the biting Tony Blair against war on Iran. effects of the economic and strategic siege of Iran by the United States, have all led to the awakening of the people government and to seek regional w i t h i n I r a n m e r i t s s e r i o u s of Iran. autonomy. During the unrest of 1979 consideration” (48). Such judgments The United States has, in recent and 1980, marginal areas of the country were not uncommon in Western decades, implemented a careful plan of were at times difficult to reach by the Europe, Japan, and , strategic encirclement of Iran, adding a central government, which was unable indicating widespread concern about strong sense of insecurity to the to send its representatives, gather , the territorial unity of Iran during the country's deepening economic or guarantee security in parts of period from February 1979 to hardship. Tehran has viewed this Azerbaijan, Kurdistan, Luristan, , September 1980. strategic encirclement in the following Khuzistan, and on the Persian This unstable position was way. The United States helped Gulf. The most prolonged and temporary, and the subsequent Iraqi Pakistan, directly or otherwise, to widespread insurrection occurred in invasion of Iran and outbreak of war create the Taliban in Afghanistan in Kurdistan, with isolated armed clashes quickly united all Iranians (including order to destabilize Iran's eastern flank. between the Iranian security forces and all ethnicities and opposition groups) in Washington extended direct and Kurdish dissidents. defense of their country's territorial indirect support to the United Arab Small-scale opposition, such as that integrity. This proof of the essential Emirates' claims to the Iranian islands by the Turkmen minority, was crushed territorial stability of Iran bolsters the of and Abu early during 1979, though this was expert opinion of Professor McLachlan, Musa, a direct threat to Iran's territorial more a political movement of the left- a highly respected Iranologist, who integrity in the Persian Gulf (51). The wing Fedayin-e Khalq than an ethnic asserts, “Under conditions of U.S. then armed and encouraged Iraq u p r i s i n g . A r a b s e p a r a t i s t normality, Iran's border regions and to light the flame of war on Iran's organizations in the oilfield province of ethnic minorities do not pose problems western flank (52), and supported Khuzestan were set up by and to internal security” (49). The new Israeli-Turkish military cooperation, supported with arms from Iraq. Under revolutionary authorities were quick to resulting in Israeli surveillance flights these conditions of uncertainty in suppress pockets of lawlessness in the over Iran's western borderlands, thus provincial areas, the British Foreign border regions with the help of the destabilizing the northwest. The U.S. Office's off-the-record view was that majority once the initial impact of Iraqi support for strategic cooperation “The question of territorial fission invasions on Iranian soil had been between Turkey, , and Azerbaijan

28 FOCUS on Geography Volume 49, Number 4 Republic is viewed in Tehran as a society. In the four subsequent decades that general direction. serious threat to the three Azerbaijan – from 1906 to 1940 – although the elite . was struggling for democracy, the The Mechanism of Political Supply As seen from Tehran, this strategic, country was under foreign occupation, and Demand long-term U.S. policy, coupled with the and foreign policies would not promote prevention of Caspian Sea oil and gas or allow Iranian citizens to wake up and The comprehensive national from being piped through Iran to the claim and exercise their own rights to awakening in Iran today has motivated outside world and along with the democracy. demands for democracy throughout deliberate isolation of Iran in the The years from 1940 to 1953, society. The elite, along with everyone evolving strategic alignments in the though witness to free elections in else in Iran, speaks the same political Caucasus, Caspian, and Central Asia, accordance with highly ambiguous language with the same purpose. They h a s c o m p l e t e d t h e s t r a t e g i c election laws, were not years of all demand the kind of reforms that are encirclement of Iran on its northern democracy in Iran either. This period fundamental and far-reaching, the kind flank. also began with foreign occupation and of reforms that could address the A p e r h a p s u n a n t i c i p a t e d the implementation of the policies of problems which prevent or at least consequence has been to heighten the foreign powers. Following the end of d e l a y t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f perception of threat and territorial foreign occupation, clashes occurred democracy in Iran. The demand for awareness among Iranians, thus among the elite on how to govern the democracy has gained ground in Iran s t r e n g t h e n i n g n a t i o n a l u n i t y country, harming prospects for at the grassroots level, and it is causing throughout the country. No other democratization: differences in a growth of democracy from the basic phenomenon in the past two hundred political views translated themselves foundations upwards through society. years has worked as effectively as Iraq's into personal disputes between The tree of democracy in Iran now invasion of Iran and the UAE territorial Mossadeq and his many political rivals, appears to be growing with its roots claims against Iran to elevate national and personal vengeance among the firmly placed in the culture fed by the unity and awareness of territorial elite replaced efforts for the values that form the Iranian identity. integrity among Iranians. This implementation of democratic ideas. encirclement by outsiders, together Thus, for the time being, the locomotive The Mechanism of A Clash of Views with economic and political pressures, of democratic ideas was completely and the Start of Political Dialogue has caused a political awakening of the derailed. The masses, still contending kind needed for the democratization of with their rural economy and When the mechanism of political Iranian society to be ignited. Four main traditional way of life, lacked the supply and demand begins to move mechanisms working together have necessary awareness or motivation to towards democracy, this sets another brought the country to this point. Each move towards improving their lot in a mechanism in motion that is essential is discussed separately below. new and improved political system. for a balance of power – the clash of They were unaware of the significance political views, which give birth to the The Mobilization of the Mechanisms of voting and unfamiliar with their dialogue necessary among the forces of Democratization right to participate in the management shaping political events. A society that of the political affairs of their country. awakens to a variety of opinions Iran's Constitutional Revolution, In 1953, the vacuum resulting from among political groups and factions during which a national constitution the lack of effective national experiences conflicting views. was issued in 1906 and amended in participation in politics made it Democracy is the result of a balance of 1909 and 1925, was not completely p o s s i b l e f o r a s u p p o s e d l y power in a society. This balance of successful mainly because the kind of “democratically oriented” politician power emerges as the result of democracy it promulgated was no like Mossadeq to close down even the opposing ideas and opinions among more than an imported idea copied Majlis (Parliament), the most important political groups that require the rule of from Europe, which could only impress symbol of democracy. What was law as their ultimate arbiter. the westernized elite. A rural and happening at that time was not the Iranian society is presently traditional society, with over 90% of its exercise of democracy but a popular experiencing this clash of views and population illiterate and unaware of movement that later lead to the creation opinions among political forces and modern world, could not digest this of the necessary capacity for has begun a far-reaching dialogue. European idea in its original form. democracy. However plausible these Two main trends have emerged: the In other words, there was neither efforts were, Iranian society at that time traditionalists and the reformists. This the capacity for democracy nor was did not have the necessary mechanisms extensive discourse, with all its rough there any demand for it outside of a for the realization of democracy. and smooth features that lead to sharp small group at the top of Iranian Today the wheels have begun to turn in exchanges between political factions

Spring 2007 FOCUS on Geography 29 from time to time, has turned into a themselves to the reality of the political of Iran to bring under control the s e r i o u s p r o c e s s f o r p o l i t i c a l power they hold in their hands. destiny of their political life. It will lead development. There is no stopping it Subsequent elections have shown to the realization of the rule of law as now. this to be a true and fundamental the ultimate arbiter in Iranian society, As an example, both the student change. There is a process at work, with important future impacts on the demonstrations in the spring of 1999 on albeit in need of much refinement, but it region of West Asia. the one hand and the closure of has passed the point of no return. numerous newspapers in the spring of S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e s e p o l i t i c a l Notes and References 2000 on the other have deepened the developments are taking place without discussion in the years since. Iran has direct influence from the highly 1- Keith McLachlan, The Boundaries of entered a new phase of political charged ideological tendencies of the Modern Iran, The SOAS/GRC development in which Iranians of all traditional political parties. This Geopolitical Series 2, UCL Press, walks of life are involved. This process process is leading to a quickly evolving London 1994, p. 1. is helping to shape a new political demand for political parties that could 2- Professor Jean Gottmann, whose identity that is not necessarily that of channel the will of the people and the student (this author) was at the central government. Another political force of society into the Oxford University in the late positive aspect is the government's government and tackle the new 1970s, authorized this quotation efforts, slowly and sometimes demands of Iranian society (54). from his letter, in a separate note reluctantly, to come to terms with these In conclusion, an amalgam of these dated May 19, 1992. new developments. four mechanisms has created a 3- Shahnameh, the Book of Kings, by Abul- situation in Iran that can confidently be Qasem Ferdowsi (d. 1020 AD) is Conclusion: The Mechanism of the termed the most significant turning widely praised as the only reliable Transfer of the Will of the People to point in the 's modern political source in that the State history and in its emergence on the studied the pre-Islamic history of global scene with a new political Iran and its association with other Another potential mechanism to identity. Should this development political entities of antiquity. move Iran in the direction of continue in safety, free from the Hitherto, little attention has been democracy is “the transfer of the will of possible harm of military ambitions or paid to the way it describes the nation to the state for the foreign influence, it will lead the people political relations in association management of the affairs of territory” (53). This can work only through democratic elections of the kind that reflect the will of the people. Iran's presidential election of May 1997 was, without a doubt, a turning point in the formation of a new political identity in both domestic and foreign policy. Similarly, the 2005 presidential election is a vital landmark event in the progression of the democratic process. In addition to the statistics of participation, unprecedented in Iran and in the Middle East, the manner and motivation for voting and impacts on political reforms in Iranian society were also unprecedented. Almost all eligible voters, about 31 million people, took part in both the 1997 and 2005 elections. In the 1997 election, the overwhelming majority spoke in one voice and for one purpose: political reform. This unprecedented move has had significant consequences Forthcoming in FOCUS on Geography: Part II - Iran's Geopolitical Regions in the 21st in the decade since, the most important Century by Dr. Pirouz Mojtahed-Zadeh. Please watch for the follow up article to read being the waking up of the voters about his views on the geo- in the 21st century.

30 FOCUS on Geography Volume 49, Number 4 with the political organization of 9- Masudi, Abul-Hassan Ali Ibn Clarendon Press.18- See for the space in the ancient world. Hussein, Moravvege az-Zahab, Pers. instance; Tavakoli, Ahmad, 1372 Popularly known as an epic Trans., Bongah-e Tarjomeh va (1993): Empratouri, Shahanshah account of ancient Persian history, Nashr-e Ketab, Tehran 1977. (Empire, Shahanshahi), Ayandeh especially of the Sassanid period 10- Maqdasi, al-Beshari, Ahsan at- Monthly, Vol. IXX, No. 7-9, (224 651 CE), the Shahnameh Taqasim fi Marefat al-Aqalim, Lieden Tehran. provides a remarkable description 1906. 19- Vadiei, K. 1974: Moghadamehi bar of the development of the concept 11- Iliff, J. H., 1953: Persia and the Ancient Joghrafiay-e Ensaniy-e Iran (An of state in ancient Persia. It World, in A. J. Arbery ed., The Introduction to the Human carefully describes how the idea of Legacy of Persia, Oxford Clarendon. Geography of Iran), Tehran a vertically organized state evolved 12- Some suggest that the concept of University Press, p. 186. in ancient Iran with clearly “empire” is perhaps a Roman 20- Turan is a term used by Ferdowsi demarcated boundaries, which adoption of the Persian Shahanshahi (d. AD 1020) in his Shahnameh, the influenced such Western political system (Tavakoli, Ahmad, 1372 greatest work of epic literature in conceptions as “state,” “territory,” (1993): Empratouri, Shahanshah the , in reference “boundary,” and “democracy.” (Empire, Shahanshahi), Ayandeh to peoples of Turkic origin in the Ferdowsi's description of the monthly, Vol. IXX, No. 7-9, eastern fringes of old Khorasan. political geography of the ancient Tehran). Moreover, the Romans What constitutes Central Asia now w o r l d b e a r s r e m a r k a b l e may have evolved their idea of was “” during resemblance to the modern “senate” on the basis of ancient most of the past 20 centuries. concepts of political geography Persian Mehestan (the House of the 21- Masudi, Abul-Hassan Ali Ibn that evolved in post-Westphalia Elders), or vice versa. Hussein (Arab geographer/ Europe. Did he, who lived a 13- Nayer Nouri, A. H., 1971: Iran's historian of 4th century AH, thousand years ago, well before C o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e W o r l d Moravvege az-Zahab (Propagator of Westphalia treaty of 1648, learn Civilization, Vol. II., Tehran, p. 188. the Way), Persian translation 1977 these ideas from modern Europe, 14- Nayer Nouri, op. cit., p. 221. by Abul-Qasem Payandeh, or is it that ancient Persia 15- Mojtahed-Zadeh, Pirouz, 1974: New Bongah-e Tarjomeh va Nashr-e influenced medieval Europe in Studies on the Royal Road, Ketab, Tehran, 464-5. terms of the evolution of political translation from Victor W. Von 22- On Anushirvan's administration of thoughts and political geography? Hagen's article in The Geographical justice, see many early Arab and This is a fascinating question Magazine (of June 1974), as Islamic works of history and deserving further exploration with appeared in monthly Daneshmand geography including: the help of reliable analysis of the (Scientist) of Tehran, Vol. 11, No. 11 A-Tabari, Mohammad Bin Jarir, ancient world by respectable (Series No. 131), September: pp. 4-5 Tarikh-e Tabari, Persian scholars of our time. & 56-9. translation, 11 volumes, 4- Ferdowsi, Hakim Abul-Qasem, 16- A plate of bronze or other metals is published by Bongah-e Shahnameh, Original text, Javidan called jam in Persian. Similarly, a Tarjomeh va Nashr-e Ketab, publication 1364 (1985), 4th print, goblet of metal or crystal is jam. Tehran 1974. Vol. III, Tehran, p. 330. On the other hand, Ferdowsi's B- Maqdasi, al-Beshari, Ahsan at- 5- Nayer Nouri, A. H., 1971: Iran's Shahnameh speaks of the legendary Taqasim fi Marefat al-Aqalim, Liden C o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e W o r l d Shah, founder of Iran, 1906. Civilization, Vol. II., Tehran, p. 196. who had a jam showing the world. C- Biruni, Abu-Reihan, Qanoun-e 6- Templeton, Peter Louis, 1979: The From this concept comes the Masudi, Published in Dakan 1955. Persian Prince, Persian Prince mystical “crystal ball” in almost all D- Ibn al-Faqih, Abu-Bakr Publication, London, Templeton, cultures. This author is of the Mohammad, Moktasar-e al-Boldan, p. 14. opinion that Jamshid Shah was 279 AH, Liden 1885. 7- The text of this proclamation is in none other than , E- Ibn Huqal, Mohammad, Surat al- Acadian (Akkadian), who had the bronze disc “jam” Ardh, London 1938. inscribed on a clay cylinder now in showing a map of the civilized F- Estakhri, Ebrahim, Al-Masalek the British Museum's Persian world. There are other reasons val-Mamalek, Liden 1889. section. supporting this theory, the G- Hamavi, Abdullah Yaqut, 8- Lockhart, L., 1953: Persia as Seen in the discussion of which goes beyond Mo'jam al-Boldan, Cairo 1906. West, in A. J. Arbery ed., The Legacy the scope of this article. H- Masudi, Abul-Hassan Ali Ibn of Persia, Oxford Clarendon Press, 17- See for instance; Arbery, A. J, 1953: Hussein, Moravvege az-Zahab, Pers. p. 326. The Legacy of Persia, Oxford Trans., Bongah-e Tarjomeh va

Spring 2007 FOCUS on Geography 31 Nashr-e Ketab, Tehran 1977. under the Pahlavis, Hoover and African Studies, University of 23- Ferdowsi, Hakim Abul-Qasem, op. Institution Press, Stanford London, cf. paper of 14 October cit., p. 415. University, USA, p. 67. 1981. 24- Masudi, ibid. 37- Pourkamal, M., Administration 49- Keith McLachlan, Traditional 25- Masudi, op. cit., p. 240. Divisions of Iran, Plan and Budget Regions and National Frontiers of Iran 26- Masudi, op. cit., p. 467. Organization 1977, Tehran, p. 7. A General Overview, in Pirouz 27- Mitrani, , 1950: Evolution of the 38- Mojtahed-Zadeh, Pirouz, 2004: Mojtahed-Zadeh's “Boundary Middle Zone, Annals of American Small Players of , Politics and International Boundaries Political and Social Science, Routledge/Curzon, London and of Iran”, Universal Publishers, Boca September. New York, c. II & III. Raton, Florida USA 2006, p. 30. 28- Mojtahed-Zadeh, Pirouz, 1999: Iran 39- H. Arfa, Under the Five , 111-85 50-For more details on this subject, see: va Irani boudan (Iran and to be (London John Murray, 1964). Dr. Pirouz Mojtahed-Zadeh, Iran Iranian), Ettelaat Syasi Eqtesadi 40- D. N. Wilber, Iran, 126 (Princeton and Being Iranian, in Ettelaat-e Siasi (Political Economic Ettelaat) University Press, 1976). va Eqtesadi (Political and Economic quarterly of Tehran, Vol. XIV, Nos. 41- R. Ferrier, The History of the British Ettelaat), Vol. XIV, Nos. 3&4 and 3&4 (147-148) and 5&6 (149-150), Petroleum Company, vol. 1, 632-5 5&6, va 1378 (December Tehran Azar & Day and & ( C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e 1999 January 2000) and Bahman va Esfand 1378 (winter of 1999), p. University Press, 1982); J. Marlowe, Esfand 1379 (February March 147-8. Iran: A Short Political Guide, 55-7, 2000). 29- Ferdowsi, op. cit., p. 394. (London: Pall Mall, 1963). 51- For more information on this 30- Wilkinson, ibid. 42- W. E. Griffith, Iran's Foreign Policy, subject, see: Pirouz Mojtahed- 31- Will Durant, History of Civilizations, in Iran under the Pahlavis, G. Zadeh, Security and Territoriality in Persian translation, Tehran 1988. Lenczowski (ed.), 370-1 (Stanford: the Persian Gulf, Curzon Press, 32- Nietzsche, Friedrich (1883-85), Thus Hover Institute, 1978). London 1999, section IV. Spoke Zarathustra, Formally 43- Wilber, op. cit., p. 132. 52- See statement made by U.S. published in 1892. 44- M. Sicker, The Bear and the Lion, 55 Secretary of State, Madam 33- Nayer Nouri, op. cit., 152. (New York, Praeger, 1988). Albright, on March 17, 2000 at the 34- Levy, R., 1953: Persia and the Arabs, 45- R. W. , in Iran, American-Iranian Association in in A. J. Arbery ed., The Legacy of 198 (Pittsburgh: University of Washington, international news Persia, Oxford Clarendon Press, p. Pittsburgh Press, 1964). agencies. 61. 46- R. N. Fry, Iran, 87 (London: Allen & 53- For details, see: Pirouz Mojtahed- 35- Maqdasi al-Maruf be-al-Beshari, Unwin, 1954. Zadeh, Geopolitical Ideas and Iranian Ahsan at-Taqasim fi Marefat al- 47- cf. M. T. O'Shea, Chapter 5 (of Realities, Published by Nashr-e Nei, Aqalim (written in 375 AH), second Modern Boundaries of Iran, K. S. Tehran 2000, Chapter I. ed. Leiden 1906, p. 18. McLachlan (ed.) 1994, London: 54- Pirouz Mojtahed-Zadeh, Iran and 36- Filippani-Ronconi, Pio, 1978: The UCL Press). Being Iranian, op. Cit. Tradition of Sacred Kingship in Iran, 48- Unpublished paper of the Tripartite in George Lenczowski ed., Iran seminar (1981), School of Oriental

32 FOCUS on Geography Volume 49, Number 4