APPENDIX I: CHECKLIST FOR INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

KNOWLEDGE QUESTIONS 1. Al Qaeda; Saudi Arabia’s Internal Risks and Security Threats

(a) What are the important social risks in Saudi Arabia? (Rapid popula- tion growth, unemployment, lack of high quality education system and the attraction of the youths to the Al Qaeda network) (b) How do social risks in Saudi Arabia affect the wider security in the region? (c) How can the acts of perpetrated by Al Qaeda affect the US and both Shia and Sunni Persian Gulf states?

2. Anti-American Sentiment

(a) What are the most important factors of anti-Americanism in the Persian Gulf?/What role did religious differences between the regional states and the US play in fomenting anti-American senti- ment in the region in the 1980s? (b) To what extent is religion a key element in the rise of anti-American sentiments in the region?/How did globalization affect the cul- tural identity of the region and what role did it play in the rise in anti-American sentiment?/To what extent have US activities in the region since 2003 been a factor in rising levels of anti-American sentiment?

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2017 189 F. Shayan, Security in the Persian Gulf Region, DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-58678-0 190 APPENDIX I: CHECKLIST FOR INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

(c) Given these factors, which one do you regard as most important for the rise in anti-American attitudes?

3. The Security Complex in the Persian Gulf

(a) How do the security threats and risks mentioned above affect the security complex in the region?/To what extent has the Iraq War created an increase in societal security threats in the region?

OPINION QUESTIONS 4. The Future of the Security Complex in the Region

(a) How would you describe the future of the security complex in the Persian Gulf?

5. Personal Perspective

(a) Is there something else you would like to add? BIBLIOGRAPHY

SECONDARY MATERIAL

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WORKING AND CONFERENCE PAPERS Bennett, Andrew, and Jeffery T. Checkel. 2012. Process Tracing: From Philosophical Roots to Best Practices . Simons Papers in Security and Development 21/2012, Vancouver: Simon Frazer University, School for International Studies. Ehteshami, Anoushirvan. 2007. 9/11 as a Cause of Paradigm Shift? Working Paper SGIARWP07-02. Durham: Durham University, School of Government and International Affairs. Eisenstadt, Michael, Michael Knights, and Ahmed Ali. 2011. Iran’s Infl uence in Iraq Countering Tehran’s Whole-of-Government Approach . Policy Focus #111, New York: The Washington Institute for Near East Policy. Hegghammer, Thomas. 2007. Saudi Militants in Iraq: Background and Recruitment Patterns . FFI-Rapport 2006/03875. Oslo: Norwegian Defence Research Establishment (FFI). Kirdar, M.J. 2011. Al Qaeda in Iraq . AQAM Futures Project: Case Study Series 1, Washington D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies. Møller, Bjørn. 2005. Security Models and Their Applicability to the Gulf: The Potential of European Lessons Applied . DIIS Working Paper 3/2005, Copenhagen: Danish Institute of International studies. Schlaffer, Edit, and Ulrich Kropiunigg. 2011. Saudi Youth: Unveiling the Force for Change . Gulf Analysis Paper, Washington D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies. Soares, Cavalcanti, and P. Gustavo. 2009. Understanding the Role and the Impacts of Religion in International Relations . Paper Presented at International Studies Association-ABRI Joint International Meeting, Brazil, 22–24 July. Westelius, Niklas Johan. 2013. External Linkages and Policy Constraints in Saudi Arabia . IMF Working Papers WP/13/59, March. 204 BIBLIOGRAPHY

DAILY NEWSPAPERS AND NEWS AGENCIES

ARABIC AND PERSIAN NEWSPAPERS AND NEWS AGENCIES Baround, Ramzy. 2007. US Arabs and Muslims: The Search for Common Identity. Arab News, 29 August. Especial Actions of ‘Jamaran’ in Manoeuver ‘Velayat 90’. 2011. Tabnak, News Agency in Relation to the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps. 31 December. Gathering in Front of the Embassy of Saudi Arabia in Iran. 2015. Asr Iran News Agency, 11 April. Hashemilion, [fi rst name was not cited]. 2011. Saudi Protesters Step Back—For Now. Arabia Today 15 April. Hussain, Murtaza. 2012. The Roots of Global Anti-Americanism. Al Jazeera, 11 December. Iran in 2014. 2014. Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting, 5 January. Iraq’s Sadr Loyalists Call for New Elections as Fears of Sectarian Crisis Grow. 2011. Al Arabiya, 27 December. Middle East. 2014. Al-Arabiya News Agency. 29 September. New Media Attack of Saudi Arabia Against Iran Nuclear Energy Agreement. 2013. Al-Alam, 30 November. Overcoming to Daesh Centers in the North of Samara. 2014. Mehr News Agency, 5 July. Saudi Arabia Funds Daesh. 2014. Tasnim News Agency, 14 June. Saudi Arabia’s Attack to Yemen. 2014. Jahan News Agency, 26 March. Shaista, Aziz. 2003. Saudi Fighters ‘Join Resistance’ in Iraq, Al Jazeera, 29 October. Shiite and Sunni MPs in Kuwait Parliament Fistfi ght. 2011. The National (The UAE ), 19 May. Talashan, Hasan. 2012. An Overview of the Geopolitics of Shia in Iraq. Shia News, 9 May. The American Version of Islamic World. 2014. South News Agency, 20 September. The Rest of the Report of the Quds Online Regarding the Reaction to the Event in the Jeddah Airport. 2015. Quds Online News Agency, 8 April. UAE Cancel Iraq’s Debt of $7 Billion. 2008. Al Arabiya News Agency, 6 July. US and UK Lose Hearts, Minds in Arab World. 2003. Arab News, 8 April.

WESTERN NEWSPAPERS, NEWS AGENCIES AND MAGAZINES Abeidoh, Rawhi. 2002. Popular Boycott Hits U.S. Exports to Saudi Arabia. Common Dreams, 20 June. Almigdad, Mojalli, and Di Giov, Janine. 2015. A Slow Hide in Hell, Newsweek Global, 24 April. BIBLIOGRAPHY 205

Car Bomb Targets Theatre in Qatar. 2005. BBC News, 20 March. Harden, Toby. 2006. We’ll Arm Sunni Insurgents in Iraq, Say Saudis. The Telegraph , 14 December. Iraq Holy City Blast Killed Scores. 2003. BBC News, 29 August. King of Bahrain Declares State of Emergency. 2011. The Telegraph , 15 March. Oppel, Richard. 2007. Foreign Fighters in Iraq Are Ties to Allies of US. The New York Times , 22 November. Rayman, Noah. 2015. Yemen Chaotic Civil War Sucks in Regional Rivals, Time Magazine 4 June. Reactions to Lack of Presence of the GCC Leaders in the Camp David. 2015. BBC Persian, 11 May. Tariq Al-Hashemi: Turkey ‘Will not Hand over’ Iraq VP. 2012. BBC News, 11 September. Von Drehle, David. 2015. On ISIS: The Real Challenge is the Chaos that Could Come After, Time Magazine, March 9.

PRIMARY MATERIAL

SPEECHES AND COMMENTS Abdulaziz Al-Saud, Abdullah. 2001. Speech by Abdullah Abdolaziz, the King of Saudi Arabia, at the Consultative of Saudi Arabia 3rd Term 2nd Year, Riyadh. ———. 2008. Statement by the King of Saudi Arabia at the 4th Term 3rd Year Meeting in the Consultative Council in Riyadh, Riyadh. Abdulaziz Al-Saud, Fahd. 1994. Speech by Fahd Abdulaziz Al-Saud, the Then King of Saudi Arabia, at the Consultative of Saudi Arabia 1st Term 1st Year, Riyadh. Adamnejad, Shahram. 2010. Address by Shahram Adamnejad, Former Deputy of the Organization of Road Transits of Iran, in the Magazine of the Ministry of Roads and Urban Development, Rahbaran 34. Afandizadeh, Shahryar. 2010. Address by Shahryar Afandizadeh, Deputy of Former Minister of Roads and Urban Development, Road Maintenance and Transportation, in the Magazine of the Ministry of Roads and Urban Development, Rahbaran 32: 1381, September. Ahmadi-Moghaddam, Ismaeel. 2012. Remark by Ismaeel Ahmadi Moghaddam, Chief Policemen of Iran, in BBC Persian, 6 December. Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud. 2011. Statement by Former President of Iran, Mahmoud Ahmainejad, in Tehran, 4 October. Al-Faisal, Saud. 2001. Remark by Saud Al-Faisal, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Saudi Arabia, in The New York Times , ‘Anti-Western and Extremist Views Pervade Saudi Schools’, New York, 19 October. ———. 2005a. Statement by the Foreign Minister of Saudi Arabia at the 60th Session of the U.N. General Assembly in New York, New York, 19 September. 206 BIBLIOGRAPHY

———. 2005b. Speech by Saud Al-Faisal, the Foreign Minister of Saudi Arabia at the ‘Council on Foreign Relations’, New York, 20 September. Al-Faisal, Turki. 2006. Address by Turki Al-Faisal, Chief of the King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies, at Brooking Institution, ‘I think We Need to Talk…’, 19 June. Al-Fakieh, Adel. 2012. Address by Adel Al-Fakieh, Minister of Labor in Saudi Arabia, at Saudi Gazette, ‘Seven Years of Continued Progress and Development’, 17 May. Al-Fayez, Tariq Khaddam. 2009. Speech by Tariq Khaddam Alfayez, Saudi Arabian Second Secretary in the UN, at the Second Committee, General Assembly— 64th Session, ‘Globalization and Economic Independence’, New York, 21 October. Al-Jubeir, Adel. 2003. Statement by Adel Al-Jubeir, Ambassador of Saudi Arabia in Washington D.C., at the Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia in Washington D.C., 16 May. Al-Khadhiri, Ahmed et al. 2004. Address by Ahmed Al-Khadhiri and the Twenty- Five Saudi Arabian Theologians and Missionaries at the Open Sermon in Friday Prayers, ‘The Fatwa of the 26 Clerics’, 5 November. Al-Khalifa, Hamad Bin Eisa. 2004. Statement by King of the Kingdom of Bahrain and Chairman of the 2004 Session of the GCC Supreme Council, at the Closing Statement of the Twenty Fifth Session of the GCC Supreme Council (Zayed Summit), Manamah, 21 December. Al-Majid, Saddam. 2004. Remark by Saddam Al Majid, the Then President of Iraq, in an Interview with FBI Interrogator in Baghdad, February and June. Al-Maliki, Nuri. 2007. Statement by the Prime Minister of Iraq at 62th UN General Assembly, New York, 26 September. ———. 2009. Remark by the Prime Minister of Iraq at Iran English Radio, ‘Elements Behind Baghdad Terrorist Blasts’, 9 December. Al-Sahhaf, Mohammed Said. 2000. Statement by the Then Minister of Foreign Affairs of Iraq at the 27th Plenary Meeting in the UN: Fifty-Fifth Session, 21 September. Al-Shafi , Fahd. 2004. Remark by Fahd Al-Shafi , a Former Extremist, at the Christian Monitor, ‘Al Qaeda Terror Riles Saudi Public’, 21 June. Benjamin, Daniel. 2011. Remark by Offi ce of Coordinator for Counterterrorism of America in Jamestown Conference at the National Press Club,̕ 8 December. Bin Laden, Osama. 1998. Statement by the Key Leader of Al Qaeda from 1980 to 2011, at the FIBS Report, Compilation of Bin Laden Statements 1994–2004, Islamabad, 28 May. Bush, George H.W. 1990. Address by George H.W. Bush, Former Presidents of the US, at the [no place cited], ‘Iraq’s Invasion of Kuwait’, 8 August. Bush, George. 2006. Address by President George W. Bush, Former President of the US in the Washington D.C., ‘Iran and War on Terror’, 5 September. BIBLIOGRAPHY 207

Bush, George W. 2007. Address by George W. Bush, Former President of the United States, ‘President Bush Addresses Nation on Iraq War’, Transcribed by CQ Transcripts Wire in the Washington Post, 10 January. Carter, Jimmy. 1979. Address by President Jimmy Carter at the Provisions of Executive Order 12170 of November 14, 1979, Appeared at 44 FR 65729, 3 CFR, 1979 Comp, ‘Blocking Iranian Government Property’, 14 November. ———. 1980. Speech by Jimmy Carter, Former President of US, at the State of the Union 1980,̕ Washington D.C., 23 January. Ghashghavi, Hasan. 2015. Remark by Assistant of Minister of Foreign Affairs, at Entekhab News Agency, 6 April. Gistaro, Edward. 2007. Speech by Edward Gistaro, National Intelligence Offi cer for Transnational Threats, at the Joint Hearing of the House Armed Service and the House Select Committee on Intelligence Subject, Washington D.C., 25 July. Harrington, Thomas J. 2004. Testimony by Thomas J. Harrington, Deputy Assistant Director, Counterterrorism Division, FBI, at the Before the House Committee on International Relations/Subcommittee, Washington D.C., 24 March. Hashemi Rafsanjani, Ali Akbar. 2003. Remark by Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, the Expediency Council Chairman of Iran, in Ettela’at , International Persian Daily Newspaper, Tehran, 16 April. Jannati, Ahmad. 2007. Remark by Ahmad Jannati, Tehran’s Provisional Friday Prayers Leader, at Fars News Agency of Iran, Tehran, 24 August. Khamenei, Ali S. 2006. Address by the Iranian Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei at the Opening Session of the Third International Conference on Quads and Support for the Palestine People, ‘Palestine Issue at the Focal Point’, 14 April. ——— 2009. Address by Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, the Supreme Leader of Iran, at the Gathering Student of Kurdistan, ‘University Students of Kurdistan’, Kurdistan, 18 May. ——— 2011. Remark by Ayatollah Ali Khamenei to the Members and the Director of the Supreme Council of the Cultural Revolution in Tehran, 15 June. Khatami, Ahmad. 2008. Remark by Ahmad Khatami, Tehran’s Provisional Friday Prayers Imam, at the Fars News Agency of Iran, Tehran, 8 March. Khomeini, Rouhollah. 1982. ̒Speech by Ayatollah Rouhollah Khomeini, Former Supreme Leader of Iran, at the Massive Crowd of People in Jamaran, ‘Testement: The Current Message and the Future Generation’, Jamaran, 1982. Kohlmann, Evan F., and Laith Alkhouri. 2011. Testimony by Evan F. Kohlmann, and Laith Alkhouri, Before the House Committee on Homeland Security Threats to the American Homeland After Killing Bin Laden: An Assessment, ‘Beyond Bin Laden: The Future of Al-Qaida and U.S. Homeland Security’, Washington D.C., 25 May. Makarem Shirazi, Naser. 2015. Remark by Iranian Shia Marja, at Quds Online News Agency, 8 April. 208 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Obama, Barack. 2009a. Statement by President of the United States, at the White House, Washington D.C., 3 November. ———. 2009b. Speech by President of the United States, at the Press Conference ‘Push for Stimulus: Prime-Time Press Conference’, Washington D.C., 9 February. Poordastan, Ahmad Reza. 2015. Remark by the Commander of Army in Iran, at Daesh News Agency, ‘Poordastan: Daesh Was Ready to Attack to Iran, Tehran’, 24 May. Rezaee, Mohsen. 2014. Remarks by Mohsen Rezaee, Former Commander in the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps, at Fars News Agency, 23 May. Rose, Frank A. 2012. Remark by Deputy Assistant Secretary, Bureau of Arms Control, Verifi cation and Compliance, at the Middle East Missile and Air Defense Symposium, Abu Dhabi, 12 April. Rubin, James. 2003. Remark by James Rubin, Former U.S. Deputy Secretary of State, at the CNN, “Analysts: Iraq a ‘Magnet’ for Al Qaeda”, Washington, 20 August. Schakowsky, Jan. 2007. Speech by Jan Schakowsky, Congresswoman, Representing the 9th District of Illinois, at the Joint Hearing of the House Armed Service and the House Select Committee on Intelligence Subject, Washington D.C., 25 July. Shariati, Ali. 1969. Speech by Ali Shariati, the Iranian Religious Sociologist at the Religious Institute of Hoseeynieh Ershad, Tehran, 28 November. Shobokshi, Fawaz. 2003. Remark by the New Permanent Representative of Saudi Arabia in the United Nations at the 4726th Meeting of the Security Council, United Nations, 27 March. Stewart, Richard. 2011. Remark by the US Army Historian, at the American Forces Press Service of the Department of Defense at Washington D.C., 25 February. Verga, Pete. 2007. Speech by Pete Verga, the Chief of Staff and Senior Career Offi cial for the Under Secretary of Defense for Policy and the First Assistant to the Principal Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for Policy, at the Joint Hearing of the House Armed Service and the House Select Committee on Intelligence Subject, Washington D.C., 25 July. Yunesi, Ali. 2003. Remark by Ali Yunesi, Former Minister of Intelligence of Iran, at Jame Jam, Tehran, 25 July.

DOCUMENTS

GOVERNMENTAL AND NON-GOVERNMENTAL DOCUMENTS Al-Ali, Hamad. 2006. Religious Statement [fatwa] on ‘Is the Countdown Has Begun for the Fall of the US’, 12 May. http://www.h-alali.net/m_open. php?id=3431e2b0-d567-1029-a62a-0010dc91cf69 . Accessed 23 January 2014. BIBLIOGRAPHY 209

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REPORTS FROM US, UN, THE STATES IN THE PERSIAN GULF REGION, THINK-TANKS AND NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS Amano, Yukio. 2011. Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement and Relevant Provisions of Security Council Resolutions in the Islamic Republic of Iran, 8 November. http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Board/ 2011/gov2011-65.pdf . Accessed 11 December 2013. Amnesty International. 2012. Choice and Prejudice: Discrimination Against Muslims in Europe. http://www.amnesty.eu/content/assets/REPORT.pdf . Accessed 24 February 2014. Blanchard, Christopher M. 2008. The Islamic Traditions of Wahhabism and Salafi yya. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS21695.pdf . Accessed 12 December 2013. ——— 2011. Saudi Arabia: Background and US Relations, 10 March. http:// www.fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL33533.pdf . Accessed 2 June 2011. Burgess, Ronald. 2010. Report to Congress: Before the Senate Armed Services Committee on Iran’s Military Power, 14 April. http://www.armed-services. senate.gov/statemnt/2010/04%20April/Burgess%2004-14-10.pdf . Accessed 12 October 2012. Central Intelligence Agency. 2002. Terrorist CBRN: Materials and Effects, 23 May. https://www.cia.gov/library/reports/general-reports-1/terrorist_cbrn/ terrorist_CBRN.htm . Accessed 22 June 2010. Katzman, Kenneth. 2006. The Persian Gulf States: Issues for US Policy, 21 August. http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/rl31533.pdf . Accessed 20 May 2014. Kyl, Jon. 2004. Two Years After 9/11: Keeping America Safe, 24 March. http:// kyl.senate.gov/legis_center/subdocs/2yrsafter.pdf . Accessed 6 September 2010. United States Department of State. 2004a. Country Reports on Terrorism. http://www.state.gov/j/ct/rls/crt/c14818.htm . Accessed 23 July 2013. ———. 2004b. Pattern of Global Terrorism 2003. http://www.state.gov/docu- ments/organization/31912.pdf . Accessed 12 February 2014. ———. 2008a. Terrorist Organizations, 30 April. http://www.state.gov/j/ct/ rls/crt/2007/103714.htm . Accessed 22 October 2013. ———. 2008b. Advancing Freedom and Democracy Report: Iran. http://www. state.gov/j/drl/rls/afdr/2008/nea/129900.htm . Accessed 3 March 2013. United States Department of State Offi ce of Coordinator for Counterterrorism. 2011. Country Report on Terrorism 2010, 18 August. http://www.state. gov/j/ct/rls/crt/2010/170264.htm . Accessed 20 June 2012. United States White House. 2003. Progress Report on the Global War on Terrorism. http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/24268.pdf . Accessed 1 December 2013. 214 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Venhaus, John M. Matt. 2010. Why Youth Join Al Qaeda? No. 236, May 2010. http://www.usip.org/fi les/resources/SR236Venhaus.pdf . Accessed 9 August 2012. World Economic Forum. 2011. Arab World Competiveness Report 2011–2012. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_AWC_Report_2011-12.pdf . Accessed 20 December 2012.

NEWS SOURCES FROM US, UN, THINK-TANK, NON- GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS, THE REGIONAL STATES IN THE PERSIAN GULF Daniel, Lisa. 2011. U.S., Kuwait Mark Gulf War 20th Anniversary, 25 February. http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=62945 . Accessed 12 September 2013. Embassy of Saudi Arabia in Washington D.C. 2003b. Terrorist Suspect Arrested in Riyadh in Connection with Al-Muhaya Bombing, 12 March. http://www. saudiembassy.net/archive/2003/news/page64.aspx . Accessed 11 April 2013. Glasser, Susan B., and Chandrasekaran, Rajiv. 2003. Reconstruction Planners Worry, Wait and Reevaluate, 3 April. http://www.unep.org/Search.asp?cx= 007059379654755265211%3Ajkngxjgnyii&cof=FORID%3A11&q=iraqi+w ar+2003+and+effects+on+health+in+the+region+&sa=Go+%21 . Accessed 12 October 2013. United Nations Department of Information. 2007. Commemoration of 2003 Baghdad Bombing to Be Held at United Nations Headquarters, 17 August. http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/note6095.doc.htm . Accessed 12 July 2013. United States Federal Bureau of Investigation. 2004a. Nicholas Berg—U.S. Citizen Slain in Iraq, 12 May. http://www.fbi.gov/news/pressrel/press-releases/ nicholas-berg-2013-u.s.citizen-slain-in-iraq . Accessed 23 September 2013.

INTERVIEWS

CONDUCTED INTERVIEWS BY THE AUTHOR

PRIMARY INTERVIEWS

INTERVIEWS CONDUCTED IN THE PERSIAN GULF REGION Interview with an Iraqi Ambassador 14, January 2013. BIBLIOGRAPHY 215

Interview with Iraqi Analyst on the Security in the Persian Gulf 5, September 2011 and May 2012. Interview with Kuwaiti Professor on the Security in the Persian Gulf 11, June 2012. Interview with Saudi Arabian Political Activist and the Executive Director of a Saudi Arabian Center in the US 3, August 2011. Interview with Saudi Arabian Professor on the Security in the Persian Gulf 2, June 2011. Interview with Saudi Arabian Scholar and Think-Tank Expert on Saudi Arabian Political Affairs 4, January 2012. Interview with Saudi Arabian Think-Tank Expert and the Director of a Gulf Center in the Persian Gulf 6, August 2011. Interview with the Then Head of International Studies in a Gulf Center in the Persian Gulf 9, August 2012. Interviews and Discussion with Several Iranian Citizens and Academic Experts in Isfahan and Mashhad 13, July 2012.

INTERVIEWS CONDUCTED WITH THE US EXPERTS Interview with American Academic Expert on the Security in the Persian Gulf 10, December 2011. Interview with American Academic Expert on the Security in the Persian Gulf 12, July 2012. Interview with American Scholar on the Security in the Persian Gulf 8, May 2012. Interview with Iranian-American Economist Professor on the Economy of the States in the Persian Gulf 7, April 2012.

SECONDARY INTERVIEWS Interview with British Academic Expert on the Security in the Persian Gulf 1, UK, June 2011.

OTHER INTERVIEWS Al-Faisal, Saud. 2004. Foreign Minister of Saudi Arabia, Interview in the Frontline, 15 December. Al-Umar, Nasser. 2004. Saudi Arabian Wahhabi Fundamentalist, Interview in Frontline, 17 December. Al-Wuhayshi, Sheikh Abu Nasir. 2010. Head of Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula, Interview in Al Malahem Media Foundation, 1/Summer 2010. 216 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ibn Baz, Abdul Aziz. 1978a. Whahhabi Religious Offi cial Scholars, Interview with Al-Mujahid, Reproduced in the Portal of the General Presidency of Scholarly Research and Ifta [Issuing Religious Statements] of Saudi Arabia, Fatwas of Ibn Baz, Volume 5. Qaradawi, Yusuf. 2002. Qatar-Based Chief Religious Scholar and the Chairman of Islam Online, Interview in Mecca, 30 April.

OTHER SOURCES

STATISTICS Global Fire Power. 2013. Military Statistics. http://www.globalfi repower.com . Accessed 16 October 2011. International Labor Organization. 2010. G-20 Statistical Update: Saudi Arabia, Economic Weakness Led to Unemployment Rate Kike. http://www.ilo.org/ public/libdoc/jobcrisis/download/g20_saudiarabia_statistical.pdf . Accessed 19 December 2012. Saudi Arabia Central Department of Statistics and Information. 2011. Saudi Arabian Population Growth Rate 2011. http://www.cdsi.gov.sa/english/ . Accessed 9 September 2012. ———. 2012. Unemployment Rate by Sex and Nationality 1999–2008. http:// www.cdsi.gov.sa/english/index.php?option=com_docman&task=cat_ view&gid=85&Itemid=162 . Accessed 19 December 2012. Trading Economic, Central Department of Statistics and Information. 2011. Saudi Arabia Unemployment Rate. http://www.tradingeconomics.com/ saudi-arabia/unemployment-rate . Accessed 7 June 2011. Truss, Mark, and Ann Mack. 2010. JWT Anxiety Index Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, November 2010. http://02a6614.netsolhost.com/blog-thanks.htm . Accessed 19 December 2012. United Nations Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 2011. World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision, 28 June. http://esa.un.org/wpp/Excel-Data/population.htm . Accessed 9 August 2012. ———. 2014. Population Aged 15–24, 9 July. http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/ unpp/p2k0data.asp . Accessed 10 July 2014. World Bank. 2006. Unemployment in Iraq, 17 May. http://search.worldbank. org/data?qterm=unemployment+in+iraq+&language=EN&format=html . Accessed 20 August 2010. BIBLIOGRAPHY 217

OPINION POLLS World Values Survey. 2014. Surveys. http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/index_ fi ndings . Accessed 20 March 2014.

OTHER INTERNET SOURCES Al-Arefe, Mohamad. 2013. Mohamad Al-Arefe. https://twitter.com/ MohamadArefe_EN . Accessed 20 February 2014. Global Security. 2014. Green Zoon. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ world/iraq/baghdad-green-zone.htm . Accessed 23 June 2014. Kinninmont, Jane. 2013. To What Extent Is Twitter Changing Gulf Societies?. Chatham House. http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/fi les/public/ Research/Middle%20East/0213kinninmont.pdf . Accessed 12 September 2013. Saudi Arabia McDonald. 2013. Restaurant Locators. http://www.mcdonaldsara- bia.com/ksa-riyadh/en/locations.html. Accessed 12 January 2014 . INDEX 1

A Al-Maktoum, Mohammed bin Rashid Abdulaziz, Abdullah (Saudi Arabia), (UAE), 118 99 Al-Maliki, Nuri (Iraq) Adamnejad, Shahram Al-Najdi, Bashir (radical Wahhabi), Afandizade, Shahriyar 162, 165 Akbarzadeh, Shahram Al-Otaibi, Juhaiman, 92 Al-Ali, Hamad Al Qaeda Al-e-Ahmad, Jalal rise of, 6, 62, 63, 127, 149, 150 Al-Fahd, Nasir, 137, 140 threat Al-Faisal, Saud (Saudi Arabia), 98, Al Qaeda in Iraq (AQI), 145, 150, 117, 139, 155 151, 153–8, 160, 166, 183 Al-Hakim, Adel, 156 Al Qaeda in Saudi Arabia and Arab Al-Hakim, Mohammad (Najaf), 151 Peninsula (AQAP), 153, 159–67, Al-Hashemi, Tariq (Iraq) 171n61, 172n88 Al-Jubeir, Adel (Saudi Arabia) Al-Qahtani, Abdullah, 92, 106n52 Al-Khalifa, Hamad bin Eisa (Bahrain) Al-Rasheed, Madawi, 105n37, Al-Khalifa, Isa ibn Salman (Bahrain), 105n39, 106n51, 140, 141, 96 143, 144, 146, 148n48, alliance leaders, 17 148n52, 148n57, 148n62, alliances 162, 172n77, Al-Majid, Saddam 172n81, 172n82

1 Note: Page number followed by n denote footnotes

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2017 219 F. Shayan, Security in the Persian Gulf Region, DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-58678-0 220 INDEX

Al-Sahhaf, Mohammed Saeed (Iraq), balance of power, 3, 12, 48n5, 50n54 98, 107n82 ballistic missiles, 4, 113 Al-Saud, Fahd, 95 Baxter, Kylie, 10, 19n32, 81, 104n3, Al-Shu’aybi School, 144, 160 122 Al-Thani, Khalifa bin Hamad (Qatar), Bayesian approach, 62, 169n2 96 Bennett, Andrew, 6, 17, 18n19, Al-Umar, Nasir (Saudi Arabia), 120 19n64, 55, 57–63, 67, 72n1–4, Al-Uyayri, Yusuf, 154, 161, 162 73n12, 73n13, 73n19, 73n20, Al-Wuhayshi, Abu Basir, 92, 106n57 73n22, 73n24, 73n28, 73n31, Al-Zarqawi, Abu Mus’ab, 150, 151, 73n34–7, 74n37–9, 74n47–9, 154, 156, 171n46, 183 75n56, 76n72 Amano, Yukiya, 112, 124n18 Bin Laden, Osama, 65, 92, 106n55, amity and enmity, 6, 23, 27, 28 141, 142, 144, 146, 146n4, anarchic structure, 24–6 148n61, 152, 154, 156 Ansar Al-Islam, 155 Booth, Ken, 13, 18n22, 19n50, anti-Americanism, 6, 9, 40, 56, 60, 19n51 64, 81–4, 85, 90–3, 99, 102, boundary, 25–6, 28, 44 109, 116, 121, 122, 127, 137, Buchta, Wilfried, 90, 104n9, 104n16, 179, 180, 182, 189 105n34 anti-American sentiments, 9, 10, 15, Buzan, Barry, 9, 12–14, 18n1, 18n18, 17, 18n8, 39, 44, 56, 57, 64, 68, 19n32, 19n36, 19n57, 19n58, 72, 81–107, 109–26, 139, 177, 21–8, 30, 33–44, 46, 47, 48n2, 179–81, 189 48n3, 48n7–9, 49n34, 49n39, anxiety, 34, 133 49n43, 50n54, 50n59, 50n60, AQAP . See Al Qaeda in Saudi Arabia 51n64, 51n67, 51n68, 51n73–5, and Arab Peninsula (AQAP) 51n88, 52n112, 74n45, 107n83, AQI . See Al Qaeda in Iraq (AQI) 146n2, 178 Arab-Islamic values, 96 Arab Peninsula arms race, 92 Ashura, 90 C audiences, 29–32, 74n53, 75n63, Campbell, David, 44, 45, 52n97, 76n68–70, 102, 113, 119, 52n106, 122, 181 151–3, 157, 163, 166 Carter, Jimmy, 88, 89, 105n24, autonomous units, 25 105n27 case deviant, 60 B least likely, 60 Ba’athists (radical Sunnis in Iraq), 33, least similar, 60 157 most likely, 60 Bahrain, 50n57, 75n61, 96–8, 109, most similar, 60 117, 120, 166 case-based research, 54 Bahrain Constitution, 96 case study, 53–7, 59, 70–2 INDEX 221 causal chain, 53, 58 enemy of God, 45, 88 causal effect, 59 ethical guidelines, 71 causal path, 59 evil, 44, 45 causal processes, 6, 39, 56, 58, 60, 61, extremist ideology, 22, 38, 45, 141, 64, 150, 167, 177, 187 155, 167 spatial and temporal, 58 close enemy, 150 Cold War, 3, 38, 49n54, 54, 73n37, F 142 fall of Saddam, 3 concerns, 6, 13, 16, 21, 33–5, 44, 47, Federal Bureau Investigation (FBI), 5, 54, 64, 97, 102, 104, 118, 133, 162, 164 147n9, 153 former US Presidents confl ict Barack Obama, 163 ; Obama regional, 11, 110 administrations, 4 sectarian, 5, 7, 8, 82, 109, 115, Bush, George W., 163 118, 119, 123 Bush, George W. H., 3, 4, 46 consciousness Clinton, Bill, 3 aesthetic, 42 Friday Sermons, 115, 180 ethical, 42 Fuel Enrichment Plan (FEP), 112 religious, 42 constellation of nations, 15 Consultative Council of the National G Human Rights Association (Saudi generalizability, 56 Arabia), 97 geographical proximity, 24, 25 Copenhagen School, 21–36, 48 George, Alexander, 54, 57–9, 61, creative diversity, 101 73n20, 73n22, 73n28, 73n31, 74n42, 74n47, 74n49, 76n72 Gerges, Fawaz, 146n4, 149, 150, D 169n4, 171n58, 180, 183 desecuritization, 23, 28 Gerring, John, 55, 57, 58, 72n7, de Wilde, Jaap, 9, 14, 22, 23, 33–7, 73n11, 73n26, 73n33 39, 40, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48n8, Global Competitiveness Index, 136 49n34, 50n59, 50n60, 51n64, globalization, 9, 30, 68, 84, 93–104, 146n2 179, 189 global powers, 6, 14, 26, 27

E enemy, 7, 14, 16, 27, 44–6, 52n100, H 57, 87, 88, 119, 140, 142, Hajj, 159 146n4, 150, 151 . See also Harle, Harle, Vilho, 16, 36, 44–7, 48n1, Vilho 52n98, 52n103, 52n105 222 INDEX

Hegghammer, Thomas, 106n50, 143, Iraq invasion, 18n4, 39 144, 148n66, 160, 164, 171n62, Iraq War, 3–12, 15, 17, 18n4, 21, 22, 171n65, 171n67–70, 171n75–7, 25, 27–9, 31, 34–6, 39, 40, 43, 172n80, 172n89, 172n90, 45, 47, 53, 56, 57, 59–2, 64, 68, 173n98 72, 73n17, 81, 82, 84, 88–90, high politics, 10, 16, 47 92, 93, 97, 104n22, 109–29, hypothesized causal mechanism, 6, 17, 131, 132, 140, 144–6, 146n4, 53, 56, 57, 61, 62, 73n37, 149–73, 177–88 . See also Iraq 74n45, 82, 109–10, 122–3, 145, invasion; war in Iraq 146, 149–50, 153, 158, 159, Islam, 4, 5, 7, 9, 15, 16, 38, 39, 41–5, 163, 167–9, 169n2, 177–80 82, 84, 85, 88, 92, 100–3, 109, 118, 120, 137, 140–2, 144, 146n4, 150, 155, 160, 184 I Islamic Ibn Baz, Abdul-`Aziz ibn `Abdullah, identity, 15, 16, 41, 85–7, 93, 99, 91, 92, 105n45–8, 142, 144 104, 106n53, 121, 137–40, identity 144, 146, 161–3, 166–8, 178, collective, 5–7, 16, 21, 22, 36, 37, 179 41, 42, 44, 46, 62, 94, 186 values, 5, 15, 87, 95, 96, 140 national, 9, 15, 22, 101, 116 Islamic extremists, 22, 38, 95 ifta, 91 Islamic Revolution of Iran, 5, 35, 82, international relations (IR), 3, 6, 12, 115 13, 16, 19n61, 21–3, 41, 48, Israel, 4, 25, 31, 86, 87, 112 48n3, 48n4, 49n54, 54, 57, 66, 178 international security, 3 J international system, 12, 24, 50n54 jihad, 91, 93, 142, 144, 145, 146n4, interviews, 54, 64–8, 66–8, 70–2, 160, 162 75n54, 75n58, 76n65, 76n67, jihadists, 91, 92, 129, 140–3, 145, 82, 85, 94, 97–100, 104n8, 110, 146, 146n4, 153, 158, 161, 166, 111, 115, 118–21, 124n3, 168, 172n77, 183 126n61, 128, 132–5, 138, 141, JWT Anxiety Index, 132 142, 145, 147n12, 155, 163, 164, 184 IR . See international relations (IR) K Iranian state, 4, 110–15, 123, 180 Khamenei, Ayatollah Sayed Ali, 30, Iran nuclear program, 10 88, 95, 99, 102, 104n20, Iraq, 3, 25, 56, 82, 110, 127, 149, 106n64, 107n88, 113, 115, 179 178 Khomeini, Ayatollah Rouhollah, 87, Iraqi citizens, 4, 33, 36 88, 93, 104n19, 179 Iraqi forces, 89, 158 King Fahd (Saudi Arabia), 96, 139 INDEX 223

Kraig, Michael, 89, 105n25, 105n26 penetration, 6, 9, 13, 26, 38, Kuwait, 3, 5, 27, 35, 41, 45, 66, 47, 102 75n61, 93, 97, 98, 120, 121, Persian Gulf, 3, 21, 53, 81, 110, 127, 137, 186 149, 177, 189 Pilot Fuel Enrichment Plant (PFEP), 112 L polarity, 26–7 Lake, David, 13, 14, 19n53, 19n54, politicization, 28–36, 50n60, 182 19n56 Popular Front for the Liberation of Bahrain, 96 primary sources, 54, 65 M private sector (Saudi Arabia), 76n67, McSweeney, Bill, 34, 36, 40, 41, 44, 133–5 46, 47, 51n61, 51n81, 51n93, process tracing method, 6, 53–77 52n101, 52n111, 147n10 Prophet Mohammad, 82 Middle East, 8, 10, 25, 38, 70, 75n59, 75n65, 81, 86, 113, 122, 144, 183–5 Q Ministry of Economy and Planning Qaradawi, Yusuf, 102, 103, 107n103, (Saudi Arabia), 135 107n105 Morgan, Patrick, 13, 14, 19n53

R N referent objects, 28–31, 35–7, 39–43, Nasr, Vali, 82 50n54, 87, 93, 97, 99, 100, 103, Neumann, Iver B., 36, 44, 51n95, 110, 116, 121, 137, 146, 150, 52n102 160, 162, 163 North Atlantic Treaty Organization regional interactions, 25, 26 (NATO), 158 Regional security complex theory (RSCT), 6, 12–14, 16, 19n61, 22–37, 43, 46, 48, 48n3, 74n45, O 86, 117 ontological security, 5, 6, 16, 21, 22, reliability, 54, 70–1 28–34, 46, 48, 48n4, 90, risks, 3, 7–12, 14, 17, 21, 25, 26, 33, 105n35, 119, 121, 132, 182, 187 34, 43, 45, 50n60, 59, 64, 67, 69, 71, 111, 127, 128, 136, 167–9, 178, 179, 182, 189, 190 P social, 9, 10, 33, 67, 127, 128, 136, parliamentarization, 97 167–9, 178, 179, 189 Parliamentary Union of the rivalry, 26, 27 Organization of Islamic RSCT . See Regional security complex Cooperation (PUOIC), 102 theory (RSCT) 224 INDEX

S complexes, 6, 7, 10–14, 16, 17, Sabet, Amr, vii, 87, 104n9, 104n17, 21–54, 56, 59–61, 63, 64, 67, 107n93 68, 72, 72n3, 73n17, 82, 86, Saudi Arabia, 4, 9, 10, 15, 25, 26, 104n7, 110, 122, 123, 127, 33, 37, 40, 41, 45, 46, 50n60, 149, 150, 153, 158, 163, 168, 57, 62, 65, 67–71, 74n44, 169, 177–88, 190 75n60, 75n61, 76n67, 89–3, context, 5–7, 9, 11, 22, 23, 47, 187 95–9, 101, 103, 106n53, dilemmas, 11, 12, 48n5 116–18, 120, 121, 127–46, individual, 6, 34 149, 150, 153–69, 169n1, interdependence, 6, 23, 24, 27 171n77, 172n88, issues, 6, 9–11, 29, 33, 35, 38, 47, 178–86, 189 48n5, 53, 127, 178 Saudization, 133, 134, 168 order, 7 Sawt Al-Jihad (voice of Jihad), 160, shift, 9, 28, 68, 81, 109–10, 128, 165 149–50 secondary sources, 54, 69 societal, 6, 7, 10, 15, 21, 22, 36–46, sectarian civil war, 151 57, 101, 156–8, 167–9, 177, sectarian groups, 22 178, 181, 182, 190 sectors of security selection bias, 67 economic, 35 Self and Other, 12, 16, 21, 37, 43–6, environmental, 35 48, 52n100, 137 military, 35 Shariati, Ali, 87, 104n18 political, 35 Sheikhs (Arab rulers), 132, 165 societal, 35 Shia and Sunni securitization, 6, 21, 23, 28–36, 38, confl ict, 5, 8, 9, 15, 37, 39, 40, 46, 39, 42, 43, 48, 61, 99, 116, 146, 60, 82, 91, 104n22, 110, 150, 151, 157, 163, 166, 167, 115–17, 123, 151, 157, 178, 169, 182 180–6 securitizers, 31, 33, 35, 144 governments, 6 securitizing actors, 23, 28, 30, 31, 33, identity, 27, 109 34 Muslims, 5, 39, 96 securitizing move, 29–31, 36, 98, 99, states, 15, 38, 82, 84, 106n53, 110, 102, 113, 116, 119, 137, 140, 115, 118, 123, 150, 178, 179, 142, 144, 151–3, 157, 163, 166, 181, 185 170n14, 182 Shia faith, 87 securitizing threats, 28 Shia majority, 15, 33, 39, 40, 109, security 154, 157, 180–2 changes, 3, 5–10, 12, 17, 36, 54, Shobokshi, Fawzi, 118, 125n51 60, 62, 67, 82, 84, 109, 149, social construction, 24, 27 179, 181, 182 socio-cultural changes, 95 INDEX 225 sociological concepts, 16, 22 trust, 34, 132, 186 sociological discipline, 12 types of RSCs sociology, 6, 16, 36, 37, 43, 46 . See centered, 25 also sociological concepts confl ict formation, 24, 26 speech acts, 21, 28–30, 32, 42, 48 security community, 24 state to state relations, 25 security regimes, 24 sub-complex, 24–6 standard, 26 survival, 5, 23, 30 supercomplex, 25 Syria, 7, 12, 25, 64, 182, 183

U T UN . See United Nations (UN) Terminal High Altitude Area Defense United Arab Emirate(UAE), 4, 75n61, system, 4 97, 114, 118, 147n12 threats United Nations (UN), 65, 70, 98, of Al Qaeda, 8, 9, 30, 46, 56, 65, 100, 118, 119, 124n14, 131, 67, 68, 123, 127, 128, 149, 151, 152, 163, 165, 166, 184 150, 152, 153, 160, 163, 166, United States (US) 167, 169, 169n1, 181 forces, 5, 152 existential, 23, 28, 30, 34, 36, 37, foreign policy, 10, 46, 82 153, 166 policy, 10, 15, 39, 44, 45, 68, 85, military, 7, 35, 81, 122, 180 90, 153 of Shia, 97 US Department of State, 65, 111 societal, 4–8, 10, 12, 17, 28, 30, US-led globalization, 93–104, 179 35–40, 56, 60–2, 68, 69, 81, US Senate Sub-Committee of 82, 84, 88, 90, 93, 94, 97, 98, Terrorism, 141 100, 102, 104, 104n22, 110, 116–18, 122, 123, 127, 128, 140, 149, 157, 158, 163, V 166–9, 177–82 validity to societal security, 15, 37, 178 construct, 70 transformations external, 70 external, 27–8 internal, 70 internal, 28 variables transnational actors, 4, 7, 8, 11, 12, dependent (effect), 56, 58, 60, 62, 15, 28, 39, 40, 56, 60, 61, 83, 128 74n44, 86, 121, 149, 158, 163, independent (cause), 7, 53, 56, 59, 167–9, 177, 178, 180 . See also Al 60, 62, 63, 74n44, 83, 128 Qaeda omitted, 56 226 INDEX

W Wæver, Ole, 12–14, 18n1, 18n18, Wahhabism, 67, 71, 136, 138, 139, 19n32, 19n36, 19n53, 19n57, 141, 182 21–8, 30, 33–44, 46, 47, 48n2, radical, 136, 138, 48n3, 48n7–9, 49n30, 49n34, 139, 141 49n43, 49n46, 50n59, 50n60, Wahhabi teachings, 139, 141 51n64, 51n67, 51n68, 51n72–4, war in Iraq, 6, 9, 18n4, 18n8, 56, 51n82, 51n88, 51n89, 52n112, 84, 105n35, 110, 115, 116, 74n45, 107n83, 146n2, 178 119–21, 123, 147n9, 151, White House, 154 154, 156 war on terror, 17, 31, 39, 66, 151–4, 158, 163, 165, 166, 169, Z 172n77, 172n88, 173n100 Zayed Summit, 117