Horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir: Problems and Prospects
THESIS
SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
Doctor of Philosophy In ECONOMICS
By Mohd Iqbal Rather
Under the Supervision of Prof. Rais Ahmad
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS MANAGEMENT ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH (INDIA) May, 2019
CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION
I Mohd Iqbal Rather, Department of Agricultural Economics and Business Management certify that the work embodied in this Ph.D (Economics) thesis is my own bonafide work carried out by me under the supervision of Prof. Rais Ahmad at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. The matter embodied in this Ph.D. thesis has not been submitted for the award of any other degree.
I declare that I have faithfully acknowledged, given credit to and referred to the research workers wherever their works have been cited in the text and the body of the thesis. I further certify that I have not wilfully lifted up some other’s work, para, text, data, result, etc. reported in the journals, books, magazines, reports, dissertations, thesis, etc., or available at web-sites and included them in this Ph.D. thesis and cited as my own work.
Date: (Signature of the Candidate) Mohd Iqbal Rather (Name of the Candidate)
Certificate from the Supervisor This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of our knowledge.
Signature of the Supervisor Name & Designation: Prof. Rais Ahmad, Professor Department: Agricultural Economics and Business Management
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
(Signature of the Chairman of the Department with seal)
COURSE/ COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION/ PRE-SUBMISSION SEMINAR COMPLETION CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. Mohd Iqbal Rather, Department of Agricultural Economics and Business Management has satisfactorily completed the course work/comprehensive examination and pre-submission seminar requirement which is part of his Ph.D. programme.
Date: ……………. (Signature of the Chairman of the Department)
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
COPYRIGHT TRANSFER CERTIFICATE
Title of the Thesis: HORTICULTURE IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS
Candidate’s Name: Mohd Iqbal Rather
COPYRIGHT TRANSFER
The undersigned hereby assigns to the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, copyright that may exist in and for the above thesis submitted for the award of Ph.D. degree.
(Signature of the Candidate)
Note: However, the author may reproduce or authorize others to reproduce material extracted verbatim from the thesis or derivative of the thesis for author’s personal use provided that the source and the university’s copyright notice are indicated.
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First and foremost, I praise and thank ALLAH, the Almighty, the Greatest of all, the Cherisher and the Sustainer. I believe that without His blessings and helps nothing can be achieved. He bestowed upon me the capability, knowledge, courage, patience, and strength to embark upon this work and carry it to its completion. His continuous grace and mercy was with me throughout my life and even more during the tenure of my research.
My words are weak and fall short of vocabulary in making special thanks to my kind esteemed supervisor Prof. Rais Ahmad who advised, supported and helped me sympathetically in completion of the work. It is a matter of joy that without his valuable suggestions, able guidance, scholarly touch and piercing insight that he offered to me in each and every stage of this study, coupled with his unreserved encouragement, this thesis could not have been presented in successful manner. I have been extremely lucky to have a supervisor who cared so much about my work, and who responded to my questions and queries so promptly. His positive outlook and confidence in my research inspired me and gave me strength. His careful editing contributed enormously to the production of this thesis. It would never have been possible for me to take this work to completion without his incredible support and encouragement. It was a real privilege an honor for me to share of his exceptional knowledge and his extraordinary human qualities. Without his guidance and constant feedback this Ph.D would not have been achievable. I appreciate the role he played in helping me to get here. I am highly thankful for the confidence and trust he has shown in me. I am so grateful to have been able to take part in the conferences, seminar, etc. with him. I learned (skills, tips, etc.) which I’m sure will come in handy throughout my career in future. Thank you for helping me in sharpening my skills, and professional development. I look forward to putting my newfound knowledge into Maulanaaction. ItAzad is the share Library, dint of his knowledge Aligarh and kind heartednessMuslim that University he encouraged and developed in me the skill and art of writing the manuscripts, research papers, edited books etc. I owe indebtedness and solicit gratitude for making me an editor of six edited books. His lab and advices are the perfect things for a student to become a
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successful person in later life. I would like to share my gratitude and deep appreciation for everything he has done for me.
I wish to put the words of thanks to all other teachers of the department who supported and helped me whenever I asked for their help.
I must pay respect of heed to M.A Library AMU, for providing the conducive environment for writing this thesis, the valuable books and online journals for reading. I am extremely thankful to Seminar Library, Department of Agricultural Economics and Business Management for providing space and valuable books and material whenever I was in need.
I am also thankful to various Departments of J&K Govt. particularly the Department of Horticulture and Department of Finance for providing the necessary data related to my research.
This study would not have been possible without the co-operation of the sample growers of the three divisions of the State. I am indebted to them for their willing co- operation in the collection of primary data for this study. Several other individuals and institutions have made valuable suggestions and provided data for the research. I gratefully acknowledge their help.
I am also grateful to all the members of non-teaching staff specially Mr. Tahseen Iqbal Siddiqui, Mr. Matloob-ur-Rehman Kirmani, Mr. Md. Asim and Mr. Shahzad Shujai, Department of Agricultural Economics and Business Management, Aligarh Muslim University for their cooperation and time to time help during the study.
Finally, I express indebtedness to my venerable and esteemed institution, Aligarh Muslim University. I am at the dearth of words to express indebtedness towards my Alma Mater. Primarily and most sincerely, I must pay my homage to its founder Sir Syed Ahmad Khan.
I must register my sincere thanks to Mr. Zahoor Ahmad and Mrs. Darakshan MaulanaKursheed and the Azad family for Library, providing the material, Aligarh financial Muslim and mental Support University in completion of this work. I owe indebted respect for my Parents who with their share dint of simplicity and affection helped, supported and bore my absence for this work.
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I gratefully acknowledge my sisters Mrs. Wahida, Ms. Tasleema and brother in law Mr. Gh. Hassan Sofi whose presence encouraged me to finish the work successfully.
I want to convey my special thanks with lots of love to my cousins Mr. Aashiq Ahmad Wani, Sareer, Shabir, Natiq, Seerat, Shaheena, Taufeeq and Tehseena who always supported me throughout the work and encouraged me with their love and affection.
I extend sincere thanks to my respected seniors, Mr. Md. Jamshed, Dr. Afaq, Dr. Mudasir A. Bhat. Dr. Sajad, Mr. Rameez, without their valuable suggestions and friendly support, the accomplishment of this task seemed to be impossible.
In my daily work, I have been blessed with a cheerful group of friends, and I would fail in my duty if I do not appreciate the supportive attitude of my friends Mrs. Rubia, Md. Anis Anwar, Rahil Akhtar Usmani, Asim Hasan, Ms. Mehvish, Ms. Zainab,Azad Wani, M.A.M Maaz, Arif Abad, Malik Mushtaq, Khan Tanveer, Bhat Ashiq, Dar Irfan, Sofi Javid and Suhail Khan for providing a loving and supporting environment for me.
I would also like to put on record the felicity of two little kids Ahmad Zufishaan and Solihah Jan. I wish to mention the anonymous person who has remained the constant source of inspiration for completion of this work.
Last but by not the least; I thank my friends Lone Maqbool, Ab. Majid, Malik Irshad, Bhat Basharat, S. Shahid, Gulzar, Imtiyaz, and to all nears and dears.
I owe indebted gratitude and solicit thanks to all those who helped me directly or indirectly in completion of this work.
Mohd Iqbal Rather
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
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Horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir: Problems and Prospects
ABSTRACT OF THESIS
SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
Doctor of Philosophy In ECONOMICS
By Mohd Iqbal Rather
Under the Supervision of Prof. Rais Ahmad
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS MANAGEMENT ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH (INDIA) May, 2019
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Research Title: Horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir: Problems and Prospects
“Horticulture develops a relationship with people to improve their cognitive, physical, economic, social and behavioral functioning.”
This study tried to find the problems and prospects of horticulture sector in Jammu and Kashmir. The study has been carried smoothly in the three divisions of the State i.e, Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh. The main focus of the study was on fruit cultivation in the State with other aspects of horticulture covered as well. In spite of various problems in the horticulture sector, the State has excellent prospects of the growth in this sector. The present study focuses on the following aspects:
a. Problems in horticulture infrastructure
b. Problems in marketing
c. Prospects of the horticulture sector
d. Demand for consumer nondurables
e. Limitations faced by growers and cultivars
f. Impact of horticulture on health
g. Role of women in horticulture
h. Garden tourism and sustainability
i. Therapeutic horticulture
The abstract explains the pros and cons of horticulture sector of the state.
1. Jammu and Kashmir: An Introduction
Jammu and Kashmir, situated between 320 17′ N and 360 58′ N latitudes and 730 26′E Maulanaand 800 Azad30′ E longitudes, Library, constitutes Aligarhthe northernmost Muslim extremity of India.University The state commonly known as Kashmir occupies the strategic place with its border touching Pakistan, Tibet, and China. The State shares 221 km international boundary with Pakistan in Jammu region and 365 km with China in Ladakh Sector. The total area of Jammu and Kashmir is 222236 sq. km of which 78114 sq. km are under illegal
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occupation of Pakistan and 37555 sq. km under China. In addition to this 5180 sq. km of J&K was illegally ceded to China by Pakistan with the total area figures of 222236 sq. km. J&K is the 6th largest state of India occupying 6.76% of the country’s geographical area. The land of the state is highly fertile, and water resources are abundant in view of its blessed riverine geography. Mountains surround the state except on the South-West side. A major portion of the state’s terrain is hilly, and its height from sea level varies from 1000 feet to 28500 feet. The state has road rail and air links with rest of the country through South making it accessible from there only.
2. Horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir
Horticulture is the science and art of growing fruits, vegetables, ornamental trees, bushes, and flowers. Horticulture is an age-old economic activity in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Kalhana, the great Kashmiri historian mentioned fruit culture in Kashmir in his famous book Rajtarangani during the reign of King Nara as early as 1000 B.C. It was, however, during the period of Lalitaditya (900 A.D.) that horticulture in the state received considerable patronage. Subsequently, during the periods Zain-ul-Abidin and the Mughals some varieties of fruits were brought from Kabul, Persia (Iran) and Central Asia.
The total area under orchards in 1955-56 was only 18,000 hectares which rose to 25,000 hectors in 1970-71. The state government made serious efforts to bring the culturable waste under orchards. Consequently, area under orchards increased to 51,000 hectares in 1980-81. The area further went up to 59,000 hectares in 1990-91. It is hoped that the orchard area will increase to 80,000 by 2020 A.D.
On average, about 40 lakh tonnes of fruits are exported annually. Delhi, Mumbai (Bombay), Chennai (Madras), Hyderabad, Bangalore, Bhopal and the towns cities of Punjab and Haryana are the main markets to which Kashmir export their fresh and dry fruits.
Horticulture is gaining momentum in the state as its contribution to GSDP remains Maulanaaround 7-8 percent Azad over the Library, past few years. AsAligarh a result, there Muslim is a perceptible University change in the concept of horticulture development in the state. There are around 6 lakh families comprising of about 30 lakh people who are directly or indirectly associated with horticulture. Horticulture development is one of the thrust areas in the state, and several programmes have been implemented in the past, resulting in the generation of higher incomes in the rural areas, thereby improving the quality of life in villages.
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The Jammu and Kashmir State; divided into three regions, viz., Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh representing varied agro-climatic zones, thus producing diversified fruits of various kinds.
Zone Areas Fruits Temperate Zone Entire Kashmir Valley, Parts of Apple, Pears, Cherry, Poonch, Rajouri, Doda, Kathua and Walnut, Almond, Udhampur Districts of Jammu Division Chestnut, Strawberry, Stone fruits and Grapes, etc. Sub Temperate Parts of Kathua District, Parts of Stone fruits (like Peach, (Mid Zone) Poonch District (Surankote), parts of Plum, Apricot) Almond, Rajouri District (Rajouri and Kalakote), Pears, Pecan Nut, Olive, parts of Udhampur District parts of and Kiwi Reasi, some portion of Doda District, Ramban and Kishtwar), besides minor locations in Uri Tehsil of Baramulla District and Karnah Tehsil of Kupwara district. Sub – Tropical Jammu District, parts of Kathua district, Mango, Citrus, Guava, Zone parts of Rajouri district, parts of Litchi, Bear, Amla and Udhampur district and lower areas of Grapes. Reasi), parts of Doda District (Ramban) Arid Temperate Districts of Leh and Kargil Grapes (Resin type), Zone Prunes and drying varieties of Apricots. Seabuckthorn besides cultivation of Apple, Walnut, Currants in certain areas of the region.
On the vivid outlook of the area and production figures of fruits at the district level, apple the major fruit crop of the State is more concentrated in the districts of Kashmir region with a meager share also coming out from the temperate areas of Jammu region. Among the Districts of Kashmir region, Baramulla stands front runner both in terms of area as well as the production of the apple followed by Kupwara and Shopian Maulanadistricts. AzadPear, the next Library, major fresh fruitAligarh crop is grown Muslim almost throughout University the whole state except Jammu and Samba districts, however, the major share of the production base comes from the temperate Kashmir region where some good cultivars of the crop are grown with longer shelf life. The apricot crop is grown almost in entire temperate areas of the state covering all the regions; however, the major share of the fruit
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(almost 40%) comes from Kargil district alone of the Ladakh region. The other temperate fruits like peach, plum, and cherry are grown more in Kashmir region. On the other hand, mango, guava, be, and aonla are exclusively grown in sub-tropical areas of Jammu region.
Among the dry fruits, walnut is the major crop, grown mostly in Kashmir region with a lesser area from temperate areas of Jammu region. Kupwara is the major walnut producing districts of the state followed by Kulgam, Budgam and Pulwama districts. From Jammu region, Poonch district is the major contributor to walnut production followed by Doda district. Almond is the other important dry fruit crop whose area as well as production is showing a secular decline due to the cutting of trees and switching over to other fruit crops mainly because of a disease problem.
3. Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study are:
To understand the geographical distribution of fruits and vegetable production and to study various fruit plants grown their uses and importance.
To study the intra-regional (Ladakh, Kashmir, and Jammu) disparity in the horticulture sector in the State.
To study the socio-economic condition of fruit growers of the State.
To study the growth and trends in the production of fruits in the different regions of the State.
To study the prospectus and further development of the horticulture sector of the State.
To examine the problems of the horticulture sector of the State.
To understand the role of therapeutic horticulture in the State.
To know and understand the role of women in the horticulture sector of the MaulanaState. Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University To know the role of horticulture towards environmental sustainability.
4. Methodology
The present study has been undertaken with the purpose to understand problems and prospects of the horticulture sector in Jammu and Kashmir. The study also tries to identify
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how the problems hanker the growth and development of the horticulture sector. It also analysis those factors and prospects that have played a major role and which have enabled the growers and cultivars in converting the opportunity that has been provided by the government into valuable functioning and to understand the differences between states in the achievement of these functions. The study also tried to measure the role of noneconomic factors such as women engagement in horticulture activities.
This study is based on both primary and secondary data. The primary data was collected by structured questionnaire and the secondary one from the various sources like Directorate of Horticulture Jammu and Kashmir Government, Digest of Statistics, Reports of Ministry of Horticulture Jammu and Kashmir Government, Ministry of Agriculture GOI, National Horticulture Board, National Horticulture Mission, Economic survey, etc.
The study encompasses both qualitative and quantitative data and techniques to achieve the intended objectives. The primary objective of the study is to analyze and understand how horticulture circumscribes the socio-economic development in the State. A focus group discussion was organized in Wagoora Block with few growers and cultivators to obtain essential information about the scheme from them. A comprehensive, structured questionnaire was evolved for the sample survey. Once the questionnaire was prepared, a pilot study was undertaken in Wagoora to pre-test the questionnaire post which the final questionnaire was evolved.
The present study does a detailed analysis of how horticulture is subject to different problems and how the prospects can be understood. In order to understand the changes in the socio-economic conditions of the growers, information was collected including their basic demographic profile, about their living conditions, family structure, land use pattern, post-harvest techniques, etc. To understand the role of women in the horticulture sector, some significant questions were composed in the questionnaire. The focus group discussions facilitated in identifying the various socio- Maulanaeconomic Azad factors that Library, were influenced Aligarh by the horticulture. Muslim Several Universitystatistical tools have been applied to study the various socio-economic indicators and to know the various problems in the horticulture sector. A regression model has been evolved to study the changes in socio-economic conditions, and a Structural Equation Model has been evolved to study the horticulture production performance.
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For secondary data log-linear regression model was used to know the percentage effect of various factors on the apple, walnut, almond and vegetable production in the state. Besides that Coase Theorem was used to know the impact of gardens on sustainability. ANOVA was used to know the intra regional disparities of horticulture produce in the State.
5. Main Findings of the Research
The main findings of the thesis are classified into problems and prospects which are discussed in detail as below:
1. Adverse Selection Problem
Jammu and Kashmir has a rough topography people select a wrong land that is not feasible for the plantation, and they plant wrong varieties resulting in insignificant production that creates problem to growers which in turn has an adverse market or market failure takes place. Due to market failure usually, losses occur, so the household engaged in horticulture face the real problem. The overall welfare of the society is decreased. In spite of the huge losses in the horticulture business growers and agents in Jammu and Kashmir do not commit suicide as the trend prevailing in the rest of the country because of the selling of their available opportunity cost to borne the losses.
2. Signal Screening Problem
Production reaches the market mostly by the intermediary, i.e. agent, but it can also reach directly by the grower. If the grower interacts directly with the market being less information about the market will create a bad signal, and the screening will be fewer prices fetched by produce in the market resulting in a loss. Thus, taking away the intermediary doesn’t solve the problem. Therefore providing full information to the grower about the market will redress the price problem and the aspects of demand and supply. If grower acts with the full information principle, then no loss will occur in the market. Instead of taking out the intermediaries government should educate the Maulanagrowers about the Azad market structure Library, and the information Aligarh principle. Muslim University
3. Search and Match Problem
As oligopoly exists in the fruit markets and mandates, the agents are indifferent in the selling of the fruit among the markets. Agents randomly select the markets for selling
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of the produce without knowing the first-hand information of the markets. The cross- hauling among the markets and the less information principle results in the selection of adverse market that provides less price and profits or even losses to the agent and in turn to growers of the produce.
Secondly, the agents take advance from a particular market, and the agent in return cannot sell the produce in another market so a kind of bilateral monopoly exists in the market. It is because of this bilateral monopoly that the production is sold at fewer prices, and the agent receives either fewer profits or even losses. Thus there is a mismatch between agents and market selection.
4. Environmental Problems
Light, heat, temperature, rainfall, wind, etc., are the environmental problems faced by horticulture in the State.
5. Post Harvest Problems
Summarizing, loss in horticulture have been found mainly due to:
a) Injuries due to unscientific plucking b) Conventional grading at the assembling centre c) Highly unsuitable and damaging system of transportation in moving the fruits d) The stage of maturity of the fruits plucked for export.
6. Problems in Marketing
The market price is reduced if the fruits are not sent to the market just after plucking even in the high season as they lose their quality, so any problem with transport facility can damage the fruit trade heavily. The marketing of horticultural crops is a complex process. It consists of all those functions and processes involved in the movement of the product from the place of production to that of consumption. The marketing activities involve not only the functions of buying and selling but also the preparation of produce for marketing, assembling, packing, transportation, grading, Maulanastorage, processing,Azad Library,retailing, etc. The Aligarh number of functions Muslim and its type University varies from product to product, from time to time and from place to place. In the coming years, a major shift in consumption patterns in favor of fresh and processed fruits and vegetables is expected; hence, there is an urgent need to solve the prevailing problems in marketing of horticultural crops.
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7. Problem of Interaction
The interaction denotes individual to individual communication or individual to group communication in various forums such as officials visit district horticulture office, workshop, trade fair, seminar, Kisan mela exhibitions, etc. It is observed that some of the sample growers are not attending any programs initiated by the district, state, and central Government. Farmer’s interaction will help them to acquire knowledge and skills as well as share their ideas and experiences on their horticultural practices. Therefore, the growers can solve some of their issues or problems on horticulture farming through interaction with Govt. officials, training and visit to other successful/progressive farmer’s farm for better understanding and motivation. Besides, these there are some other minor issues that act as an obstacle in the performing of horticulture production which are road connectivity, market research, transportation and communication, family members support, etc. Therefore, Government developmental agencies and public should extend their co-operation and coordination to overcome these entire problems.
8. Problem of Education
Education plays an important role in every walk of life for an individual. Lack of education among the sample beneficiaries is one of the problems of studied districts. Due to this, the growers are not in a position to know more about the horticulture sector in Jammu and Kashmir. Thus, as a result, the growers are not approaching the horticulture department about any kind of support and help for their horticulture farm. So, in addition to this, the lack of education makes the growers less respond to modern technologies and another advancement which are required for proper development of the horticulture sector. Therefore, to equip the growers with all these modern techniques and technology, proper training and motivational campaigns should be provided from the side of the state and central Government.
9. Problem of Maintenance MaulanaThe growers of Azad horticulture Library, crops in the studied Aligarh area find itMuslim hard to maintain University their farms such as boundary fence, medicine to the plants, cleaning up of unwanted plants and grasses, etc. The proper and systematic look-after to the horticulture crops will yield huge return in term of production, productivity, and income of farmers of the Jammu and Kashmir. Therefore, the Government should provide aid to growers for the maintenance of the orchards.
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10. Problem of Know-how
Know-how means the process and procedure of cultivation of horticulture crops. It is almost found that some of the growers do not have the idea and knowledge of planting the plants or nurseries systematically, medication of plants, etc., which as a result hamper in the productivity of horticultural crops. Sometimes, due to lack of knowledge of farming the plant get spoiled or die up for the cause of not planting as per the required method. Therefore, it’s a very serious problem on the part of the grower to take adequate care to have the knowledge or first-hand information on the method and techniques for the planting of horticultural crops.
11. Problem of Technology
The growers of the study area are facing these problems because they are unaware or not in a position to use the latest and modern technology. It was found that the majority of farmers are using the traditional way of cultivation in their orchards which as a result create obstacle in the progress of growth and development. To compete or increase the scale of the area, production and productivity the growers of horticulture products should start to introduce modern methods and technology.
12. Problem of Labour
Another main constraint in the cultivation of horticulture orchard is non availability of labor in the study area during peak hours of work. Due to the shortage of labor in the area, it’s very hard to take care of horticulture crops during the period of pre and post- harvesting. The area, production, and productivity of horticultural crops are depending on the work force of the growers. The majority of growers are not in a position to employ labor in their field due to non- availability of labor. Therefore, the growers of horticulture crops employ their family members in the field for maintenance and other purposes. The study shows that 18% of sample respondents faced the problem of labor shortage in the study area. Maulana6. Prospects Azad of Horticulture Library, in Jammu Aligarh and Kashmir Muslim are as under : University 1. Comparative Advantage
The climate in hills and mountains differ from the terrain. During summer, the temperature in the hills and mountains is low. Normal season vegetables in hills
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considered as off-season in terrain and neighboring countries. Off-season vegetables fetch a higher price in the market as well. Because of diverse agro-ecological situations in the hills and mountains, different fruits, spices, flowers have niche value as well as it has comparative advantages like production season of fruits is differed from India and Bangladesh.
2. Employment Opportunity
The drain of manpower to the overseas is due to unemployment problems in the country. Production, processing, and marketing of horticultural crops create employment opportunity to the rural and urban youths. Commercialization of horticulture crops and their value addition generate income to the people.
3. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Jammu and Kashmir has a great potential for horticulture tourism. Coase theorem shows that additional benefit comes to society when more mountain land is taken under horticulture tourism. The environmental impact assessment shows that eradication of environmental pollution by increasing fresh air, reduction of soil erosion and proper management of water runoff. In other words in-spite of overall environmental development there is also enhancement in socio-economic development of the society by planting horticulture trees and promoting tourism of these destinations.
By making terrace gardens and planting fruit trees on barren and mountainous land following changes shall happen in the economy:
Land degradation can be reduced.
Labour employment will increase.
Proper allocation of natural resources will happen.
More recreation and tourist destinations will appear. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Discretionary demand will increase because of increased money income in the economy.
Leisure-labor trade-off shall increase which has a positive effect on the economy.
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4. Prospects of Horticulture in Human Health
The results presented in the thesis suggest that gardening can improve physical, psychological, and social health, which can, from a long-term perspective, alleviate and prevent various health issues facing today's society. Government and health organizations should consider gardening as a beneficial health intervention and encourage people to participate in regular exercise in gardens. To do so, policymakers need to increase people's opportunity and motivation to engage with gardening activities. These actions and policies contribute greatly to redressing health inequalities.
7. Brief Chapterization of the thesis
Given the mentioned broad objectives and the analysis to it, the entire body of the thesis is divided into seven chapters, which throw light on various aspects of the present study.
Chapter one (1) deals with the research designs which includes an overview of Jammu and Kashmir, horticultural activities in Jammu and Kashmir. It has also been found that the horticulture sector can give a boost to the rural economy of India in general and state of Jammu and Kashmir in particular.
Chapter two (2), deals with the review of the literature. An attempt has been made to review the earlier studies on this subject in international, national, regional and state levels. It reveals that the horticulture sector is the newly developed allied-Agri sectors have a lot of issues and challenges around the world. But, this sector can change the face of the rural economy of the district, state, national and international level.
Chapter three (3), deals with the growth and development of horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir. The study reveals that the horticulture sector is one of the main sources of livelihood for the rural unemployed youth of the study area. This chapter also focused trend in horticulture area, production and productivity in Jammu and MaulanaKashmir. Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Chapter four (4) describes the research methodology used to analyze the data set. This includes the research questions, objectives, scope and importance, research gap and limitations of the study.
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Chapter five (5) discussed the status of horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir among various interstate comparisons. The comparison was based on the difference in production, productivity, and area. This comparison has also been made based on fruits and vegetables among the states in India.
Chapter six (6) analyses the field survey of the horticulture sector in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. This chapter is about the analysis and interpretation of the surveyed data. Various tools, techniques, and models have been used to understand and interpret the surveyed data set.
Chapter seven (7), deals with Conclusion, findings, and suggestions. In this chapter, both problems and prospects of the horticulture sector of Jammu and Kashmir has been highlighted. This chapter analyzed the inter-temporal grass root level problems of horticulture in the State and also some valuable suggestions have been made to benefit the actual growers of the land.
8. Suggestions
After analyzing the various problems and prospects of the horticulture in the state following suggestions have been made which may be fruitful in increasing the welfare of the people through threshold horticulture.
1. New high yielding varieties of plants such as Bulgaria, Italian, etc. should be planted instead of the existing types.
2. Establishment of National Centre for Plant Disease Diagnosis (NCPDD).
3. High-density planting (HDP) is one of the methods to enhance productivity per unit area for horticultural crops.
4. Inorganic fertilizers are one of the most costly inputs in horticulture production. But their excessive use results in several environmental problems. Appropriate use of these chemicals will result in sufficient productivity.
Maulana5. Non-availability Azad of laborLibrary, both skilled Aligarhand unskilled during Muslim peak season University is the primary concern for the horticulture sector. This condition ensures the role of machines and automation to bring about the required development in the field.
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6. More stress should be given on organic farming. J&K like other states should take steps to bring about the changes in farming pattern and should adopt organic farming.
7. Post-harvest losses occur at every step of the value chain. The injuries occur due to improper harvesting methods, handling techniques and aggregation of the produce and then in transportation. At the wholesale level, significant damages arise due to buggy handling and improper storage. Losses are estimated at approximately 20 percent in developed countries and about 10 percent in developing countries. Mechanical injury is a significant cause of failures. Many of these injuries cannot be seen at the time of packaging and shipping of the product.
8. Basic infrastructure facilities for sorting, grading and packing as well as post- harvest treatment as required should be created at all the major markets of the valley.
9. Creating a separate road and railway track for the transportation of fruits from J&K to other parts of the country so that the transportation charges can be reduced.
10. R&D Centers should be imparted to the actual tillers of the land. Such as Center will also give training to the traders, semi-skilled workers, and supervisor about their marketing problems.
11. Direct marketing by growers should be supported as a diversified channel. Government should create marketing channels like Apni Mandi, Hadapsar Mandi, Rythu Bazars; and Uzhavar Sandiesthe in Jammu and Kashmir also.
12. A single levy of the commodity should be made at different levels of marketing.
13. Unique licensing system of marketing in each zone should be made instead of multiple licensing systems. The companies should end the use for the product under Contract Farming for processing, retailing or for export. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 14. Proper information is the pivot to marketing. There should be reliable information of markets available to the growers and no information gap between rural and urban markets. Similarly, there is a need to better rural connectivity with new roads and links.
13 Abstract
15. To promote retail chains for fruits and vegetables and the promotion of entrepreneurship among the educated youths of the State. These retail chains will provide better and hygienic food.
16. To create cold stores for the perishable goods, priority should be given for reefer vans, terminal markets, and market information principle.
17. Proper restriction on fruit imports such as tariffs and quotas, to safeguard the domestic fruit industry and the growers.
18. Women should be adequately trained for contributing to horticulture activities.
19. There is a need to create a separate corpus fund for horticulture to meet any emergency requirements on project base to protect the farmers in distress.
20. The funds received for ease of doing business in horticulture should be utilized for the same purpose, instead of spending them on the other day to day activities.
Conclusion
Inspite of the fact that horticulture sector face various problems, it is still a significant contributor of the State economy. It has enormous potential and prosperity to be developed further. The economy will boast multiple times if the afore said problems are redressed well. There is no abject poverty and people are better off with the engagement in this sector. Mitigating the problems discussed in this chapter will increase the horticulture contribution of the economy from 5000 crore to 30,000 crore i.e about 6 times more than the present receipts. The further scope of research in this area in stressing the horticulture sustainability of the State.
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
14 PREFACE
Horticultural products significantly contribute to national wealth. They are the important exportable commodities in many countries; Fruits and Vegetables are important protective foods. They supply vitamins A, B and C and also certain essential minerals such as calcium and phosphorus. Fruits yield more calorific value that an adult normally requires 11,00,000 calories per year. This can be obtained from 0.44 hectare of wheat. But this same quantity can obtained from 0.03 hectare of fruits like banana or 0.06 hectare of mango. Thus fruits can go a long way to reduce to pressure on food grains such as wheat and other cereals, rice. Fruits and Vegetables have a great export potential on the basis of survey carried out by the Agriculture and Processed Fruit products Export Development Authority (APEDA), the products which have good potential for export are banana fresh and pure, processed grapes, mangoes, pineapple, cocoa, tomato, papaya, pomegranate, sweet orange.
Jammu and Kashmir with diverse soil and climate comprising several agro-ecological regions provides ample opportunity to grow a variety of horticulture crops. Vast areas of J&K have tropical and agro- climatic conditions which are well suited for cultivation of horticulture and plantation crops. These crops being labour intensive generate increased employment opportunities for rural masses and supplement their income. The demand of horticulture produce is on the rise due to increasing population, changing food habits, realisation of high nutritional value of horticultural crops and greater emphasis on value addition and export. These crops form a significant part of total agricultural produce in the country comprising of fruits, vegetables, root and tuber crops, flowers, ornamental plants, medicinal and aromatic plants, spices, condiments, plantation crops and mushrooms.
I am very grateful and obliged that I have chosen the area of Agricultural Economics and here too the problems and prospects of ‘horticulture’ sector in Jammu and MaulanaKashmir; Azad which is theLibrary, most important Aligarh from financial Muslim and socio-economic University point of view.
The present study highlighted the problems of horticulture in J&K and it is found that the impact of socio-political problems is more than the economic one. Although there exists the problems of infrastructure and manpower in horticulture in J&K but they
iv are relatively somehow same to that of other states of India. It is the political confrontation which is ongoing in J&K which adversely impacts the development of horticulture in J&K. As described by Lucian Pye the first and foremost element to achieve development is peace.
Horticulture sector of the state acts as a necessary tool to achieve development under constrained resources. The need of the hour is to diversify Agriculture in such away as to reap higher returns-income levels and creation of more employment opportunities. And the Agricultural sector is over loaded with excess labour force leading to low productivity and more after proved to be not viable. One such avenue wide open to farming community is through the development of horticulture which has a special significance to the backward and far-flung border districts of Jammu and Kashmir where 14 percent of the gross cropped area has been brought under horticulture. It is because of this reason; the present study was under to focus light on the problems and prospects of horticulture in the State.
(Mohd Iqbal Rather)
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
v Contents Page No. Acknowledgements i-iii Preface iv-v Contents vi-ix List of Tables x-xii List of Figures xiii-xiv Abbreviations xv-xvi Some Units xvii Chapter 1 Introduction 1-31 1.1. Profile of Jammu and Kashmir State 1 1.2. Agriculture and Allied Sectors 7 1.3. Economic Infrastructure 9 1.4. Horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir 20 1.5. Impact of Climate on Horticulture Sector 26 1.6. Chapterization of the Study 29
Chapter 2 Review of Literature 32-66 2.1. Marketing in Horticulture 33
2.2. Land use and Cropping Pattern 45
2.3. Trends in Area, Production and Productivity of Major 48 Horticultural Crops 2.4. Infrastructure Development in Horticulture Sector 50 2.5. Growth and Development of Horticulture Sector 55 2.6. Horticulture Climate Change and Sustainability 58
2.7. Post Harvest Techniques and Diversification of Horticulture 63
Chapter 3 Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu 67-105 and Kashmir Maulana Azad3.1. Historical Library, Perspective Aligarh Muslim University67 3.2. Horticulture of the State after Post Independence Era 72 3.3. Horticulture Area 78 3.4. Horticulture Production 87 3.5. Contribution of horticulture income to State Income 97
vi 3.6. Horticulture and Foreign Exchange Earnings 99 3.7. Employment by Horticulture Sector in Jammu and 101 Kashmir 3.8. Apple Industry 101 3.9. Marketing Channel 102
Chapter 4 Research Methodology 106-132 4.1. Statement of the Problem 106 4.2. Significance and Scope 107 4.3. Research Gap 109 4.4. Objectives of the Study 109 4.5. Research Design 110 4.6. Hypotheses 111 4.7. The Focus Group Discussion 112 4.8. Design of the Questionnaire 113 4.9. Primary Survey 114 4.10. Data Analysis 118 4.11. Ethical Considerations 119 4.12. Limitations of the Study 119 4.13. Sample Strata 120
Chapter 5 Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State 133-165 Comparisons of Horticulture in India 5.1. Comparison on the basis money value 133 5.2. Comparison on the basis of area, production and 143 productivity 5.3. Certain Intra State Comparisons 151 5.4. CAGR of horticulture production in Kashmir Division 158 5.5. Core and crux 165 Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Chapter 6 Analysis and Interpretation 166-204 6.1. Descriptive Analysis 166 6.2. Inferential Analysis 188 6.3. Correlation Analysis 197
vii 6.4. Multiple Regression Model 198 6.5. Structural Equation Model (SEM) 200
6.6. Factor influencing land possession by horticultural 203 farmers
Chapter 7 Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion 205-237
A. Problems of Horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir 205 7.1. Problems of Grower 205 7.2. Problems of Agent/Intermediary/Businessman 207 7.3. Adverse Selection Problem 208 7.4. Signal Screening Problem 209 7.5. Search and Match Problem 210 7.6. Environmental Problems 211 7.7. Practice to Induce Fruiting 214 7.8. Post Harvest Problems 216 7.9. Problems in Marketing 216 7.10. Emerging Challenges for Horticulture 219 7.11. Human Issues in Horticulture 221 7.12. Horticulture Health Problems 222 7.13. Problem of Interaction 223 7.14. Problem of Education 223 7.15. Problem of Maintenance 223 7.16. Problem of Know-how 224 7.17. Problem of Technology 224 7.18. Problem of Labour 224 7.19. Marketing problems of Apple in Jammu and 224 Kashmir B. Prospects of Horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir 227 7.1. Comparative Advantage 227 Maulana Azad7.2. Employment Library, Opportunity Aligarh Muslim University227 7.3. National and International Market 229 7.4. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 229 7.5. Horticulture and Human Health 231
viii C. Suggestions 232 Conclusion 235 238-248 BIBLIOGRAPHY I-XXV ANNEXURES
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
ix LIST OF TABLES
Tables Page Titles No. No. Table 1.1 Area of Jammu and Kashmir state 1 Table 1.2 Jammu and Kashmir state economy at glance 3 Table 1.3 Health indicators 19 Table 3.1 Growth pattern of o rchards in J&K 71 Table 3.2 Area under horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir 78 Table 3.3 Area under horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir from 2000 to 2017 81 Table 3.4 Percentage area under horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir 83 Table 3.5 Percentage of horticulture area to net sown area in J&K 85 Table 3.6 Production of horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir 88 Production of horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir from 2000 to Table 3.7 90 2016 Table 3.8 Percentage production of horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir 92 Table 3.9 Horticulture yield in Jammu and Kashmir 95 Table 3.10 Percentage contribution of horticulture sector to the state income 98 Table 3.11 Foreign exchange earned from export of almond 100 Table 3.12 Foreign exchange earned from export of walnut 100 Table 4.1 Reliability test (Pilot Study) 114 Table 5.1 State wise value of total horticulture 134 Table 5.2 State wise value of fruits and vegetables 137 Table 5.3 State wise percentage value of various fruits produced 140 Table 5.4 State wise percentage value of various vegetables produced 142 Table 5.5 State wise productivity of horticulture products in India 144 State wise area and production of various fruits in India Table 5.6 146 (2014-2018) State wise percentage change in area and production of various Table 5.7 147 vegetables in India MaulanaTable 5.8 AzadState wise Library, productivity of Aligarh various fruits in Muslim India University148 Table 5.9 State wise productivity of various vegetables in India 150 Table 5.10 CAGR of horticulture area in Kashmir division 152 Table 5.11 CAGR of Horticulture area in Ladakh division 155 Table 5.12 CAGR of horticulture area in Jammu division 155
x Table 5.13 CAGR of horticulture production in Kashmir division 158 Table 5.14 CAGR of horticulture production in Ladakh division 161 Table 5.15 CAGR of horticulture production in Jammu division 162 CAGR of productivity of horticulture in Kashmir and Jammu Table 5.16 164 division Table 6.1 Gender of growers 166 Table 6.2 Age group of growers 167 Table 6.3 Education of growers 167 Table 6.4 Occupation of sample population 168 Table 6.5 Family type 168 Table 6.6 Annual family income 168 Table 6.7 Land area 169 Table 6.8 Soil type 169 Table 6.9 Irrigation source 170 Table 6.10 Land use pattern 170 Table 6.11 Record of horticulture (Mango/Apple/Apricot) plantation 172 Table 6.12 Income pattern of family 174 Table 6.13 Expenditure pattern of family 174 Table 6.14 Labour used in preparation of orchard land 175 Table 6.15 Wage rate (Rs. /day) 177 Table 6.16 Post-harvest expenditures 177 Table 6.17 Utilization pattern of horticulture (Mangoes/Apple/Apricot) 179 Table 6.18 Do you feel insurance of horticulture crops necessary? 180 Table 6.19 Have you availed benefits of government policies/ schemes? 181 Participation of women in horticulture activities in Jammu and Table 6.20 182 Kashmir Number of women engaged in horticulture on the basis of Table 6.21 184 Age/Education/Income Mean and standard deviation (SD) of reasons for horticulture Table 6.22 185 Maulana(Apple/ Azad Mango/Apricot) Library, production Aligarh Muslim University Mean and standard deviation (SD) of problems in growing Table 6.23 186 horticulture products Mean and standard deviation (SD) of growers awareness of Table 6.24 186 various schemes/facilities for horticulture cultivation
xi Mean and standard deviation (SD) of growers satisfaction on Table 6.25 187 government subsidies in the study area Mean and standard deviation (SD) of information on marketing of Table 6.26 188 Apple/Mango/Apricot ANOVA for significant difference among the level of education Table 6.27 with respect to problems of horticulture production in Jammu and 189 Kashmir ANOVA for significant difference among the income level respect Table 6.28 190 to problems of horticulture production in Jammu and Kashmir ANOVA for significant difference among the age group respect to Table 6.29 191 problems of horticulture production in Jammu and Kashmir t -test for significant difference between family type respect to Table 6.30 192 problems of horticulture production in Jammu and Kashmir Chi-square test for education and level of satisfaction on Table 6.31 193 horticulture production Chi-square test for association between income and level of Table 6.32 194 satisfaction on horticulture production Chi-square test for association between soil type and level of Table 6.33 195 satisfaction on horticulture production Friedman test for the significance different among mean ranks Table 6.34 196 towards problems of horticulture production Table 6.35 Correlation matrix 197 Table 6.36 Correlation matrix 197 Table 6.37 Multiple regression analysis results 198 Table 6.38 Structural equation model analysis 201 Table 6.39 Model fit summary of structural equation model 202 Table 6.40 Linear regression model 203 Table 7.1 Major issues in growing 205 Table 7.2 Marketing issues of grower 206 Table 7.3 Source of financing for growers 206 Table 7.4 Local/ Foreign sources for growers 207 MaulanaTable 7.5 AzadMarketing Library, issues of agent Aligarh Muslim University207 Table 7.6 Sources of finance for agent 208 Table 7.7 Horticulture diseases 222 Table 7.8 Type of disease attack 226 Table 7.9 EIA and its impact on horticulture 230
xii LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page Titles No. No. Fig. 1.1 Map of Jammu and Kashmir 2 Map depicting the major fruit growing areas of Jammu and Fig. 1.2 31 Kashmir Fig. 3.1 Line graph for growth pattern of orchards in J&K 71 Fig. 3.2 Total area under different fruits in Jammu and Kashmir 80 Fig. 3.3 Percentage area under different fruits in Jammu and Kashmir 85 Graph depicting the trend line for percentage of horticulture Fig. 3.4 87 area to net sown area in Jammu and Kashmir Graph depicting the production of horticulture in Jammu and Fig. 3.5 89 Kashmir Percentage of horticulture production under different fruits in Fig. 3.6 94 Jammu and Kashmir Fig. 3.7 Line graph for horticulture yield in Jammu and Kashmir 97 Percentage contribution of horticulture sector to the state Fig. 3.8 99 income Fig. 3.9 Foreign exchange earned from export of almond 100 Fig. 3.10 Foreign exchange earned from export of walnut 100 Graph depicting the percentage value of horticulture of Fig. 5.1 139 different states Pie chart showing state wise percentage value of various fruits Fig. 5.2 141 produced Bar graph depicting state wise productivity of horticulture Fig. 5.3 145 products in India Fig. 5.4 Bar charts CAGR of horticulture area in Kashmir division 154 Fig. 5.5 Bar charts CAGR of horticulture area in Jammu division 157 Bar charts CAGR of horticulture production in Kashmir Fig. 5.6 160 division
Fig. 5.7 Bar charts CAGR of horticulture production in Jammu division 163 MaulanaFig. 6.1 Azad Pie chart Library, depicting gender Aligarh of growers Muslim University166 Fig. 6.2 Bar chart showing age group of growers 167 Fig. 6.3 Bar chart showing education of growers 167 Fig. 6.4 Bars showing occupation of sample population 168 Fig. 6.5 Bars showing the type of the family 168
xiii Fig. 6.6 Bars showing the annual income of growers 168 Fig. 6.7 Pie chart showing the land area 169 Fig. 6.8 Bar chart showing the different soil types 169 Fig. 6.9 Bar chart showing the sources of irrigation 170 Path diagram of structural equation model based on Fig. 6.10 201 standardized coefficients of growers satisfaction
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
xiv ABBREVIATIONS
A.D : Anno Domini (in the year of Lord)
AE : Actual Estimate
AEZ : Agriculture Economic Zone
AMPC : Agriculture Produce and Market Committee
BP : Before Present
CAGR : Compound Annual Growth Rate
CE : Cost Estimate
CO2 : Carbon Dioxide
CPI – IW : Consumer Price Index of Industrial Workers
CPI : Consumer Price Index
CSO : Central Statistical Organisation
DHO : District Horticulture Office
EC : Economic Census
Es. : Estimated
FYP : Five Year Plan
GAP : Good Agricultural Practice
GDP : Gross Domestic Product
GOI : Government of India
GSDP : Gross State Domestic Product
MaulanaHDP Azad: Library,High Density Aligarh Plants Muslim University
HIS : Horticulture Information System
HMNEH : Horticulture Mission for North East and Himalayan States
HYV : High Yielding Varieties
xv ICDS : Integrated Child Development Scheme
INM : Integrated Nutrient Management
IPM : Integrated Pest Management
J&K : Jammu and Kashmir
LoC : Line of Actual Control
MSL : Mean Sea Level
MSP : Minimum Support Price
NABARD : National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
NHB : National Horticulture Board
NMMI : National Mission on Micro Irrigation
NMMP : National Mission on Medicinal Plant
NSSO : National Sample Survey Organisation
R&D : Research and Development
SD : Standard Deviation
SI : System Internationalae
SWOT : Strength Weakness Opportunity Threat
TM : Technology Mission
UPS : Usual Principal Status
UT : Union Territory
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
xvi SOME UNITS
Km : Kilometer
Hect. : Hectare
Sq. km, km2 : Square Kilometer
Lakh : A hundred thousand
Crore : Ten million
Kg/Hec. : Kilogram per Hectare
MW’s : Mega Watts
Kwhs : Kilo Watt Hours
0C : Degree Centigrade
MT : Metric Tonnes
1 2 Kanal : ⁄8 acre (510 m ): 5440 Square feet
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
xvii
Chapter
1
Maulana Azad Library,Introduction Aligarh Muslim University Chapter 1: Introduction
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Profile of Jammu and Kashmir State
Jammu and Kashmir, situated between 320 17′ N and 360 58′ N latitudes1 and 730 26′E and 800 30′ E longitudes2, constitutes the northern most fringe of India. The state popularly known as Kashmir occupies the tactical place with its border neighboring Pakistan, Tibet, and China. The State shares 221 km border with Pakistan in Jammu region and 365 km with China in Ladakh Sector. The total area of State is 222236 km2 of which 78114 km2 are under illegal occupation of Pakistan and 37555km2 under China. In supplement to this 5180 km2 of State wasillegitimatelygive by Pakistan to China. J&K State is the 6th largest State of India holding 6.76% of the country‘s territorial area. Thestate has highly fertile land, and water resources are plentifulgiven its blessed riverine geography. Mountains surround the state except on the South-West part. A significantshare of the state‘s topography is hilly, and its height from mean sea level ranges from 1000 feet to 28500 feet. The state has road, rail, and air connectivity with the rest of the country through South only.
Table 1.1: Area of Jammu and Kashmir State
Total Geographical Area Present Area (Out of 46%) Area km2 Percentage Division km2 Percentage India 1,01,387 46% Kashmir 15,948 15.74% *Pakistan 78,117 35% Jammu 26,293 25.93% #China 42,735 19% Ladakh 59,146 58.33% Total 2,22,236 100% Total 101,387 100% MaulanaSource: Census Azad of India Library,2001. Aligarh (*# Area under illegal Muslim occupation) University
1 In geography, latitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the north–south position of a point on the Earth's surface. Latitude is an angle which ranges from 0° at the Equator to 90° at the poles. 2 Longitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the east-west position of a point on the Earth's surface. It is an angular measurement, usually expressed in degrees and denoted by the Greek letter lambda (λ). Meridians (lines running from the North Pole to the South Pole) connect points with the same longitude.
1 Chapter 1: Introduction
Fig. 1.1: Map of Jammu and Kashmir
Source: Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India
The state occupies the 19th rank in population, with 12541302 souls as per 2011 census. The state is further divided among 82 Tehsils, 86 towns and 6671 total villages as per census, 2011. Administratively, the districts are divided into blocks for development purposes. There are 318 community development blocks3 as on 31.03.2015 in the state. The demographic features of the state as per 2011 census reveal that with 124 persons per km2 of the area the state ranks 8th among states/ UTs of the country in the thin density4 of population. The most marked characteristics feature of the State is the low density of population. The low densities in many districts of the State are attributable to the nature of Terrain5.
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 3 The Community development block is a rural area earmarked for rural development administration in India. The area is administered by a Block Development Officer, supported by several technical specialists and village level workers. A community development block covers several gram Panchayats, local administrative unit at the village level. 4 Population density is a measurement of population per unit area or unit volume; it is a quantity of type number density. It is frequently applied to living organisms, and most of the time to humans.
2 Chapter 1: Introduction
The sex ratio6 of 889 females per thousand males places J&K at 29th rank in the country. Density and sex ratio of the country is 382 persons per km2 and 943 females per thousand males as per 2011 census.
The climate of the state varies from tropical in Jammu plains to semi-arctic cold in Ladakh with Kashmir and Jammu mountainous tracks having temperate climatic conditions. The annual rainfall also varies from region to region with 92.6 mm in Leh, 650.5 mm in Srinagar and 1115.9 mm in Jammu. A large part of the state forms part of the Himalayan Mountains. The state is geologically formed of rocks varying from the oldest era of the earth‘s history to the present-day river and lake deposits.
The state has an area of 20230 km2 under forests which accounts for 22.67% of its geographical (101387 km2) spread area, i.e., the area other than the area under illegal occupation of Pakistan and China. The per capita forest area accounts for 0.15 hectares as against 0.06 hectares at the National level. As per the landutilization statistics for the year 2015-16 the state has a cultivable area of 868 thousand hectares which is only 9% of its geographical area. During the year 2015-16, the net area sown of the state was 754 thousand hectares constituting 7.44% of its geographical area and 31.21% of the reporting area. These figures for the country are 139932 thousand hectares and 42.57% and 45.74% respectively for the year 2012-13.
Table 1.2: Jammu and Kashmir State Economy at Glance
S.N Particulars Reference year Unit Magnitude 1 Geographical area 2011 Census Sq. km 222236* 2 Reported area 2015-16 000hect. 2416 3 Districts 2015-16 No. 22 4 Revenue divisions 2015-16 No. 2 5 Tehsils 2015-16 No. 82 6 Community DevelopmentBlocks 2015-16 No. 143 Maulana7 Gram AzadPanchayats Library, Aligarh2015- 16Muslim No. University 4128 8 Total Villages 2011 Census No. 6551
5 The Latin word terra (the root of terrain) means "earth." In physical geography, terrain is the lay of the land. This is usually expressed in terms of the elevation, slope, and orientation of terrain features. Terrain affects surface water flow and distribution. 6 Sex ratio is used to describe the number of females per 1000 of males.
3 Chapter 1: Introduction
S.N Particulars Reference year Unit Magnitude 9 Towns 2011 Census No. 86 10 Population 2011 Census Lakh 125.41 11 Male Population 2011 Census Lakh 66.41 12 Female Population 2011 Census Lakh 59 13 Urban Population 2011 Census Lakh 34.33 14 Rural Population 2011 Census Lakh 91.08 15 Literacy rate 2011 Census %age 67.16 16 Gender gap in literacy 2011 Census %age 20.32 17 Net area irrigated 2015-16 000hect. 355 18 Gross area irrigated 2015-16 000hect. 518 19 Net sown area 2015-16 000hect. 754 20 Total cropped area 2015-16 000hect. 1158 21 Operational holdings Agri. (CE) 2010-11 000 Nos. 1449.4 22 Area under operational holdings -do- 000hect. 895.36 23 Average size of operational holdings -do- Hect. 0.62 24 Forest area 2012-13 Sq. km 20230 25 Total live stock 2007 census Lakh Nos. 104.73 26 Installed capacity of power (Hydro) 2015-16 MWs 1419.96 27 Power generated 2015-16 Million 2519.72 28 All scheduled commercial banks 2016 No 1718 29 Registered motor vehicles 2015-16 000 Nos. 1316.17 30 Total road length 2014-15 Kms. 39096 31 Tourist to Kashmir valley 2016 000 Nos. 403 32 Post offices 2015-16 No. 1701 33 Telephone connections 2015-16 Lakh No. 14.32 Maulana34 Govt. hospitals Azad Library, Aligarh2014-15 MuslimNo. University4433 35 Primary schools 2014-15 No. 14302 36 Middle schools 2014-15 No. 9005 37 High/Higher secondary 2014-15 No. 3283 38 Board of school education 2014-15 No. 2
4 Chapter 1: Introduction
S.N Particulars Reference year Unit Magnitude 39 Diploma level institutions 2010-11 No. 46 Colleges for Professional 40 2011-12 -do- 307 Education Universities/Deemed 41 2014-15 -do- 11 Universities 42 Central Universities 2014 -do- 2 43 Sanctioned ICDS Blocks 2014-15 -do- 141 44 Sanctioned Anganwadies 2014-15 -do- 28599 Handicraft/handloom 45 Sixth EC 000 Nos. 60.4 Establishments 46 GSDP at current prices 2015-16(A) CroreRs. 110623 GSDP at constant prices 47 2015-16(A) CroreRs. 87451.3 2011-12 Per Capita income at 48 2015-16(A) Rs. 74580 Current prices Per Capita income at 49 2015-16(A) Rs. 57858 Constant prices (2011-12) Growth in GSDP at 50 2015-16(A) %age 13.07 Current prices Growth in GSDP at 51 2015-16(A) %age 7.79 Constant prices (2004-05) Growth in Per capita income at 52 2015-16(A) %age 6.57 Constant Prices (2004-05)
Source: J&K Economic Survey 2016-17.
The State Domestic Product (SDP)7 commonly known as State income estimates are the macro-indicators of the State economy. These estimates provide broader outcomes due to various policy interventions, investments made and opportunities opened up in the State. The advance estimates for the 2015-16 place the GSDP at Constant (2011- 12) prices at Rs 91806.25 crore as against Rs11350962 India‘s GDP for the Year 2015-16(as per 1stRevised Estimates8). As per these estimates the per capita GSDP for 2015-16 has been Rs.57858 as compared to per capita GDP of Rs 77431 at constant (2011-12) prices for 2015-16. While GSDP at constant prices recorded growth pace of Maulana7.79% during Azad 2016 -17Library, fromthe previous Aligarh year, per capita Muslim, GSDP for the University year 2016-17
7 State Domestic Product, or SDP, is the total value of goods and services produced during any financial year within the geographical boundaries of a state. 8 Revised estimate is a detailed estimate. It is also accompanied by the original estimate for comparative purpose. While submitting the revised estimate, the reason for revision should also be stated.
5 Chapter 1: Introduction
has improved by 6.57 percent. The relative growth rate figures in GDP, as well as GDP per capita for 2016-17 at stable prices, was 7.60%(GDP) and 6.23% Percapita GDP respectively.
Similarly, GSDP at current prices for the period 2016-17, has been found at Rs.11630.43 crore measuring the per capita income at Rs. 74550. These estimates at all India are Rs.13557192 crore and Rs.93231 respectively for 2015-16. GSDP during 2015-16(AE9) has risen by 13.17% from the previous period, and PCI has enhanced by 13.69% at present prices. The growth rate in GDP and per capita GDP at current prices are 8.71 % and 7.31% respectively during 2015-16 over 2014-15. The sectoral contribution of the GSDP at constant prices as per advance estimates for 2015-16 in percentage terms has been 15.89%, 27.11% and 57.00% of Primary, Secondary and Tertiary sectors respectively. The sectoral percentage contribution in GDP on the same series for the year 2013-14 works out to 15.80% of Primary sector 24.27% of Secondary sector and 59.93% of Tertiary sector. On this series, it is the Tertiary sector which is promising as chief sharer to GSDP as well as GDP. As far as growth rate figures the maximum increase of 8.37% has been found in Tertiary sector followed by 2.57% and 0.40% rate of growth in Primary and Secondary sectors respectively during the 2015-16 over the previous year at constant prices. The relative growth rates in GDP at constant prices during 2013-14 were 6.78%, 3.96% and 0.49% in Tertiary and Secondary Sectors respectively. Analysing the growth rate in GSDP by industry of origin as per the estimates for 2013- 14 at constant (2011-12) prices,the highest growth of12.36% has been observed in ‗Community, Social and Personal services‘ followed by 5.41% regarding ‗Financing, Insurance, Real Estate and Business services‘ and lowest growth of 3.16% has been in ―Manufacturing, Construction, Electricity, Gas and Water Supply‖ during 2012-13over 2011-12. In the case of GDP,the highest growth rate of 11.67% has been witnessed in ―Financing, Insurance, Real Estate, and Business Services.‖
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
9 In calculating quarterly GDP, the first estimate published approximately one month after the end of a quarter. It includes all information then available, but because relevant information may not be available immediately or may be subject to revision, it is subject to scrutiny and is usually revised in the preliminary estimate and later in the final estimate. As a result, the advance estimate is considered important as a guideline to performance in a quarter, but it is not necessarily the most accurate measure.
6 Chapter 1: Introduction
1.2. Agriculture and Allied Sectors
Agriculture in Jammu and Kashmir has a significant history. The economic contribution of Agriculture to States GDP is steadily declining; still, agriculture is demographically the broadest economic sector and plays a significant role in the overall socioeconomic fabric of the state. Boosting Agricultural growth is essential for inclusive growth because this sector sustains the livelihood of 70 percent of the population. However, agriculture contributes only 15.89 percent to the state‘s GDP.Little contribution of agriculture to GSDP is mainly because the productivity of our major crops is very low in comparison to other states and the rest of the country.Technology deficit in agriculture seems the important cause, yield per hectare of food grains, fruits; vegetables are far below the country levelaverages.Yield rates of Principal crops rice, maize and wheat for the year 2014-15 are 2390 kg/ha, 2557 kg/ha and 2872 kg/ha as per 4th advance estimates for the year 2014-15 for India. Agriculture has been a way of life and continues to be the single most important livelihood of the people. Paddy is the main crop of the Kashmir region followed by maize and wheat. Maize is the major crop of the Jammu region followed by wheat. Barley is the major crop of the Ladakh region followed by wheat.
The State is endowed with varied agro-climatic conditions for growing a variety of horticulture crops like fruits and vegetables, plantation crops and floriculture. Kashmir‘s agriculture has an international identity. The world‘s high-quality saffron10 is grown in the valley, and its major intensity is in Pulwama and Budgam districts. Nearly 98% of the total area in the state under the crop is cultivated in Kashmir province. Its cultivation in Jammu division is confined to few pockets of district Kishtwar. The state holds the first position in the country in the production of saffron. Saffron is the world‘s most expensive spice and the most popular ingredient forcoloring and flavoring butter, cheese, confectionary, baked food, and medicines. However, both area and production of saffron and also its productivity has substantially decreased over the years. Black zeera11, another famous crop in the world, is also produced in some pockets of J&K state.
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 10 Saffron is a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus, commonly known as the "saffron crocus". The vivid crimson stigmas and styles, called threads, are collected and dried to be used mainly as a seasoning and colouring agent in food. 11 Buniumbulbocastanum, black cumin isconsidered similar to cara way, but they are two distinctly different plants. Theseeds differ dramatically in shape, color and size. Nigella sativa, black carawayisalso called kalonji or nigella, and more common in the Far East, Mideast, Bangladesh, India and Africa.
7 Chapter 1: Introduction
The favorable climatic conditions and fertile soil of the state provide immense scope for promotion of horticulture sector. Moreover, this sector is labor intensive and provides employment opportunities to a sizeable number in the processing of its produce and contributes considerably towards the state economy. Apple, pear, walnut, almond, cherry, apricot and a large variety of other fruits are grown in the state. The state holds the first position in the production of temperate fruits like apple. As per the latest information available for the year 2015-16 production of fruit was 24.94lakh metric tonnes12 which account for around 2.7% of total fruit of 901.83 lakh metric tonnes for 2015-16 produced in the country. Export of fruit outside the state during 2015-16 was 14.58 lakh metric tonnes constituting 58.46% of total fruit production. In fact export of fruit forms base of the state‘s trade. As per provisional figures for 2012- 13, Horticulture department has reported 337 thousand hectares13 of land under fruit cultivation compared to 6301 thousand hectares in the country for 2015-16. The percentage of gross irrigated area to gross cropped area in the state is 44.75% for the year 2015-16 as against 45.32% at the national level for 2008-09. Similarly, 47.21% of net area sown is irrigated for 2015-16 compared to 44.71% for India for 2008-09.
Livestock14 is an integral part of the agrarian economy. With enough of grazing land in hill areas of the state, the herd is of distinct advantage. It is making a significant contribution to the economic development of the state. Livestock is another pursuit having the potential for development in the state given alpine pastures and other endowments bestowed by nature. Some terrains of the state are hilly and mountainous. Rearing of livestock is best suited to these areas and plays an essential role in promoting mountain farming. The agrarian nature of the state provides tremendous scope for promotion of all agriculture-related sectors like mushroom development, apiculture15, floriculture16, fisheries, sericulture17 development, etc.
12 The tonne, commonly referred to as the metric ton in the United States, is a non-SI metric unit of mass equal to 1,000 kilograms; or one mega gram; it is equivalent to approximately 2,204.6 pounds, 1.102 short tons or 0.984 long tons. 13 The hectare is an SI accepted metric system unit of area equal to a square with 100 metre sides, or Maulana10,000 m², and Azadis primarily used Library, in the measurement Aligarh of land. There areMuslim 100 hectares in oneUniversity square kilometre. An acre is about 0.405 hectare and one hectare contains about 2.47 acres. 14 Livestock are domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce labor and commodities such as meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The term is sometimes used to refer solely to those that are bred for consumption, while other times it refers only to farmed ruminants, such as cattle and goats. 15 Apiculture is the technique of scientific rearing of honey bees in a specially designed wooden box and without damaging the comb foundation extract honey and wax from their artificial hives.
8 Chapter 1: Introduction
The latest livestock census (2007) reveals that the state has a contribution of about 2% in the total livestock of the country. Livestock per hundred of the population in the state is 88 animals as against only 46 animals in the country. Moreover, average livestock available per household in the state is seven animals, as against only three at the all-India level. Both these indicators reveal that the magnitude of livestock per 100 of population and per household available in the state is twice its magnitude possible at the National level. Milk production of the state as per ISS report for 2010-11 was estimated at 16.09 lakh metric tonnes. Per capita availability of milk works out to 395 grams per day as compared to 337 grams for the country in 2015-16. Dairy is the main stay of the live stock sector in the state. The number of poultry birds as per 19th live stock census (2012) was 82.73 lakh in the state as compared to 7292.09 lakh in India. Poultry development is one of the most resilient sectors in the country fast growing itself to changing bio-security, health and food safety needs. Egg production of India for the Year 2014-15 has been 784840 lakhs with per capita availability of 65 eggs per annum. This indicator for J&K is 52 eggs per capita per annum with egg production of 6516 lakhs for 2014-15. Equally, there are high prospects for fish production. Fish production of the state during 2015-16 has reached to 2.00 lakh quintals. Total fish production in the country in 2015-16 was 1079.54 lakh quintals.
1.3. Economic Infrastructure
Tourism
Tourism is emerging as one of the important contributors to the state economy. The state has a world-class potential in tourism which ranges from historical and religious sites to its natural attraction. The Kashmir valley is famous for its splendid natural beauty, natural scenery throughout the world. Its high snow clad mountains scenic spots, beautiful valleys, gushing rivers, attractive lake, and springs, lush green forests, pastures, meadows and beautiful health resorts enhance its grandeur is a source of great attraction for tourists round the year. During the summer one can enjoy the Maulanabeauty ofAzad nature, troutLibrary, fishing, big Aligarh and small game Muslim hunting, etc. University during winter
16 Floriculture, or flower farming, is a discipline of horticulture concerned with the cultivation of flowering and ornamental plants for gardens and for floristry, comprising the floral industry. 17 Sericulture, or silk farming, is the cultivation of silkworms to produce silk. Although there are several commercial species of silkworms, Bombyxmori is the most widely used and intensively studied silkworm.
9 Chapter 1: Introduction
climbing mountain peaks and sports like skating and skiing on snow slopes are commonly enjoyed. Apart from this pilgrimage to famous religious shrines of the Hindus and Muslims make Kashmir valley a great tourist attraction. In fact, Mughals18 have rightly described Kashmir valley as the ―paradise on earth‖ Government is also paying focused attention for the development of this sector and operationalization of Gandola Cable Car Project at Gulmarg,the golf course at Srinagar (Royal springs), Gulmarg and Pahalgam are a few initiatives taken in this direction. Adventure and religious tourism in Kashmir, Ladakh, and Jammu Regions have also been flourishing. Kashmir Valley, during the Year 2016, witnessed tourist inflow of 623 thousand tourists including foreign tourists. Vaishno Devi19JiAsthapan has observed phenomenal rush of devotees, and the number of pilgrims for 2016has been recorded at 21.35 lakhs. On an average 1.78 lakh, pilgrims visit this shrine monthly. During the year 2016, 2.20 lakh pilgrims visited Amaranth Ji holy cave.
The Handicraft sector occupies an important position in the economic structure of the state and has worldwide acclaim for high-quality craftsmanship, attractive designs, and functional utility. Crafts like embroidery20, shawls21, crewel22, namda23, chain stitch24, wood-carving25, paper-mache26, kani-shawls27, costume, jewelry, and carpets28 hold a
18 The Mughal Empire or Mogul Empire was an empire in the Indian subcontinent, founded in 1526. It was established and ruled by a Muslim dynasty with Turco-Mongol Chagatai roots from Central Asia. 19 Vaishno Devi, also known as Mata Rani, Trikuta and Vaishnavi, is a manifestation of the Hindu Goddess Mata Adi Shakti also known as Chandi/Durga. 20 Embroidery is the craft of decorating fabric or other materials using a needle to apply thread or yarn. Embroidery may also incorporate other materials such as pearls, beads, quills, and sequins. 21 A shawl is a simple item of clothing, loosely worn over the shoulders, upper body and arms, and sometimes also over the head. 22 Crewel embroidery, or crewelwork, is a type of surface embroidery using wool. A wide variety of different embroidery stitches are used to follow a design outline applied to the fabric. The technique is at least a thousand years old. 23 Namda is the craft of making carpets by felting. This craft is said to have traveled to Kashmir from Iran along with a Sufi Saint. Maulana24 Chain stitch is aAzad sewing and embroidery Library, technique Aligarhin which a series of Muslimlooped stitches form University a chain- like pattern. Chain stitch is an ancient craft – examples of surviving Chinese chain stitch embroidery worked in silk thread have been dated to the Warring States period. 25 Wood carving is a form of woodworking by means of a cutting tool in one hand or a chisel by two hands or with one hand on a chisel and one hand on a mallet, resulting in a wooden figure or figurine, or in the sculptural ornamentation of a wooden object. 26 Papier-mâché is a composite material consisting of paper pieces or pulp, sometimes reinforced with textiles, bound with an adhesive, such as glue, starch, or wallpaper paste.
10 Chapter 1: Introduction
significant share in the overall production and export of state. Silken carpets, in particular, constitute a specialty having no parallel in quality and design at the national level and, therefore, occupy an important position in the international market. The carpet industry is making a significant contribution towards foreign exchange earnings of the country. During the year 2015-16 production of handicraft goods was estimated at Rs. 2234.15 crore and handicraft goods valuing Rs. 1059.41 crore were exported. The handicrafts sector apart from generating employment opportunities makes the best possible use of locally available raw material. Handloom is also the oldest and widespread industry and has been a way of life in the state since time immemorial. It is the largest unorganized activity. The handloom sector in J&K is centuries old having specialized skill in manufacturing of fabrics like pashmina shawls ruffle shawls, shahtoosh shawls, silk sarees, and other cotton items which have great demand in the national and international markets. Handloom industry of the state has a definite place of pride in the country.
Banking
The financial market of the State is bank dominated;banks ability to withstand stress is critical to overall financial stability. Banks are meeting the financial requirements particularly of the un-organized sector and the self-employed in the micro and small business sector. Infrastructure development which is considered as the key to long term sustainable growth of the economy has a heavy dependence on bank financing. The insurance sector though well capitalized is significantly exposed to the banking system. Thus banks have a critical role in the present economic environment. More importantly, to achieve the objectives of faster sustainable and inclusive development agenda in India by providing access to banking to all the citizen's banks are broadening and deepening their network besides diversifying domain ofactivities and jurisdiction. Banks are an important part of financial conglomerates and have acquired greater depth and liquidity over the years. Banking structure of J&K comprises of Public sector Banks, Private sector Commercial Banks, Regional Rural Banks and Central/State Co-operative Banks. As of March 2016, Banks in J&K had 1998 Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 27 A kani shawl is a type of shawl originating from the Kanihama area of Kashmir. It is one of the oldest handicraft of Kashmir. This craft has been a part of the valley since the time of Mughals. The shawls are woven from pashmina yarn. 28 A carpet is a textile floor covering typically consisting of an upper layer of pile attached to a backing. The pile was traditionally made from wool, but, since the 20th century, synthetic fibers such as polypropylene, nylon or polyester are often used, as these fibers are less expensive than wool.
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branches. Their performance has been progressively improving in respect of mobilization of savings, deployment of credit, disbursement of microcredit under NABARD‘s Self Help Group-Bank Linkage Programme supporting Government Programmes, etc. Brief profile of banks indicates that as of March 2016, in percentage terms 55%, 21% and 24% of the branch network are located in rural, semi-urban and urban areas respectively. On an average one bank branch is available per 6 thousand people and 50.74/ km2. ofthe area on the actual line of control, these average indicators in the country during this reference period are 10 thousand people and 30.26 / km2. As on March 2016, outstanding bank credit amounted to Rs.42348.25 crore recording an increase of 15.99% over previous year‘s credit.
Similarly, the aggregate deposits increased by 9.18% as of March 2016, over the corresponding period of the previous year. Credit Deposit Ratio29 is an impressive indicator to measure the business performance of banks. Overall CDR of banks slipped down from 46.23% as on March 2015 to 49.11% as on March 2016.
Power
Power holds the key to any economic activity. The state has the potential to generate 20,000 MW30 of hydro-power of which only 16475 MWs of hydel potential has been identified. Out of the identified potential of 16475 MWs only about 3263.46 MWs have been harnessed which reveals that 85% of hydel potential is yet to be exploited. The energy generated of the State for 2015-16 is 3990.127 million units under state sector power projects against 104867.3 MU of in 2014-15. Per capita generation of power for J&K works out to 274.28kwhs (2012-13) the corresponding figure for the country is 669.47kwhs for 2011-12. However, all India figures of per capita power generation are regarding public utilities only.
Roads The sustainable and inclusive economic growth31 calls for an efficient and extensive road network. Road infrastructure is critical for sustainable growth of the economy Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
29 Credit-deposit ratio, popularly CD ratio, is the ratio of how much a bank lends out of the deposits it has mobilized. 30 MW a unit of power equal to one million watts, especially as a measure of the output of a power station. 31 Inclusive growth means economic growth that creates employment opportunities and helps in reducing poverty. It means having access to essential services in health and education by the poor.
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besides industrialization. The National Highway-44 connects the capital cities of Srinagar and Jammu with the rest of the country.The total road length maintained by all departments put together ending March 2015 was 39096 km as compared to 5472144 km in India as on March 2015. Road density for J&K state for the year 2014-15 is 38.56 km per 100 sq. km of the area and 311 km per lakhs of population, the relative road density32 for the country for the year 2014-15 is 173km (on area) and 451 km per lakh of population.
Transport Communication
Registered motor vehicles of all categories put together as on 31- 03-2016 were 1375 thousand as compared to 210023 thousand vehicles in India as on March 2015.Vehicle density33 is an impressive indicator applied to measure the progress on this account. Registered motor vehicles per lakh of the population have reached to 10971 as on March 2016 in J&K the corresponding indicator at all India is 16536.3 as on March2015. Registered vehicles per 100 km2 work out to 1357(J&K) and 6632.4 (India) during reference above periods respectively.
Similarly, 243 and 163 buses/minibusses(registered) are available per 1 lakh of population in J&K and all India in 2015-16 and 2015 respectively. India‘s posts have the largest postal network in the world with 154910 Post offices across the length and breadth of the country as on March 2016. On average, each Post Office serves 8364 persons with coverage of approximately 21.22 km2 in India.These average figures are 7579 persons and 59.6 km2. in respect of J&K as on March 2016.The Indian telecom network is ranked as the second largest in the world next to China. Tele-density, the most important indicator of telecom penetration, rose to 79.97% in J&K and 83.36% in India as on March 2016 both regarding J&K and India. The state is marching fast towards building up railway infrastructure. At present rail transport is available from Lakhanpur to Katra in Jammu Division and from Banihal to Baramulla in Kashmir Division. Construction of 237 Km long rail line from Katra to Baramulla in Kashmir Maulanais in full Azad swing. Indian Library, Railways are Aligarh making sustained Muslim efforts in developingUniversity and providing rail link up to Kashmir. This special project has been declared as National Project, and funds of this project have been generated out of National Budget.
32 Road density is the ratio of the length of the country's total road network to the country's land area. 33 Number of vehicles per unit length of the roadway
13 Chapter 1: Introduction
Currently, train services are operational between Banihal and Baramulla in the 128 km long section in Kashmir valley, 11 km long railway tunnel from Banihal to Qazigund has been commissioned recently.
Poverty
Poverty reduction has been an important goal of development Planning. The Planning Commissionof India estimates the incidence of poverty based on household consumption expenditure survey conducted by the National Sample Survey (NSS) on a quinquennial34 basis. Tendulkar Committee developed a methodology using implicit prices for estimating State wise rural and urban poverty which is the nodal agency for estimating the number and proportion of people living below poverty line at national and state levels, separately for rural and urban areas, makes poverty estimates based on a large sample surveys of household consumption expenditure carried out by the National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO)35 after an interval of approximately five years. The Commission has been estimating the poverty line and poverty ratio since 1997. Based on NSS 61st Round (July 2004 to June 2005) consumer expenditure data, the poverty ratio is estimated at 4.6% in rural areas, 7.9% in urban areas and 5.4% for the state in 2004-05 using Uniform Recall Period (URP) method. The corresponding poverty ratio for the country as a whole is estimated at 28.3% in rural areas, 25.7% in urban areas and 27.5% for the combined, i.e., rural and urban.
Unemployment
The 66th quinquennial NSS Round (July 2009- June 2010) devoted for estimating the rate of unemployment in the countryviz-a-viz states estimated 5.3% rate of unemployment for the J&K and the relative rate for the country as a whole is 2.6% according to Usual Principal Status36(UPS) approach. Similarly, for rural areas, the
34 Lasting for or relating to a period of five years. 35 The National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO), now known as National Sample Survey Office, is an organization under the Ministry of Statistics of the Government of India. It is the largest Maulanaorganization in IndiaAzad conducting Library, regular socio-economic Aligarh surveys. It was Muslim established in 1950 University. 36 The status of activity on which a person has spent relatively longer time of the preceding 365 days prior to the date of survey is considered to be the usual principal activity status of the person.The Usual Principal Activity status is determined using the majority time criterion and refers to the activity status on which h/she spent longer part of the year. Principal usual activity status is further used to classify him in/out the labour force. For instance, if an individual was ‗working‘ and/or was ‗seeking or available for work‘ for major part of the year preceding the date of survey then h/she is considered as being part of the ‗Labour Force‘. For example if an individual reports as having
14 Chapter 1: Introduction
rate of unemployment hasbeen estimated as 4.9 % (J&K) and 2.1% (India) the corresponding rate for urban areas is estimated at 6.5% (J&K) and 3.7% (India). The indicator reveals a high rate of un-employment for J&K in comparison with all- India. As per the National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) report on ―Employment- Unemployment situation in India 2009-10‖ out of 1000 employed people in rural J&K,597, 84 and 316 are employed in ‗Agriculture‘, ‗Industry‘ and ‗Services with construction‘ respectively, the indicator for urban J&K is 110 (Agriculture), 227 (Industry) and 662 (Services with construction).
Similarly at all India, out of 1000 employed 679 rural and 75 urban are in ‗Agriculture‘, 80 rural and 242 urban are in ‗Industry‘ while as 241 (rural) and 683(urban) are in ‗Services with construction‘. From these figures, it is evident that Agriculture is the employment provider in rural areas both in J&K and all India while as Services Sector is the main employment provider for urban areas of J&K as well as all India. As per 5th Employment-Unemployment survey (2015-16), using UPS approach, in India, 46.1 percent persons are in Agriculture, 32 percent in tertiary and 21.8% in secondary sectors. Using UPSS approach corresponding figures for the country are 47.3 percent, 31 percent and 21.9 in respectively. It is further observed from the data that in J&K, in the age group 18-29 years unemployment rate is highest among females, i.e., 45.1 percent and 44.6 percent using UPS and UPSS approaches respectively. In J&K, the unemployment rate for males of age group 18-29 years is 17.8 percent and 16.9 percent using UPS, and UPSS approaches respectively. In the age group of 30 years and above the unemployment rate at all India Level is 1.6 percent and 9.0 percent using UPS and UPSS approach. Corresponding values for the same age group for the J&K state are 1.3 and 8.0 respectively.
Price and Inflation
Inflation is the most closely monitored variable as it has a considerable impact on the average consumer. It refers to an upward movement in the general prices of goods and Maulanaservices Azad and is estimated Library, as the percentage Aligarh rate of changeMuslim in price University index over the reference period. Concurrently four sectional consumer price Indices (CPIs) are computed for all states/UTs and India. These consumer price indices are CPI for
worked and sought/available for work for seven months during the year or having sought or available for work for seven months then h/she is classified as being in the Labour Force.
15 Chapter 1: Introduction
Industrial Workers37, CPIfor Agricultural Labourers38, CPI for Rural Labourers39 and CPI for Urban Non-Manual Employees40. However, there is no single broad-based CPI: Average CPI for Industrial Workers (CPI-IW) for the year 2015-16 was up by 14 points for J&K and 15 points for all India when compared with the average CPI-IW
37 Consumer price Index Numbers for Industrial Workers (Base 1982=100) is designed to measure a change over time in prices of a given basket of goods and services consumed by a defined population (i.e. Industrial Workers). This Index is compiled for Industrial Workers residing in 70 centres of industrial importance in the country. These 70centres were distributed among the states in proportion to the industrial employment. The indices for all the 70 centres are compiled and released every month on the basis of the weights derived from the working Class Family Income and Expenditure Survey conducted during 1981-82 and the current prices of the selected items collected from 226 markets spread over 70 centers. Later, on the basis of these centre indices the All-India index, which is in fact a weighted average, is derived. Besides, Labour Bureau also compiles and releases indices for the six additional centres to meet the specific requirements of the Index users of the respective states. The publication besides presenting the serial data on index numbers in respect of centers and All-India also contains various other related information viz., Inflation rate, Linking Factors, Centre-wise Group/Sub-Group weights andAll-India item wise weights for old series and new series. 38 CPI for Agricultural and Rural labourers on base 1986-87=100 is a weighted average of 20 constituent state indices and it measures the extent of change in the retail prices of goods and services consumed by the agricultural and rural labourers as compared with the base period viz 86- 87. 39 Labour Bureau has been compiling CPI Numbers for Agricultural Labourers since September, 1964.The base of CPI(AL) was 1960-61=100. This series of CPI Numbers was then replaced by CPI for (i) Agricultural and (ii) Rural Labourers with base 1986-87=100 from November, 1995 onwards . CPI for Agricultural and Rural labourers on base 1986-87=100 is a weighted average of 20 constituent state indices and it measures the extent of change in the retail prices of goods and services consumed by the agricultural and rural labourers as compared with the base period viz 86- 87. This index is released on the 20th of the succeeding month. CPI-AL is basically used for revising minimum wages for agricultural labour in different States. 40 The need for an all Indian middle class cost of living index was felt on several occasions in connection with the fixation and adjustments of emoluments of Central Government employees. The Central Statistical Organisation carried out a family living survey of urban middle class population during 1958-59 to facilitate construction of middle class cost of living indices. On the basis of this survey data, a cost of living index number named as CPI(UNME) on base1960=100 was compiled and published since 1961. This index depicts the changes in the level of average retail prices of goods and services consumed by the urban segment of the population. The target group of this index was urban families who derived major portion of their income from non manual occupations in the non-agricultural sector. This index had a limited use as it was used for determining dearness allowances of employees of some foreign companies working in India in service sectors such as airlines, communications, banking, insurance and other financial services. Release of Centre-wise monthly CPI (UNME) on the basis of 1984-85 =100 has been discontinued Maulanasince April 2008 Azad as per the Library, recommendation ofAligarh National Statistical Muslim Commission becauseUniversity of outdated base year and also deployment of field investigators for collection of price data for a broad based CPI (Urban) index. The Commission also decided that release of all-India linked CPI (UNME) would continue till CPI (Urban) is brought out. The monthly linked all India CPI (UNME) was being compiled by linking to CPI (IW) with base 2001=100 and taking CPI (UNME) as weights. This index was released with a time lag of two moths, usually during the third week of the month. The release of all-India linked CPI(UNME) has been discontinued with effect from January 2011.
16 Chapter 1: Introduction
for the year 2015- 16 measuring an inflation rate of 3.2% and 4.52% for J&K and all India respectively.
Similarly, the general Consumer Price Index for Agricultural laborers increased by 38 points (J&K) and 56 points (all India) during 2015-16 as compared to 2010-11. Average CPI-AL recorded3.0% and 4.33% rate of inflation over 2010-11 in J&K and all India respectively. Rate of inflation measured in terms of CPI-RL (General Index) during the year 2015-16 was 3.42% for J&K and 4.56% for India over 2010-11. The index on CPI-RL has increased by 48 points and 60 points during 2015-16 over 2010- 11 in J&K and all India respectively. Food inflation on different sectional consumer price indices during 2015-16 was7.16% and 6.49% for J&K and all- India respectively over 2010-11 as per CPI-IW. CPI-AL and CPI-RL measured the rate of food inflation at 3.92% and 5.57% respectively for J&K and the relative food inflation at all-India measured by CPI-AL was 3.80% and 5.86% as per CPI-RL during 2015- 16 as compared to 2010-11.
Education
Perceptible progress has been made in the education sector by creating necessary infrastructure besides enhancement of enrollment checking of dropout rate41, capacity building42, addressing gender inequality43, etc. As far as educational Infrastructure of J&K is concerned, ending March 2015, there were 14640 Primary schools, 10209 Middle Schools, 4196 High/Higher Secondary Schools. For higher education as on 31-3-2015, there were 318 colleges for professional education and 11 Universities/Deemed Universities. Professional education includes Engineering and Technology, Architecture, Medical and Education/ Teacher, Arts, Science and Commerce Training Colleges,02 Central Universities under the aegis of Ministry of Human Resource Development have been established in the State. The establishment of 2 Central Universities will benefit the state of this highest learning facility. With
Maulana41 Proportion Azad of students Library, who drop out in a singleAligarh year without completingMuslim high school University 42 Capacity building (or capacity development) is the process by which individuals and organizations obtain, improve, and retain the skills, knowledge, tools, equipment and other resources needed to do their jobs competently or to a greatercapacity (larger scale, larger audience, larger impact, etc). 43 Gender inequality is the idea and situation that men and women are not equal. Gender inequality refers to unequal treatment or perceptions of individuals wholly or partly due to their gender. It arises from differences in gender roles. Gender systems are often dichotomous and hierarchical.
17 Chapter 1: Introduction
the introduction of centrally sponsored schemes like SarvaShikshaAbhiyan44, NPEGEL45, Mid –Day –Meals46 in Schools and Kasturba Gandhi BalikaVidyalaya47 and other initiatives taken by the Central and State Governments, the Literacy level48 has improved together with Gross Enrolment Ratio49. The literacy rate visualizes the ultimate progress in the education sector. Census 2011 derived literacy rate of the state as 67.16% with 76.75% male literates and 56.43% female literates. These figures show signs of improvement in the literacy when compared with the literate population of 2001 census. The overall literacy rate improved by 13.22 percentage points. In comparison to male literacy, female literacy has improved at a faster rate, i.e., against 11.66percentage points in male literacy female literacy increased by 15.01 percentage points. At all- India census-2011 determined 74.04% population as literates with 82.14% (male literate population) and 65.46% (female literate population). With this improvement in the literate population of the state, the gender gap has also reduced to 20.25% in 2011 as against 23.60% in 2001. It is pertinent to mention that literacy rate
44 SSA, is an Indian Government programme aimed at the universalisation of elementary education "in a time bound manner", as mandated by the 86th Amendment to the Constitution of India making free and compulsory education to children between the ages of 6 to 14 (estimated to be 205 million children in 2001) a fundamental right. The programme was pioneered by former Indian Prime Minister AtalBihari Vajpayee. 45 National Programme for education of girls at elementary education provides for blocks focused projects for girls at risk/difficult circumstances with clearly defined outcomes.To develop and promote facilities to provide access and to facilitate retention of girls and to ensure greater participation of women and girls in the field of education, to improve the quality of education through various interventions and to stress upon the relevance and quality of girls‘ education for their empowerment. 46 The Midday Meal Scheme is a school meal programme of the Government of India designed to better the nutritional standing of school-age children nationwide. The programme supplies free lunches on working days for children in primary and upper primary classes in government, government aided, local body, Education Guarantee Scheme, and alternate innovative education centres, Madarsa and Maqtabs supported under SarvaShikshaAbhiyan, and National Child Labour Project schools run by the ministry of labour. Serving 120,000,000 children in over 1,265,000 schools and Education Guarantee Scheme centres, it is the largest of its kind in the world. 47 The Kasturba Gandhi BalikaVidyalaya or KGBV is a residential girls‘ secondary school run by Government of India for the weaker sections in India. 48 Total number of literate persons in a given age group, expressed as a percentage of the total population in that age group. Maulana49 Gross Enrollment Azad Ratio (GER) Library, or Gross Enrollment Aligarh Index (GEI) is Muslim a statistical measure University used in the education sector, and formerly by the UN in its Education Index, to determine the number of students enrolled in school at several different grade levels (like elementary, middle school and high school), and use it to show the ratio of the number of students who live in that country to those who qualify for the particular grade level. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization(UNESCO), describes 'Gross Enrolment Ratio' as the total enrolment within a country "in a specific level of education, regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the population in the official age group corresponding to this level of education."
18 Chapter 1: Introduction
is derived after excluding the children in the age group 0-6 years, which are by the definition of census50 treated as illiterate. Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) is another impressive indicator applied for measuring progress in the education sector. This indicator for the year 2015-16 has been 79.4% for boys, 81.5% for girls and 80.4% overall for the class I-VIII (6-13 years). These figures for a similar year at all- India were 66.17% (boys), 33.83 %( girls). On this indicator, the position of J&K well compares with all India. Girls‘ enrolment per hundred boys is another interesting indicator. In J&K 91 girls for primary classes and 89 girls for elementary and 87 girls for secondary classes are enrolled per hundred boys. This ratio at all India level is 93.02 for primary classes, 93.58 for elementary classes and 93.05 for secondary classes for 2014-15. This indicator indicates the proportionately good position for J&K in comparison with India.
Table 1.3: Health Indicators
S.No Indicator Ref. year J&K All India 1 Birth rate51 per million 2014 16.8 21 2 The death rate52 per million 2014 5.1 6.7 3 Natural Growth rate53 2014 11.7 14.3 Infant Mortality54 per 4 2014 34 39 100 live births 5 Life expectancy55 at birth a Male Years 2011 66.5 67.3 b Female Years 2011 69.3 69.6
50 A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population. 51 The birth rate is the total number of live births per 1,000 in a population in a year or period. 52 Mortality rate, or death rate, is a measure of the number of deaths in a particular population, scaled to the size of that population, per unit of time. 53 The rate of natural increase refers to the difference between the number of live births and the Maulananumber Azad of deaths occurring Library, in a year, divided Aligarh by the mid-year Muslim population of that year,University multiplied by a factor (usually 1,000). It is equal to the difference between the crude birth rate and the crude death rate. 54 Infant mortality is the death of young children under the age of 1. This death toll is measured by the infant mortality rate, which is the number of deaths of children under one year of age per 1000 live births. 55 Life expectancy is a statistical measure of the average time an organism is expected to live, based on the year of its birth, its current age and other demographic factors including gender.
19 Chapter 1: Introduction
Trade
On the trade side, the value of taxable goods imported into and exported from J&K was Rs 37111.56 crore and Rs 19992.82 crore respectively during the year 2015-16 measuring the trade balance of the state at minus Rs17118.74 crore as against trade balance of minus Rs 771503(P) crore for the country.
1.4. Horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir
“Horticulture develops a relationship with People to improve their cognitive, physical, economic, social and behavioral functioning.”
Horticulture is the area of agriculture that deals with garden plants cultivation, the science and art of growing fruits, vegetables, ornamental trees, bushes, and flowers. Horticulture (from Latin word hortus 'garden' and cultura, 'cultivation') is distinguished from agronomy (from the Greek Argos, 'field' and nomus 'arrangement') which is concerned with the large scale cultivation of field crops such as wheat, cotton, hay and the like. The distinction has become somewhat blurred in a recent decade because many horticultural plants particularly vegetables are often grown as field crops and are considered horticulture commodities rather than garden products. Along with forestry, horticulture and agronomy constitute three broad branches of agricultural science and practice. (Encyclopedia of Britannica, 2008)
Horticulture has a very long history.The study and science of horticulture date back to the times of Cyrus the Great56 of ancient Persia and has been going on ever since, with presentday horticulturists such as Freeman S. Howlett and Luther Burbank. The practice of horticulture can be retraced for many thousands of years. The cultivation of taro57 and yam58 in Papua New Guinea dates back to at least 6950–6440 cal BP59. The origins of horticulture lie in the transition of human communities from
56 Cyrus II of Persia, commonly known as Cyrus the Great and also called Cyrus the Elder by the Greeks, was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire, the first Persian Empire. 57 Taro is a starchy root crop with edible leaves and has provided good nutrition to Pacific Islanders for hundreds of years. It is known by several names; taro, talo, dalo. Varieties of taro vary in colour Maulanaand size.Taro is Azad not grown commercially Library, in New AligarhZealand and all supplies Muslim are imported University from the Pacific Islands. 58 Yam is the common name for some plant species in the genus Dioscorea that form edible tubers. Yams are perennial herbaceous vines cultivated for the consumption of their starchy tubers in many temperate and tropical world regions. 59 The scientific term "cal BP" is the abbreviation for "calibrated years before the present" or "calendar years before the present" and what that is references the fact that archaeologists have discovered wiggles in the radiocarbon curve which produces usable dating.
20 Chapter 1: Introduction
nomadic hunter-gatherers to sedentary or semi-sedentary horticultural communities, cultivating a variety of crops on a small scale around their dwellings or in specialized plots visited occasionally during migrations from one area to the next (such as the "milpa" or maize field of Mesoamerican cultures). In the Pre-Columbian Amazon Rainforest60, natives are believed to have used biochar61 to enhance soil productivity by smoldering plant waste.European settlers called it Terra Preta de Indio.In forest areas, such horticulture is often carried out in swiddens ("slash and burn" areas). A characteristic of horticultural communities is that useful trees are often to be found planted around communities or specially retained from the natural ecosystem.
Horticulture primarily differs from agriculture in two ways. First, it generally encompasses a smaller scale of cultivation, using small plots of mixed crops rather than large fields of single crops. Secondly, horticultural cultivations generally include a wide variety of crops, even including fruit trees with ground crops. Agricultural cultivations however as a rule focus on one primary crop. In Pre-Columbian North America, the semi-sedentary horticultural communities of the Eastern Woodlands (growing maize, squash and sunflower) contrasted markedly with the mobile hunter- gatherer communities of the Plains people.
In Central America, Maya horticulture involved augmentation of the forest with useful trees such as papaya, avocado, cacao, Ceiba and sapodilla. In the cornfields, multiple crops were grown such as beans (using cornstalks as supports), squash, pumpkins and chili peppers, in some cultures tended mainly or exclusively by women.
The analysis for horticulture development in India can be divided into four phases. The first phase involves the period before the independence of the country. The pre- independence horticulture was growing of flowers or fruits around the house, characterized by the selection of plants based on performance and conservation of a few cultivars by a vegetative method of propagation. No science was involved in horticulture, but it was a profession of a specific community. Growing of many horticultural crops was a household activity. (Singh, 2004) Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
60 The Amazon rainforest, covering much of northwestern Brazil and extending into Colombia, Peru and other South American countries, is the world‘s largest tropical rainforest, famed for its biodiversity. It‘s crisscrossed by thousands of rivers, including the powerful Amazon. 61 Bio-char is charcoal used as a soil amendment. Bio-charis a stable solid, rich in carbon, and can endure in soil for thousands of years.
21 Chapter 1: Introduction
The second phase of the development of horticulture covered the year which was influenced by indigenous thinking of sectoral growth of commodity in the regions of importance. This phase also saw the importance of the development of fruits in tropical and sub-tropical regions through the establishment of centers. During this phase, only a few crops were favored, and growth was limited to the expansion of the area.
The third phase is considered as the period of consolidation both for research and development. At the central level, the highest position in development and research were created, and efforts for development were triggered. Many states, provided attention to horticulture recognizing its role in nutrition security, employment generation and enhancing the farm income. Central Institutes and Directorates were established which benefited farmers in the adaptation of improved technology.
In the fourth phase due to marked technological changes there recorded quantum jump in plan allocation, formation and association by farmers, unprecedented increase in production, enhance the availability of produce, which is now marked as a golden revolution. (Singh 2004).
Horticulture is an age-old economic activity in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Kalhana, the great Kashmiri historian mentioned fruit culture in Kashmir in his famous book Rajtarangani during the reign of King Nara as early as 1000 B.C.It was, however, during the period of Lalitaditya (900 A.D.) that horticulture in the state received considerable patronage. Subsequently, during the periods Zain-ul-Abidin and the Mughals some varieties of fruits were brought from Kabul, Persia (Iran) and Central Asia.
The total area under orchards in 1955-56 was only 18,000 hectares which rose to 25,000 hectors in 1970-71. The state government made serious efforts to bring the culturable waste under orchards. Consequently, area under orchards increased to 51,000 hectares in 1980-81. The area further went up to 59,000 hectares in 1990-91. It is hoped that the orchard area will increase to 80,000 by 2020 A.D.
MaulanaThe Valley of Azad Kashmir beingLibrary, in higher latitudesAligarh and altitudes Muslim generally University grows temperate fruits. It grows numerous varieties of apples, apricots, almonds, peaches, cherries, plums, pears, walnuts, melons, grapes, and loquats. The farmers are increasingly concentrating on fruit cultivation, and more area is being brought under orchards. It has been reported that several pasture and forest areas have been cleared and planted with fruit trees.
22 Chapter 1: Introduction
Most of the apple orchards lie at the altitudes of 1,800 to 2,700 m above the sea level. In general, the sandy soil does not suit to apple trees as it induces root-bores and pink disease to the orchard. Deep and heavy loams are more suitable for apple orchard as these soils can retain moisture for a longer period.
Some of the essential varieties of apples grown in the Valley of Kashmir are Ambri, Delicious, American Teral, Maharaji, Hiazratbali, Ke-sari, and Royal Misri. The districts of Baramulla, Anantnag, Srinagar, and Pulwama have over 85 percent of the total orchards in the state.
Pears (Nakh) and peach also grow well in the cool and humid climate of the Kashmir Valley. Peach, being highly perishable is not much preferred by the farmers. Pears and peach orchards are well scattered in the districts of Kashmir Division. Apricot (Khubani) requires humid nights and cool weather during the early parts of its growing period and moderately high (about 25°C temperature) during later and the hilly areas of Kashmir below 3,000 m are well suited for apricot orchards.
The subtropical fruits are grown in the plains and low altitudinal zones of the Jammu Division. Among the tropical and subtropical fruits, mango, orange, malta, kino, mausm, ber, plum, papaya, guava, peach, litchi, lemon, and grapes are noteworthy. Nearly 500 varieties of mango, each with a peculiar taste and flavor, are found in the Jammu Division.
Mango takes about four months (March to June) to mature. Mangoes from Jammu region are supplied to Delhi and the towns and cities of Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan. There were about threecrore fruit trees in the state in 1995-96. In recent years, several new projects have been launched to spread orchards in the various parts of the state.
Incentives have been given to the growers by the various departments of the state to develop orchards in the drought-prone Kandi and hilly areas. Subsidy to the extent of Maulana50 percent Azad of fruit plantsLibrary, and inputs Aligarh to be used in themMuslim are being providedUniversity to the growers by the state. Consequently, more than 2400 hectares have been covered under the subsidy schemes.
For a steady expansion of horticulture, the grower must apply the required inputs and should remain vigilant against pests and disease. Exact scheduling is imperative since
23 Chapter 1: Introduction
most of the fruits and flower crops are highly perishable. Transportation to market must function smoothly to minimize post-harvest losses. As per the reported data, the area under fruits like apple, walnut, litchi, pear, cherry, and apricot has increased substantially since 1980, while the area of almond, loquat, and peach is shrinking.
On average, about 40 lakh tonnes of fruits are exported annually. Delhi, Mumbai (Bombay), Chennai (Madras), Hyderabad, Bangalore, Bhopal and the towns cities of Punjab and Haryana are the main markets to which Kashmir export their fresh and dry fruits.
One of the main problems of orchards sustenance is marketing. Packing and transportation costs are significantly high. Moreover, apple orchard owners are facing tough competition from the apple growers of Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhand. The good varieties of apple like Delicious are highly vulnerable to pests.
The farmers have to spray apple orchards four to six times. The high cost of insecticides and pesticides reduces the margin of profit to the apple growers. There is an urgent need to develop disease-resistant varieties, failure to which apple orchards have a less promising future in the Valley of Kashmir.
The horticultural sector contributes immensely to strengthen the financial condition of Jammu and Kashmir. This is a core sector of Jammu and Kashmir agriculture and about 4.5 lakh families are engaged in it. Around 20 percent area of the state is under horticultural crops. The horticultural sector contributes around 5000 crores to the annual income of the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Among the horticultural crops in the state apple occupies the predominant position constituting around 45 percent of the total area under fruit crops. Horticultural activities major thrust is given in hilly areas. The fruit crops grown in the state are almonds, walnuts, pears, cherries and apricots in temperate areas and mango, citrus, litchi, ber, papaya, guava, etc. in subtropical areas. Saffron cultivation in Jammu and Kashmir is unique in the world. The annual production of Saffron in Jammu and Kashmir ranges from 10 to 20 tonnes. The state government has Maulanamade strenuous effortsAzad to increase Library, horticultural Aligarh crops production. Muslim Incentives are Universitygiven to the growers of the horticultural crop by the departments of the state to develop orchards in Kandi and hilly areas. Subsidy to the extent of 50% of fruit plants and inputs used by the farmer are provided. It has been observed that around 40 lakh tonnes of fruits are exported annually from the state. This sector contributes significantly to the economic and
24 Chapter 1: Introduction
ecological development, employment generation, export and nutritional requirement of the people of the state. Since Jammu and Kashmir is endowed with different agro- climatic conditions and topography, the scope for strengthening various commercial horticultural activities is enormous.
The apple occupies a dominant position amongst horticulture crops, constituting 45 percent of the total area under tree crops. In apple cultivation, the thrust is on promoting high-density plantations and reduction in the gestation period. Enlarged facilities are being set up for processing and canning of fruits in the state. A major, apple concentrate fruit plant is coming up in the assisted sector at Jammu, with international collaboration.
Horticulture activities are also being given a significant thrust in hilly areas of the state. The other fruits are walnuts, almonds, pears, cherries, apricots and peaches in the temperate areas and mango, citrus and ber in sub-tropical areas. An apricot drying plant was commissioned at Kargil in1996.As per the survey, about 7.30 lakh hectares of land in the Shiwalik hills62 as well as in the Karewas63, do not have assured means of irrigation. The strategy would be organized on an area approach to ensure intensive coverage and to provide the back-up of infrastructure facilities at minimum cost. Another vital component would be the introduction of the zonalisation concept. The cultivation of most suited fruit crops in a particular agro-climatic zone shall be encouraged.The state government took up in April 1990; a World Bank aided horticulture development programme captioned North-West Horticulture Project. For this purpose, Rs.900 lakh were proposed during the Eighth Plan period.
Walnut is the next important item, covering nearly 18,000 hectares of land. The state has almost a monopoly in growing dry fruits like walnuts. The project for transfer of technology on vegetative propagation of walnuts with the help of food and agricultural organization, an organ of the United Nations has been implemented. This is expected to reduce the current gestation period and also to ensure uniform quality of produce.
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 62 The Sivalik Hills, also known as Churia Hills, are a mountain range of the outer Himalayas that stretches from the Indus River about 2,400 km eastwards close to the Brahmaputra. It is 10–50 km wide with an average altitude of 1,500–2,000 m. Between the Teesta and Raidāk Rivers in Assam is a gap of about 90 kilometers. 63 It is an intermountain valley fill, comprising of unconsolidated gravel and mud. A succession of plateaus is present above the Plains of Jhelum and its tributaries. These plateau-like terraces are called 'Karewas' or 'Vudr' in the local language.
25 Chapter 1: Introduction
Saffron cultivation is unique to Jammu and Kashmir State, the only other country producing the flower crop being Spain. The annual production of saffron, confined to Pampore in the Kashmir valley and the Kishtwar valley of Jammu province, varies from 10 to 12 tonnes. The mushroom industry has taken spurt recently and is growing at a fast speed.
1.5. Impact of Climate on Horticulture Sector
Horticultural crops are adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions, produce higher biomass64 per unit area as compared to field crops, are more remunerative for replacing subsistence farming and thus may aid in alleviating poverty in difficult agro-ecosystems as rain fed, dry land and hilly areas. There is also great potential to improve wastelands65 for productive use in the state. These crops require lesser irrigation and provide higher employment opportunities around the year. Increase in demand for horticultural produce due to greater health awareness, rising income, export demand, and increasing population poses the challenge for further increasing the production and productivity of horticultural crops. The issue of climate change and climate variations has resulted in more uncertainties and risks in this already high capital intensive system. This has resulted in further aggravating the constraints on a horticulture production system. The major challenges before us are to have sustainability, higher levels of production, competitiveness to stay in the market, regular production, land, water and more importantly threat of climate change. To meet the above challenges, we need innovations for improving horticultural crops production in the changed scenario.
The earth‘s climate makes small adjustments to maintain a firm balance between the energy reaching earth surface and energy reflected out of it. Even a small rise in temperature could mean substantial changes in cloud cover and wind pattern. Some changes may enhance warming, or some may counteract warming effects. Increase in small particles of matter or liquid produced naturally or by humanmade activities Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
64 Biomass is waste material from plants or animals that is not used for food or feed; it can be waste from farming or horticulture, food processing, animal farming, or human waste from sewage plants. It is used in various industrial processes, like energy production or as raw materials for manufacturing chemicals. 65 A wasteland is an area of land on which not much can grow or which has been spoiled in some way.
26 Chapter 1: Introduction
known as aerosols66 results in a cooling effect. Increase in water vapor due to the increase in evaporation due to high temperatures can further add to the rise in a warming fact. The significant change may impact horticultural crops production — climate change results in erratic rainfall pattern, heat waves, more warm spells, and crop failures. However, climate change may have some beneficial effect to a limited extent. The vulnerability of horticulture depends on both expected regional climate change and that sector‘s ability to adapt to the change. The projected or anticipated increase in temperature, variability in precipitation pattern and increase in the frequency of extreme weather events such as heat, cold waves, frost days, drought and floods would severely affect the production of horticultural crops. These stresses at different crop development phases in varying intensities would ultimately determine productivity and quality.
The Indian climate is dominated by monsoon, responsible for most of the region's precipitation, poses excess and limited water stress conditions. Fruit crops being sensitive and succulents are generally more sensitive to environmental extremes. High or low temperatures and water stress are the main cause of low yields. Under climate change scenarios the impact of these stresses would be compounded. The 67 horticultural crops having C3 photosynthetic metabolism have shown beneficial effects due to elevated carbon dioxide. The extreme hot and cold wave conditions have been reported to cause considerable damage to many fruit crops. In perennial, crops like mango and guava, the temperature is reported to influence flowering. The percentage of hermaphrodite68 flowers is more in late emerging panicles, which coincided with higher temperatures. Though grape originated in temperate regions, modifications in the production system have enabled it to adapt to subtropical and tropical climates. Under climate change conditions there would be changes in the
66 An aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets, in air or another gas. Aerosols can be natural or anthropogenic. Examples of natural aerosols are fog, dust, forest exudates and Maulanageyser Azadsteam. Examples Library, of anthropogenic Aligarhaerosols are haze, particulateMuslim air pollutants University and smoke. 67 C3 plants go through the Calvin cycle, taking in carbon dioxide through the leaves' minuscule pores, called stomata. An enzyme called RuBisCO helps the carbon dioxide combine with sugar. Eventually, the sugar and carbon dioxide form a molecule with three carbon atoms (C3) in the chloroplast. 68 Hermaphrodite is used in botany to describe a flower that has both staminate (male, pollen- producing) and carpellate (female, ovule-producing) parts. This condition is seen in many common garden plants.
27 Chapter 1: Introduction
availability of growing degree days69 leading to the hastening of the phonological70 processes. Most of the subtropical fruits are grown in the rain-fed conditions and are vulnerable to climatic variability and drought conditions caused due to shifts in rainfall pattern and temperature fluctuations.
The rise in temperature will influence the survival and distribution of pest populations. The rise in temperature increases nutrient mineralization in soils which will decrease fertilizer use efficiency. Increase in temperatures at fruit maturity stage results in a rise in events as fruit cracking and burning of litchi and premature ripening in mango. Low fruit setting is observed due to the sudden rise in day temperatures (>350C) during peak flowering in mango. Low temperatures (4-110C) in January, accompanied by high humidity (>80%) and cloudy weather delays panicle emergence. During peak bloom period, high temperature (350C) accompanied by low humidity (45%) and long sunshine hours result in excessive transpiration and dehydration of panicles. Untimely winter rains promote vegetative flushes in citrus instead of flowering flushes. Dry spell during flower emergence and fruit setting affects flower initiation and aggravates pest incidences. In wine grapes, anthocyanin development is influenced by the difference between day and night temperatures with high variations (15-200C)promoting color development.
Many slow growing fruit crops require heavy investment in the establishment of orchards. Changing the existing varieties would be difficult and very costly under the impact of climate change. In Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh, farmers have shifted from apple cultivation to either pomegranate cultivation or to vegetable growing. While, in Shimla district at relatively higher altitudes orchards have been replaced from high chilling requiring apple cultivars (Royal Delicious) to low chilling requiring cultivars and other fruit crops as pear, plum, and kiwi, etc. In mid hills, the trend is altogether shifting from apple cultivation to vegetable cultivation due to erratic weather conditions and reducing chilling hours. It is corroborated by the Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
69 Growing degree days (GDD) is a weather-based indicator for assessing crop development. It is a calculation used by crop producers that is a measure of heat accumulation used to predict plant and pest development rates such as the date that a crop reaches maturity. 70 Phonological awareness is an individual's awareness of the phonological structure, or sound structure, of words. Phonological awareness is an important and reliable predictor of later reading ability and has, therefore, been the focus of much research.
28 Chapter 1: Introduction
declining trend in snowfall and apple productivity in Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir. Thus in replanting orchards and in new plantations during these years, selection of low chilling types may be advisable. This is an example of the impending impact of climate change. Hence, under such circumstances, we would have to identify varieties and regions suitable for the production of quality fruits. With global warming production areas for specific crops and time of planting could be changed. For many horticultural crops, areas have been defined for fruit crops and creating new infrastructures in new areas would not be an easy task. Location of important production area is often defined as much by available land, markets, and infrastructure
as by climatic conditions. Thus, climate change and CO2 are likely to alter important interactions between horticultural plants and pollinators, insect-pests, diseases, and weeds, etc.
Keeping in view the nature of the crop, its sensitivity levels and the agro-ecological regions in Jammu and Kashmir, the crop based adaptation strategies need to be developed, integrating all available options to sustain productivity. To prepare ourselves for climate change and for formulating a sound action plan we must identify the gaps in information, prioritize researchable areas, and formulate concrete policies.
1.6. Chapterization of the Study
The entire research work has been divided into seven chapters to describe the details along with relevant information and paraphernalia like maps, tables, etc. for better understanding.
Chapter one (1) deals with the research designs which includes an overview of Jammu and Kashmir, horticultural activities in Jammu and Kashmir. It has also been found that the horticulture sector can give a boost to the rural economy of India in general and state of Jammu and Kashmir in particular.
Chapter two (2) deals with a review of the literature. An attempt has been made to Maulanareview theAzad earlier studies Library, on this subject Aligarh in international, Muslim national, regional University and state levels. It reveals that the horticulture sector is the newly developed allied-Agrisectors hasa lot of issues and challenges around the world. But, this sector can change the face of the rural economy of the district, state, national and international level.
29 Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter three (3) deals with the growth and development of horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir. The study reveals that the horticulture sector is one of the main sources of livelihood for the rural unemployed youth of the study area. This chapter also focused trend in horticulture area, production and productivity in Jammu and Kashmir.
Chapter four (4) describes the research methodology used to analyze the data set. This Chapter includes the research questions, objectives, scope and importance, research gap and limitations of the study.
Chapter five (5) discussed the status of horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir among various interstate comparisons. The comparison was based on the difference in production, productivity, and area. This comparison has also been made based on fruits and vegetables among the states in India.
Chapter six (6) analyses the field survey of the horticulture sector in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. This chapter is about the analysis and interpretation of the surveyed data. Various tools, techniques, and models have been used to understand and interpret the surveyed data set.
Chapter seven (7) deals with the Conclusion, findings, and suggestions. In this chapter, both the problems and prospects of the horticulture sector of Jammu and Kashmir have been highlighted. This chapter analyzed the intertemporal grass root level problems of horticulture in the State, and also some valuable suggestions have been made to benefit the actual growers of the land.
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
30 Chapter 1: Introduction
Fig. 1.2: Map depicting the major fruit growing areas of Jammu and Kashmir
Source: Directorate of Horticulture Jammu and Kashmir.
The first chapter is all about the introduction of the study area. It described the economy, society, and geography of the Jammu and Kashmir and the also the horticulture sector of the State. The next chapter is about the review of literature.
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
31
Chapter
2
Maulana Azad Library,Review Aligarh of Muslim Literature University Chapter 2: Review of Literature
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
"A systematic, explicit, and reproducible method for identifying, evaluating, and synthesizing the existing body of completed and recorded work produced by researchers, scholars, and practitioners", - (Review of Literature).
The review of literature gives the researcher an understanding of research methodology1, which refers to the way of the study, is to be conducted. It helps the researcher to know about the tools and instruments which have proved to be useful and promising in the previous studies. The advantage of related literature also provides an insight into the statistical method through which the validity of results should be established.
Good (1972) has rightly remarked, “Without a critical study of related literature, the investigator will be grouping in the dark and perhaps uselessly repeat the work already done.” Similarly, Tuchman in 1972 has said that “the purpose of literature reviews is to expand upon context and background of the study to help further, to define the problem and to provide an empirical basis for the subsequent development of a hypothesis.”
In any systematic research2, the review of the literature on relevant aspects under study forms an integral part of the research work. It is always worthwhile to study the work done on the various aspects related to the research problem by different research workers. Review of literature helps to know the present status of the problem so that the researchers would be able to make an improvement over the existing studies and also expand the horizon of investigation on the subject matter. An attempt is made in this chapter to bring together the findings of some of the studies closely related to the Maulanatopic of theAzad study to Library,get guidelines for Aligarh completion of theMuslim present study University on a scientific basis. Review of literature also gives insights to the researchers on methodology and
1 Research methodology is the specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information about a topic. 2 Systematic reviews are a type of literature review that uses systematic methods to collect secondary data, critically appraise research studies, and synthesize studies.
32 Chapter 2: Review of Literature
results obtained by previous researchers, which guide the researcher to cross check his results and compare and avoid his research getting deviated from the norms.
Horticultural produce in the world, over in general and India, in particular, have made steady progress. But the horticulture produce varies from place to place and country to country for various reason. Although there are lots of literature available in the field of horticulture, there is a need for reviewing them to know the status of development of horticulture. So, far number of studies have been carried out in this area of horticulture by Academicians, Researchers, Government, and Non-Government agencies.
Therefore, an attempt is made to review some of the earlier studies on the related subject which were studied at international, national, regional and state levels and accordingly that have been taken into consideration for the convenience of the study.
2.1. Marketing in Horticulture
Marketing is the series of services involved in moving a product from the point of production to the point of consumption. Those who carry out marketing have a strong incentive to increase the value of rural trade because increased sales should lead to higher profits. Rural businesses3 include suppliers of inputs, buyers of the produce, transporters, storage companies, processors and wholesalers. They can range in size from individual entrepreneurs to large-scale agribusinesses4, but whatever their size, all stand to gain from improvements in the marketing process.Businesses are often said to be exploiting farmers and making unfair profits5. They certainly try to maximize their earnings, but without such businesses, farmers would not be linked to markets and would not be able to sell all their produce. Traders and other rural businesses can help farmers to find new markets and lower their costs6. All of this leads to improved production opportunities and higher incomes for farmers.Rural
3 Small business units in the rural areas. Maulana4 Agribusiness is Azadthe business ofLibrary, agricultural production. Aligarh The term was Muslimcoined in 1957 by UniversityGoldberg and Davis. It includes agrichemicals, breeding, crop production (farming and contract farming), distribution, farm machinery, processing, and seed supply, as well as marketing and retail sales. 5 Profit is a financial benefit that is realized when the amount of revenue gained from a business activity exceeds the expenses. 6 Cost is usually a monetary valuation of (1) effort, (2) material, (3) resources, (4) time and utilities consumed, (5) risks incurred, and (6) opportunity forgone in production and delivery of a good or service.
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marketing businesses are often small, have limited resources and are traditional in outlook. Identifying new markets, advising on technologies and improving understanding of markets are all ways in which extension workers can help traders and farmers to increase sales.Governments can help farmers in many ways, without actually working with them directly. Promotion of competition, provision of market information and improvement of market infrastructure are powerful ways to ensure good returns for farmers.
Horticultural farmers frequently consider marketing as being their primary problem. However, while they can identify issues such as reduced prices, lack of transport and high post-harvest losses7, they are often poorly equipped to identify potential solutions. Successful marketing requires learning new skills, new techniques and new ways of obtaining information. The emphasis is on assisting farmers in forming mutually beneficial relationships with private-sector traders and agro-processors.
Following papers were reviewed to understand the impact of marketing of horticulture thoroughly.
1. AmaoI.O et al. (2011) in their article “economic analyst of pineapple marketing in Edo and Delta states Nigeria,” stated that pineapple market is the third most important tropical fruit8 in the world after banana and citrus. It focuses on the socio-economic characteristic of respondents, marketing channel, marketing margin and significant constraints to effective marketing of pineapple. The study took two approaches to estimate marketing performance, i.e., marketing margin9 and the analysis of market channel efficiency10. The study explains the various parties involves in the supply chain of pineapple in the Edo and Delta states of Nigeria. These are farmers, farmers‟ agents, retailers, wholesalers, and
7 Post-harvest losses occur between harvest and the moment of human consumption. They include on-farmlosses, such as when grain is threshed, winnowed, and dried, as well as losses along the chain during transportation, storage, and processing. 8 Tropical fruits are defined as fruits that are grown in hot and humid regions within the Tropic of MaulanaCancer Azad and Tropic of Library, Capricorn, covering Aligarhmost of the tropical Muslim and subtropical areas University of Asia, Africa, Central America, South America, the Caribbean and Oceania. 9 When companies buy a product to act as a distributor or retailer, it must sell the product at a higher price than that at which they purchased it. In such situations, the marketing margin of a product is the difference between what a company pays for the product and what it charges for the product. 10 A marketing channel is the people, organizations, and activities necessary to transfer the ownership of goods from the point of production to the point of consumption. It is the way products and services get to the end-user, the consumer; and are also known as a distribution channel.
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consumers. The research also found some constraints or hindrance in supplying pineapple in the market which is transportation cost and price fluctuation, risky due to the perishable nature, annual production and bulkiness. Based on the finding these constraints can be controlled by providing storage facilities and uniform pricing policy which can reduce the problems of damage and price fluctuation.
2. ChengappaP.G. et al. (2007) in their article “growth of horticulture sector in Andhra Pradesh: an aggregate and district level analysis” discussed the present status and also analysis the growth in the area, productivity and production made for the period 1998-99 to 2005-06 in the state of Andhra Pradesh. It also reveals that there has been significant growth in the area of orange and mango in the state. It recommended that regulated market, promotional schemes have to be encouraged, development of infrastructure and encouragement to resources poor farmers in the sector should be initiated so that horticultural products can be developed.
3. Emmanuel Zivenge and Charles Karvina (2012) in their paper titled as, “Analysis of factors influencing market channel access by communal horticulture farmers in Chimera District, Zimbabwe,” recommended that farmers should develop effective mechanisms for collaboration and linkages and invest in market intelligence11 for them to improve their livelihoods. The paper concludes that producer price was the primary determinant of market choice among farmers; other factors such as ownership of cell phones determine the market choice.
4. Gandhi V.P. and Namboodri N.V. (2002) in their article “fruits and vegetable marketing and its efficiency in India: A case study of the wholesale market in Ahmadabad areas,” has discussed the regulated wholesale markets for fruits and vegetable in the Ahmadabad city area, a large city of 4.5 million in western India. It also focuses on infrastructure, operation, and status and the value chain from Maulanaframer to wholesaler Azad to Library,retailer to consumer. Aligarh The study indicate Muslim that the regulatedUniversity wholesale market can help in improving the efficiency by measure such as increasing the direct contact with the farmers, increasing the number of buyer and
11 Market intelligence is the information relevant to a company's markets, gathered and analyzed specifically for the purpose of accurate and confident decision-making in determining strategy in areas such as market opportunity, market penetration strategy, and market development.
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sellers in the market, promoting the uses of open auction at the demand and improving/adding facilities and services such as go-down, cold storage, etc. The study finds that the agricultural produce market committee of Ahmadabad (APMC)12 has put up significant infrastructure including three regulated wholesale market with many facilities and services.
5. Ghosh S.P. (2012) in his paper “carrying capacity13 of Indian horticulture,” discussed the need to diversify the cultivation pattern to meet the growing population and rise in income level of the people of India. It emphasizes that high-value agriculture produces that includes, fruits, vegetables, meat, etc. has the potential to meet the demand of people. So, the study tries to highlight the present scenario and prospect of the horticulture sector of India in general and state in particular. The research indicates that horticultural development had brought high dividend both in term of upliftment of the socio-economic status of poor farmers as well as bringing stability in fragile ecosystems. The paper also focuses on the northeastern region of India by giving the present state and future potential.
6. Honglin W. et al. (2009)in their article “producing and procuring horticultural crops with Chinese characteristics: the case of northern China,” discussed on the participation in horticultural cultivation, interaction with the market, supply chain and other affect their production decision and income. They pointed out that village farmers are sick and needy farmers are increasing their share of production of horticultural crops and finally increasing their level of income, the standard of living, employment, etc. It also reveals that the procurement14 channel between the farmer and the wholesale market has changed very little and that the supply of horticultural products in China mostly flows through traditional small trader dominated supply chains.
12An Agricultural Produce Market Committee (APMC) is a marketing board established by a state Maulanagovernment Azad in India . Library, Aligarh Muslim University 13The carrying capacity of a biological species in an environment is the maximum population size of the species that the environment can sustain indefinitely, given the food, habitat, water, and other necessities available in the environment. 14 Procurement is the process of finding, agreeing terms and acquiring goods, services or works from an external source, often via a tendering or competitive bidding process. The process is used to ensure the buyer receives goods, services or works at the best possible price, when aspects such as quality, quantity, time, and location are compared.
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7. IIbery B. W’s (1986) Paper “Horticultural marketing, the case of the value of Evesham15,” stated the different marketing channels in the horticulture sector in Britain. The objective of the study was to examine the marketing behavior of 205 growers in one of Britain‟s traditional horticultural area, i.e.,the value of Evesham. Five marketing channels were analyzed in this article. These are direct marketing, local market, distant market, growers cooperative, and contract farming. The main finding of the study was that the individual farmers or growers are in a weak marketing position which automatically hampers in selling their horticultural produce to the customers. It also suggested that macro-approaches, based on growers‟ cooperative or contract with the processor can solve the problem of marketing.
8. Kamei P. (2003) in his article “the overview of horticultural growth the role of horticulture in Tamenglong16 district of Manipur” stated the role of horticulture aboutthe historical background, international, national, regional and state issues with special reference to Tamenglong district of Manipur. The study covers the survey account of ten villages to find horticulture growth and development. It also reveals the profile of survey villages relating to transportation, demography, and communication, economic infrastructure, irrigation, land system, flora, and fauna, etc. The study finds out that Tamenglong district is the remotest and backward among 500 districts in the country has been surviving primarily on jhum cultivation as the main occupation. It also reveals that people have been raising horticultural crops with their saving and the government did not pay any attention. At the concluding part it suggested that the horticultural sector would be the only lifeline for the people of Tamenglong district of Manipur and also can increase the employment, income, and standard of living and will also gradually change the economic structure of the area and people will be more prosperous by undertaking horticultural as the best alternative form of cultivation.
Maulana15 Evesham is a market Azad town and Library, parish in the Wychavon Aligarh district of Worcestershire Muslim, southern University England with a population of 23,576, according to the 2011 census. It is located roughly equidistant between Worcester, Cheltenham and Stratford-upon-Avon. It lies within the Vale of Evesham, an area comprising the flood plain of the River Avon, which has been renowned for market gardening. 16 Tamenglong is located in western Manipur lying on the hilltop from which descends the Barak River. It is 160 km west of Imphal, Manipur's capital city. The town is surrounded by the following districts: Senapati District to the East, North Cashar Hills District of Assam to the West, Peren District Of Nagaland to the North and Churachanpur of Manipur to the South.
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9. Khunda B. Ishtiaq H. and Muhammad. S. (2006) in their paper“profitability and cost in growing mango orchards” studied the cost of production and return per acre over the lifetime of mango trees in Multan17 district of Pakistan. It focuses on the study relating to the mango farmers or growers earning of the country in general. It reveals that the net present worth was estimated to be Rs. 155607.16 per acre over the lifetime of mango trees and the benefits cost ratio to be 2.61 which means one rupee mango cultivation would return Rs.2.61. They also point out some suggestion that can improve mango production. These are an improvement in the packaging of mango based on the scientific way, storage facilities, research and development activities, etc.
10. Malik A. Z. (2013) in his paper “assessment of apple production and marketing problems in Kashmir valley” stated the growth rate in area and production of apple in Jammu and Kashmir. It focuses on the following problems related to cultivation, harvesting, post-harvesting, marketing, and other levels. It also examines the marketing system prevailing in the apple trade and even its impact on the standard of living of the local people. It reveals that there is a mismatch in supply and demand of apples due to lack of cold storage, price fluctuation, post- harvest management of crops, lack of regulated market18 and cooperative marketing societies19, lack of infrastructure that contribute to the hindrance or constraint for the grower of apple in the study area. In the end, it suggested that growth and development of apple production can take place in the following grounds, i.e., Government support, proper branding, infrastructure development, price stability, the procedure of financing to be made comfortable and
17 Multan is a Pakistani city and the headquarters of Multan District in the province of Punjab. Located on the banks of the Chenab River, Multan is Pakistan's seventh most populous city,and is the major cultural and economic centre of southern Punjab.The origin of Multan's name is unclear. It has been suggested that Multan derives its name from the Sanskrit word for the pre- Islamic Hindu Multan Sun Temple, called Mulasthana Hukm Chand in the 19th century suggested that the city was named after an ancient Hindu tribe that was named Mu Maulana18 A regulated Azad market (Library,RM) or controlled Aligarhmarket is an idealized Muslim system where University the government controls the forces of supply and demand, such as who is allowed to enter the market and/or what prices may be charged. It is common for some markets to be regulated under the claim that they are natural monopolies. 19 An agricultural cooperative, also known as a farmers'co-op, is a cooperative where farmers pool their resources in certain areas of activity. Marketing cooperatives are established by farmers to undertake transportation, packaging, distribution, andmarketing of farm products (both crop and livestock).
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convenient, and crop insurance20 to tickle natural disasters like droughts, hail storm, and others.
11. Mittal S. (2007) in his paper “strengthening backward and forward linkages21 in horticulture: some successful initiatives,” stated and reviewed the growth and development of the horticulture sector in the period 2005-06 by setting up of the national horticulture mission by Govt. of India. The paper cover two case studies of SAFAL22 market and Namdhari fresh23 which have been successful in over crossing the constraints that the horticulture sector is facing in India for fresh fruits and vegetables. It also emphasizes to improve post-harvest operation related to handling storage and marketing of raw and processed agri-produce. In the end, some suggestions are given in the sector need to be developed as an organized industry and have to be managed collectively by the entire stakeholder with the farmer as the entrepreneurs.
12. Mohan K. N. (2010) in his article“organic horticulture24 farming in northeastern India” pointed out the difference among the state of the northeastern regions in term of fruit production and areas. Assam occupies maximum followed by Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura. The implementation of Technology Mission (a project under Ministry of Agriculture Govt. of India) on horticultural crops for the northeastern regions made a significant contribution in the field of area
20 Crop insurance is purchased by agricultural producers, and subsidized by the federal government, to protect against either the loss of their crops due to natural disasters, such as hail, drought, and floods, or the loss of revenue due to declines in the prices of agricultural commodities. The two general categories of crop insurance are called crop-yield insurance and crop-revenue insurance. 21 When efforts are focussed on promoting financing to help a project succeed in its currently planned status of production, they are referred to as backward linkages. When a project is made and is intended to strengthen investment in later stages of production, this is called a forward linkage.A backward linkage effect would refer to what happens when an increase in production, created by a manufacturer further down the line of production, causes a positive effect for the manufacturer sitting earlier on the path of production an in-progress product navigates through. 22 Safal is the largest organized retail network of fruits and vegetables in the National Capital Region of India. Currently it operates over 400 retail outlets in the NCR region. Safal is owned by Mother Dairy, a subsidiary of the National Dairy Development Board. Safal was started in 1988 Maulanaas an Indian governmentAzad initiative Library, to benefit fruitAligarh and vegetable Muslim producers and theUniversity urban consumers. 23 Namdhari's Fresh (a unit of Namdhari's Seeds) is a grocery store chain, started in 2000 in the city of Bangalore. The chain was set up with the objective of filling the segment of premium green grocers. The company offers fruits and vegetables for retail purchase. 24 Organic horticulture is the science and art of growing fruits, vegetables, flowers, or ornamental plants by following the essential principles of organic agriculture in soil building and conservation, pest management, and heirloom variety preservation.
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expansion, crops production, productivity, marketing, value addition, and post- harvest management. The study also revealed that the concept of cultivation of the horticultural crops is associated with the culture and system of living of people of the region. The paper also suggested that a secure network has to be established with research, extension, marketing, and storage and value addition (processing) of the organically produced horticultural products.
13. Nashik V. and Akola A.(2007) in their study “adaption of recommended mandarin25 orange production practices,” stated the farmers of the study area were found to be most progressive in farming orange. The study observed that most of the growers or farmers did not adopt improved cultivation practices, proper harvesting, and lack of awareness and cannot take the risk in the market. It suggested that the farmers or growers of the study area should adopt the complete package of the improved practice of mandarin orange production for reaching maximization in crops yields.
14. Ouattara.K et al. (1995) in their study, “financing and marketing of horticultural products in Ghana26: the prospect for export growth,” stated that several heterogeneous participants are involved in financing and marketing horticultural products in Ghana. Financial arrangements in the sub-sector are dominated by self-finance with funds obtained from friends and family, retained earnings from other business or participation in the informal group. However formal finance is confined almost exclusively to establish large exporters well. The study also focuses on the constraints of horticultural product in Ghana such as lack of infrastructure, research and development and adequate government policies which contribute more towards giving exporter the competitive edge required in the world market.
Maulana25 The mandarin Azad orange Library, (Citrus reticulata Aligarh), also known asMuslim the mandarin or Universitymandarine, is a small citrus tree with fruit resembling other oranges, usually eaten plain or in fruit salads. Specifically reddish-orange mandarin cultivars can be marketed as tangerines, but this is not a botanical classification. 26 Republic of Ghana is a country located along the Gulf of Guinea and Atlantic Ocean, in the sub region of West Africa. Spanning a land mass of 238,535 km2 (92,099 sq mi), Ghana is bordered by the Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, Togo in the east and the Gulf of Guinea and Atlantic Ocean in the south. Ghana means "Warrior King" in the Soninke language.
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15. Pandey G. Sharma B. D., HoreD. K., RaoN.V (1993) in their paper, “indigenous minor fruits genetic resources27 and their marketing status in northeastern hill of India” has discussed the usefulness of indigenous minor fruit resources in north- east hill region as well as the marketing status of minor fruits in Meghalaya28. The paper also explains the strategies and scope for potential exploitation in the region and lastly recommended/suggested that database on production/availability need to be established to highlight their significance in development plans and better yield of horticulture produce like improve the fruit quality, suitable agro technique need to be developed and standardized.
16. Rao V. N. (1993) in his paper “Marketing environment29 and cooperative approach in the hilly region,” stated about the role of cooperative financial and marketing agencies to equate supply and demand for agricultural and horticultural produce in India. The paper explains some of the aspects of the marketing environment of a tribal farmer in the hilly region of the northeastern region of the country. The agricultural market in the tribal area is essentially grower market and various physiographical and Socio-psychological barriers like steep rugged terrain with poor roads, transport facilities and language problem have made the choice of grower-seller extremely limited. The buyer is outsider often money lender, and the seller is tribal. It also an emphasis on establishment and development of producer cooperative nearby the primary market center or hats coupled with the provision of modern marketing facilities like cold storage, godown, small processing plants, and bank credit offer bring scope for the development of horticultural produce in northeastern hill region.
17. Rather A.N et al. (2013) in their paper “An analytical study on production and export of fresh and dry fruits in Jammu and Kashmir” stated the issue relating to the relationship between horticultural production and socioeconomic development of the study area. It considers that horticulture cultivator or growers can develop the rural economy and generate income and employment. It also Maulanalisted some Azad of the positive Library, economic benefitsAligarh of Jammu Muslim and Kashmir University such as
27 Genetic resources (GRs) refer to genetic material of actual or potential value.Genetic material is any material of plant, animal, microbial or other origin containing functional units of heredity. 28 Meghalaya is a state in Northeast India. The name means "the abode of clouds" in Sanskrit. 29 Marketing Environment is the combination of external and internal factors and forces which affect the company's ability to establish a relationship and serve its customers.
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raising tax revenues, social effects, impact on the environment, generation of foreign exchange30, etc. In the end, it suggested and recommended that the marketing strategy, Govt. support, new technology, etc. should be initiated so that the production of horticultural produce can be increasedshortly.
18. Roy D et al. (2013) in their paper “Identification of technological gap31 in pineapple cultivation in some selected areas of West Bengal” stated that the issue relating to technology gap in pineapple cultivation and to measure the relationship of different socio-economic, socio-psychological and extension communication variable of Darjeeling32 district in West Bengal. It points out the common causes for the technology gap are farmers indifference, an inefficient extension system, inadequate input supply, inadequate credit support, and insufficient market infrastructure. At the end of the study, it suggested that farmers can adapt to new technology which is feasible, environmentally suitable, economically viable and socially acceptable.
19. Shah D. (2009) in his paper stated about the, “present and prospects of developing33 and developed34 countries in agricultural export in general and in the horticultural commodity in particular”. It emphasized upon the future growth in horticulture production and trade, especially of developing the world and their future price mechanism35. The study reveals that the developing country with
30 Foreign exchange is the exchange of one currency for another or the conversion of one currency into another currency. Foreign exchange also refers to the global market where currencies are traded virtually around the clock. 31 The technology gap theory a model by Posner 1961, describes an advantage enjoyed by the country that introduces new goods in a market. 32 Darjeeling is a town and a municipality in the Indian state of West Bengal. It is located in the Lesser Himalayas at an elevation of 6,700 ft (2,042.2 m). It is noted for its tea industry, its views of Kanchenjunga, the world's third-highest mountain, and the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Darjeeling is the headquarters of the Darjeeling District which has a partially autonomous status within the state of West Bengal. It is also a popular tourist destination in India. Nepali is the native language of Darjeeling. 33 A developing country (or a low and middle income country (LMIC), less developed country, less Maulanaeconomically Azad developed Library, country (LEDC), Aligarh or underdeveloped Muslim country) is country University with a less developed industrial base and a low Human Development Index (HDI) relative to other countries. 34 A developed country, industrialized country, more developed country, or more economically developed country (MEDC), is a sovereign state that has a developedeconomy and advanced technological infrastructure relative to other less industrialized nations. 35 Price mechanism refers to the system where the forces of demand and supply determine the prices of commodities and the changes therein. It is the buyers and sellers who actually determine the price of a commodity.
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abundant labor about capital or land enjoys a comparative advantage for export of horticultural product which will result in employment generation, generation of income and marketing of their product.
20. Singh K.P. and Thomas S. (2012) in their paper “organized retailing36 ofhorticultural commodities” stated the extent of the transformation and its impact broughtby the organized retailing of horticultural commodities in India. The study examines theimpact of organized retail and benefits of the farmers from the emergence of an efficientand effective horticultural retail venture. It suggested that the Government should make intensive aspecial code of conduct to be followed to avail between farmers and retailer and alsoidentify the Indian horticultural sector should be a globally competitive industry.
21. Singh M et al. (2008) in their paper “structural changes in horticulture sector in India: Retrospect and prospect for 11th five-year plan”, stated the role of a horticultural sector of the country and its prospects during the eleventh five year plan period. The study showed that high-value commodities37 contributed substantially in national agricultural export and around half of this is shared by horticultural commodities. The growth and variability of the area, production, and yield of major horticultural sub-sector indicate that substantial growth has occurred in the area of all the sub-sector during the entire period (1991-92 to 2005-06). It is suggested that diversification of agriculture would increase through the inclusion of horticultural crops in the cropping pattern.
22. Subrahmanyamin V. K. (1981) in his article, “employment potential of horticulture industry” stated that there is a scope of horticultural crops (fruits and vegetables) in creating additional employment (directly and indirectly) and additional income. The paper highlighted the role of horticulture crops in employment generation. It also suggested the introduction of new crops which will not only add the extra income but will gear up additional labor employment avenues. The main finding of the paper was that horticultural cropping is very labor intensive38 and has a great potential for employment generation and will Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
36 Organized retailing refers to trading activities undertaken by licensed retailers, that is, those who are registered for sales tax, income tax, etc. These include the corporate-backed hypermarkets and retail chains, and also the privately owned large retailbusinesses. 37 Higher-valuecommoditiesare livestock, dairy products, fish, fruits, vegetables, and spices. 38 Labor intensive refers to a process or industry that requires a large amount of labor to produce its goods or services. The degree of labor intensity is typically measured in proportion to the amount
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help in solving the problem of unemployment and underemployment. The inclusion of horticultural crops rotation will not only give additional employment but also help to realize a higher net return and thus help the farmers in uplifting their economic position. The paper also emancipated the role of finance for horticulture crops and the establishment of small scale processing units for efficient marketing39 of these crops.
23. Trupo S. P. (1997) in his paper, “Agricultural cooperative and horticultural produce marketing in southwest Virginia40” stated the key issues relevant for successfully establishing a horticultural cooperative and role of the government in assisting in overcoming the market failure. The study also focuses on the various aspects of organizing and operating horticulture. Cooperative will increase the livelihood and profitable return for the cooperative members. The research also implies that small farmer can compete with the more significant, well-established producer of fresh horticultural produce if they exploit a local marketing advantage and organize themselves in a manner that allows them to pool resources41, reduce costs and share risk42.
24. Yadav K. R. et al. (2012) in their article, “prospects of horticulture in the northeastern region,” discussed on the horticultural status of northeastern states in particular and India in general. Its emphasis on the area, production, and productivity of horticultural crops taking into account the data of 1998-99 published by ICAR. It has put some of the constraints and hindrance in the development of horticulture crops such as the practice of shifting cultivation, poor cultivation practices and low yield, lack of desirable planting material, lack of marketing facilities, scarcity of trained workforce and extension support, etc. At the end of the paper, is suggested and recommended that the development of
of capital required to produce the goods or services; the higher the proportion of labor costs required, the more labor intensive the business. 39 Market where all pertinent information is available to all participants at the same time, and where Maulanaprices respondAzad immediately Library, to available information. Aligarh Muslim University 40 Virginia, a southeastern U.S. state, stretches from the Chesapeake Bay to the Appalachian Mountains, with a long Atlantic coastline. It's one of the 13 original colonies, with historic landmarks including Monticello, founding father Thomas Jefferson‟s iconic Charlottesville plantation. 41 A common pool resource is a resource that benefits a group of people, but which provides diminished benefits to everyone if each individual pursues his or her own self-interest. 42 Risk implies future uncertainty about deviation from expected earnings or expected outcome.
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horticultural crops can be done if the following point is to be considered such as the production of quality seeds, working out the dynamic of production constraints43, improvement of shelf life and diversification of banana, pineapple, and litchi, etc. An emphasis on organic farming is some of the elements that the farmers of India in general and northeast region, in particular, should follow so that the future of horticultural cropping can be improvised.
2.2 . Land use and Cropping Pattern
The extent of land utilization depends on several factors like soil fertility44, amount of rainfall facilities for irrigation, cultivation, practices, etc. as such variations in their regard are likely to affect farm wages. If the land use pattern enables a more intensive use of lands for crop cultivations, involving labor absorption, the possibilities of higher employment generation and hence higher annual average daily wages are likely to be more significant. A new appropriate cropping pattern45 should be suggested according to the nature of the soil, availability of water supply, topography46, and other local situation.
The information on the land-use pattern47 is necessary to develop future strategies on land use planning and land use policies. Rational management of land resources plays a crucial role in developing the national economy. The land use pattern is ultimately determined by factors like human inhabitation, socio-economic, political, technical and institutional changes. An analysis of temporal changes in land use pattern over some time provides scope for planned and judicious management of land.Cropping pattern connotes the crop-mix grown in a particular area in an agricultural year. Cropping pattern determines the output mix in a particular region. Cropping pattern refers to the adoption of a particular type of crops by the farmers in a particular region. It is expressed at the macro level, that is, district, taluk or village level. A
43 Dynamic production is based on the joint constraints of technology and budget. 44 Soil fertility refers to the ability of a soil to sustain agricultural plant growth, i.e. to provide plant Maulanahabitat and result Azad in sustained Library,and consistent yields Aligarh of high quality. Muslim University 45 Cropping pattern is the proportion of area under various crops at a point of as it changes over space and time. 46 The topography of an area could refer to the surface shapes and features themselves, or a description (especially their depiction in maps). 47 Land use involves the management and modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as settlements and semi-natural habitats such as arable fields, pastures, and managed woods
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change in cropping pattern implies a change in the proportion of area under different crops. It has a significant bearing on widening the geographical inequalities in income distribution. Introduction of new agricultural technologies has influenced the crop- mix which is more prominent in agriculturally developed regions. A dynamic change has been witnessed in the agricultural sector in our country, particularly during the post-green revolution period. The technological advancement in crop varieties and other yield increasing factors of production influenced the farmers‟ behavior which has reflected in the changing cropping pattern from the cultivation of low-value crops to high-value crops in most of the regions.
In the simple word, cropping pattern means the production of the area under various crops at a point of time. It is a dynamic concept because no cropping pattern can be said to be ideal for all times to a particular region. It changes in space and time to meet requirements and is governed largely by the physical as well as cultural and technological factors. The change in cropping pattern in a particular period indicates the changes that have taken place in the agricultural development. These changes are brought about by socioeconomic influence. “In most of the situations, the physical environment reduces the choice of certain crops altogether or by reducing their level.” (Morgan, W.B. and Munton R.J.C. 1971).
The literature reviewed on this topic has been abstracted as under:
1. Gadre and Bhole (1997) studied, “the status and prospectus of minor fruits in Vidrba48 region of Maharashtra state” and revealed that the minor fruit crops could serve as one of the sources of income to tribal and poor people. Sturdy fruit crops can be grown on the culturable wasteland49. Location-specific analysis indicated better prospectus for these non-conventional fruit crops.
2. Giri (1968) studied the changes in, “the land use and crop pattern in all districts of Madras State” for the period from 1950-51 to 1964-65. He concluded that the net
Maulana48 Vidarbha Azad is the eastern Library, region of the Indian Aligarh state of Maharashtra, Muslim comprising Nagpur University Division and Amravati Division.Amravati division's former name is Berar (Varhad in Marathi). It occupies 31.6% of the total area and holds 21.3% of the total population of Maharashtra. 49 This includes land available for cultivation, whether taken up or not taken up for cultivation once, but not cultivated during the last five years or more in succession including the current year for some reason or the other . Such land may be either fallow or covered with shrubs and jungles which are not put to any use. They may be accessible or inaccessible and may lie in isolated blocks or within cultivated holdings.
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area sown50 in the state increased at a rate of 0.93 percent per annum. It increased at a higher rate ranging from 1.09 to 2.54 in Ramanathapuram, Saum, Nilgiris, Chinguput, and North Arkot districts.
3. Giri (1969) studied, “land use pattern in different districts of Punjab” and reported that the increase in the net sown area was mainly contributed by fallows51 which declined significantly in all the districts. Deforestation52 was carried out in the cultivated area in seven out of eight districts in which forest area had increased.
4. Johl and Singh (1966) had studied, “the changes in the land use pattern in Punjab state for the period from 1950- 51 to 1964-65”. They concluded that land put to non-agricultural use increased at a significant rate of 2.51 percent per annum. This occurred due to expanding urban and industries centers, development of roads, canals, community centers and institutions in the rural area of the state. Due to emerging waterlogging53 and soil erosion54 conditions in some part of the state, barren and uncultivable land55 also increased to some extent. As a result, the land not available for cultivation increased at a significant rate of 0.69 percent per annum in Punjab during the period of study.
5. Khodaskar (1997) studied, “the comparative economic performance of horticultural crops and other crops with special reference to Varhendrana village.” The study suggested that the farmer should put more area under horticultural crops and satisfy their food grain needs by purchasing them from the open market56.
50 This represents the total area sown with crops and orchards. Area sown more than once in the same year is counted only once. 51 This includes all land which was taken up for cultivation but is temporarily out of cultivation for a period of not less than one year and not more than five years. 52 Deforestation, clearance, or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use. 53 Water logging refers to the saturation of soil with water. Soil may be regarded as waterlogged when it is nearly saturated with water much of the time such that its air phase is restricted and anaerobic conditions prevail. Maulana54 Soil erosion is theAzad displacement Library, of the upper layer ofAligarh soil, one form of Muslimsoil degradation. This University natural process is caused by the dynamic activity of erosive agents, that is, water, ice, snow, air, plants, animals, and humans. 55 This includes all land covered by mountains, deserts, etc. Land which cannot be brought under cultivation except at an exorbitant cost is classified as unculturable whether such land is in isolated blocks or within cultivated holdings. 56 An open market is an economic system with no barriers to free market activity, such as tariffs, taxes, licensing requirements or subsidies.
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6. Soni (1974) studied, “the cropping pattern and crop intensity57 in various size classes of farms in some IADP district58” for the period from 1962-63 and 1964- 65. He found significant changes in the cropping pattern of the districts selected for the study. The changes in the cropping pattern and crop intensity were due to the introduction of high yielding early varieties59 and improved agricultural technology.
2.3. Trends in Area, Production, and Productivity of Major Horticultural Crops
This thematic section includes the review of different studies based on trends in the area, production, and productivity in the world and India. Following papers, articles, books were reviewed to understand the various dimension of this theme.
1. Alshi et al. (1992) studied, “ trends in the area, production and yields of fruit crops in Maharashtra state” and concluded that there was an increase in the total fruit production by 6.98 percent per annum. Provision of quality seedlings of fruit crops, irrigation facilities, transport facilities for quick marketing, co-operative marketing60 and establishment of fruit processing61 units are some of the issues which call for immediate attention for the development of horticultural crops.
2. Anonymous (1984) carried out the techno-socio-economic survey for horticultural development in Dharmapuri district62 (Tamil Nadu) to work out the costs and returns of production of important horticulture crops. He observed that the major problems faced by the farmers were infrastructure, institutional, technical and absence of marketing facilities.
57 Cropping intensity refers to raising of a number of crops from the same field during one agriculture year. It can be expressed as. [Cropping intensity = (Gross cropped area / Net sown area) x 100 ] 58 Intensive Agriculture district programme - (1960) Thanjavur (Tamil Nadu) West Godavari (Andhra Pradesh) Shahabad (Bihar) Raipur (Madhya Pradesh) Aligarh (Uttar Pradesh)Ludhiana (Punjab) Pal i (Rajasthan) 59 High-yielding varieties (HYVs) of agricultural crops are usually characterized by a combination of the following traits in contrast to the conventional varieties: higher crop yield per area (hectare) Maulanadwarfness. Azad improved Library,response to fertilizers. Aligarh Muslim University 60 Cooperative marketing is any agreement to combine marketing efforts, and thus it can appear in many forms. Complementary companies, as well as direct competitors, can create effective and mutually beneficial cooperative marketing campaigns. 61 Fruit processing, is preparation of fruit for human consumption. 62 Dharmapuri is a district in western part of Tamil Nadu in South India. It is the first district created in Tamil Nadu after the independence of India by splitting it from then-Salem district on 02 October, 1965.
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3. Anonymous (1995) studied the ”economic evaluation of horticultural development programme in Western Maharashtra- A micro and macro analysis”. The study revealed that the mango, pomegranate, ber, sapota63, etc. are the important horticultural crops of Western Maharashtra. The acreage64 under these horticultural crops was substantially crossing the targeted limits set by the government.
4. Jansen and Neuray (1968) studied a paper, “Economic consideration of Belgian fruit sector”, and analyzed the main effects of common market65 on those sectors directly concerned with the production, trade and consumption of fruits in Belgium and suggested that there is a need for improving the marketing system such that it will not only increase the production but also enhance the trade and consumption of fruits, thus, forms the basis for increased profitability to the producer.
5. Pal and Sirohi (1988) estimated the compound growth rates of area, production and productivity of commercial crops in India. He observed that, at the all India level, there was a substantial decline in the rate of growth of area caused by the deceleration in the production of all the commercial crops, excepting potato in the technological change period.
6. Pardeshi (1998) titled a paper as “Status and Prospects of fruit and vegetable processing with special reference to the globalization of agriculture66,” and worked out the annual growth rates of fruit and vegetable products. The ready-to- serve (RTS) beverages showed highest growth rate (49.8 percent) followed by tomato products (9.5 percent), juice/pulp (8.9 percent), jam/jelly (7.2 percent) and pickles/chutney (5.2 percent).
7. Shah (1997) studied the “changing structure of horticultural production in Maharashtra” and revealed that Maharashtra has great potential of boosting up
63 Manilkarazapota, commonly known as the sapodilla, is a long-lived, evergreen tree native to Maulanasouthern Mexico, Azad Central America Library, and the Caribbean. Aligarh Muslim University 64 An area of land, typically when used for agricultural purposes, but not necessarily measured in acres. 65 A common market is a free trade area with relatively free movement of capital and services. 66 In a global agricultural economy, small farms will be replaced by large farms, which in turn will be controlled by giant multinational corporations. Small farmers quite simply will not be able to compete in a free market global economy.
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horticultural production. Hence, efforts should be made to increase the productivity of various fruits and vegetables to generate surplus production for export.
8. Thorve (1997) studied the “economics of cultivation of horticultural crops and other crops.” The study revealed that horticultural crops required 129 male and 48 female labor days as against 35 male and 74 female labor days for other crops. Horticultural crops are more profitable than conventional crops and being labour intensive have great potential to create employment opportunities in rural areas.
9. Tiwari et al. (2003) studied the “growth performance of the horticulture sector in Jammu and Kashmir” for the period 1971-72 to 2001-02 through a time series analysis. The study revealed that there were declining trends in both fresh and dry fruits outflow in Jammu and Kashmir. The study has emphasized the intensification of efforts and upgradation of technology to achieve higher yields and productivity in fruits. In most of the studies relating to the growth rates, the researchers have attempted to understand the pattern of growth of horticultural production and possible reasons for variations therein.
2.4. Infrastructure Development in Horticulture Sector
Infrastructure is well needed in horticulture; the development of this sector depends on the health and hygiene of horticulture plants, the building of cold stores, warehouses67, building and maintenance of well-equipped irrigation facilities.
Studies reviewed on this aspect have been briefly explained as below.
1. Arrora and Prasad (1978) studied the “problems and prospects of co-operative fruit and vegetable co-operative marketing society in the Kumaon hills68”. The study concluded that the problem related to storage had been solved after the commissioning of cold storage at Ghaziabad Co-operative Marketing Society.
2. Bhatia and Rao (1982) in his paper, “Fresh fruits and vegetable grading. A study of Retrospect and Prospect”, studied the retrospect and prospects of grading of Maulanafruits Azad and vegetables Library,69 in India. TheyAligarh found that Muslimgrading activity Universitywas not spread
67 A warehouse is a commercial building for storage of goods. Warehouses are used by manufacturers, importers, exporters, wholesalers. 68 Kumaon or Kumaun is one of the two regions and administrative divisions of Uttrakhand. 69 Grading is sorting of vegetables and fruits into different grades according to the size, shape, colour, and volume to fetch high price in market.
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in all the states and did not cover all the fruits and vegetables. They also observed that grading was mostly done at the producer‟s level and internal market only.
3. Cannon and Witchert (1953) wrote an article, “Marketing test case,” and studied the improvements to be made in the packaging of fruits70. It was concluded that the package should protect the product, carry it in convenient quantities, keep marketing cost down, advertise and stimulate its purchase and provide necessary information to the buyer.
4. Chakku (1983) studied the “operational problems of marketing co-operative in Jammu and Kashmir State”. He suggested that marketing co-operatives should optimize their „Form,‟ „Place‟ and „Time‟ functions to achieve economic viability. It implies the undertaking of grading and processing activities, creation of storage facilities including cold storage facilities for apples, reduction in transport cost and utilization of rail transport.
5. Kapase (1992) conducted “a study on the marketing of pomegranate in Solapur71 district of Maharashtra.” He observed that the highest proportion of fruit sale was done in packed boxes in wholesale markets of the outside state. The fruit sales in gunny bags in loose form weremaximum in wholesale markets in the district.
6. Karale (1989) in his study, “Improved cultivation practices of dry land fruit72 Plantation,” suggested that for raising dryland horticultural crops conservation of soil moisture is very necessary. It is done by conservating the soil moisture by following contour cultivation which needs to be adopted where lands are sloppy and hilly.
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 70 Packaging fresh fruits and vegetables is one of the more important steps in the long and complicated journey from grower to consumer. 71 Solapur District is a district in Maharashtra state of India. The city of Solapur is the district headquarters. It is located on the south east edge of the state and lies entirely in the Bhima and Seena basins. 72 Certain crops such as ber, custard apple, amla and mango require less water and can be grown as rain-fed crops.
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7. Krishnamurthy (1994) in his study, “Analysis of factors contributing to post- harvest losses73 in Indian condition”, stated that post-harvest losses of fruits are more serious in developing country like India because of the lack of elaborate harvesting equipment, collection centers in major producing areas, suitable containers, commercial storage plants and lack of cold chain in the entire post- harvest handling operation. Improvement of product quality, reduction in post- harvest losses should be the main concern of producers, middlemen, marketing specialists, and consumers. Hence, by necessity, post-harvest technology should be part of the normal development process in agriculture. The study further stated that in India, small amounts of produce (0.5 percent) are processed for local consumption and export, dehydration74 is the simplest and low-cost technology whereas canning75 and freezing76 require high capital cost and expensive packing.
8. Kshirsagar and Malik (1982) studied the “correlation between packaging and quality control of fruits and vegetables.” The study revealed that packaging technology should follow modern approach. Reusable packages should be used. They suggested that material of packing should be such that it would offer enough ventilation77.
9. Pannu and Sidhu (1963) studied the “economics of grading of sweet orange in Punjab” and found that the graded fruits fetched a premium of 12.9 percent over the ungraded fruits.
10. Parthasarthy (1990) studied, “packaging of fruits and vegetables – A case study of Hyderabad market.” He observed that farmers were resorting to traditional methods of packaging for fruits and vegetables rather than scientific packaging.
73 Post-harvest losses occur between harvest and the moment of human consumption. They include on-farm losses, such as when grain is threshed, winnowed, and dried, as well as losses along the chain during transportation, storage, and processing. Maulana74 The loss Azad or removal ofLibrary, water from something Aligarh. Muslim University 75 Canning is a method of preserving food in which the food contents are processed and sealed in an airtight container. 76 Freezing is a phase transition in which a liquid turns into a solid when its temperature is lowered below its freezing point. 77 Ventilation is the intentional introduction of ambient air into a space and is mainly used to control indoor air quality by diluting and displacing indoor pollutants; it can also be used for purposes of thermal comfort or dehumidification.
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He suggested that there is a need to educate growers and traders about the importance of scientific packaging.
11. Patil (1994) in his paper, “The farm factor revolving horticulture water management,” reported that there is a vast scope in the country for the development of horticulture. The exercise was undertaken by the Planning Commission under Agro-climate regional planning also suggested the desirability of introducing dry land horticulture in areas growing relatively low value, low yield cereals.
12. Sharma (1997) studied “some aspects of fruit production and consumption in India.” The study revealed that though India ranks first in fruit production in the world with a share of 9 percent, it's per capita consumption was 37.8 kg/annum as compared to the world (66.9 Kg/annum). Hence, it is recommended to undertake the development of various infrastructural facilities for bridging the gap between existing consumption level and recommended level.
13. Shelke (1990) in his paper, “Risks and constraints in Rain-fed horticulture78 in central India,” and found that cultivation of horticultural fruits crops employs the growers and their family members during offseason. Rain-fed horticulture generates additional employment for rural people. Nursery raising, budding, pruning, harvesting, and packing will be a good source of employment for women and growers. This is very important to reduce the migration of rural people to urban areas in search of employment.
14. Siddappa (1967) explained the scope for development of “preservation of fruits and vegetables” in India. He suggested an integrated approach for the industry as a whole and explored the possibilities of export promotion by which India could earn a lot of foreign exchange and thus help the economic development of the country.
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
78 Rain-fed horticulture offers possibilities for alternative land use. Fruit crops provide a good substitute for seasonal crops, being more tolerant of various climatic conditions such as delayed onset of monsoons, intermittent dry spells, etc. Besides the fruit crop, many trees also provide fodder for livestock, wood from annual pruning which can be used as fuel, and create local employment opportunities for rural people (propagation, raising nursery stock, harvesting, grading and packing).
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15. Sigh and Khatkar (1994) studied the “marketing of grapes in Haryana.” The study revealed that the majority of the produce was marketed through the direct sale (73 percent). Further, they suggested, removing all the problems faced by the producers to make this vital enterprise a more paying venture. This may be made by creating an effective marketing and processing infrastructure.
16. Singh (1973) conducted the study on “marketing of grapes through co-operatives in Ludhiana district of Punjab.” The budgeting technique was used to examine the costs of assembling, grading, packing, transportation and to examine the possibility of setting up viable co-operative societies79 for the marketing of grapes on a profitable basis.
17. Srivastava (1971) in his paper, “Transport and storage of grapes,” stressed the need for quicker and properly arranged transport facility. He further explained that the fruits like grapes which are highly perishable should be stored in such a way that, they will not lose their quality even for distant markets.
18. Thakur (1971) in his paper, “Economics and operational efficiency in the marketing of Himachal Pradesh Apples in India,” concluded that storage and transportation facilities in Himachal Pradesh are not adequate for apples. Storage is done in the ordinary storage structure, and the residential buildings are being used for grading and packaging of the fruits.
19. Uppal et al. (1994) titled his paper, “Post-harvest management of horticulture produced challenges before India,” and reported that in a developing country like India distress sale80 where the gap between demand and supply of horticultural crops is wide,post-harvest losses further bring down per capita availability. To minimize this loss, it is essential to understand and control of various factors that contribute to such losses. Scientific post-harvest management will also help in the production of good quality products for export.
(1997) Maulana20. Verma Azad and Prakash Library, studied Aligarh the “effect of Muslim packaging practices University and truck transportation on the quality of mangoes.” The study revealed that the farmers
79 A cooperative is "an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly-owned and democratically- controlled enterprise. 80 A distressed sale is a situation where in a seller attempts to divest themselves of an asset in an urgent manner even if means incurring a net loss.
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neither graded the fruits nor gave any treatment for enhancing the shelf life of fruits. The deterioration in the quality or loss of fruits could be reduced by using corrugated fiber boxes81 (CFB) with specialized cool trucks should be designed.
21. Vigneshwara (1986) studied the “dynamics of fruit and vegetable marketing in India.” He observed that horticultural produce frequently requires transport services of an extremely specialized kind. Non-availability of storage leads to a lot of wastage of these products.
22. Wadkar and Talathi (1995) conducted a study on the “economics of packing of mangoes in corrugated fiber boxes (CFB) in South Konkan.” It is revealed from the study that, the per dozen expenses incurred on the marketing of mangoes in CFB was Rs.53.36 of which 53.43 percent was packing cost, and 46.57 percent was transported cost.
2.5. Growth and Development of Horticulture Sector
The growth of horticulture crops has become one of the driving forces for the overall development of the agricultural sector. With the emergence of urbanization82 and modernization83, changes in cropping pattern from traditional to high-value cash crops, especially the horticultural crops have initiated agriculture. Horticulture is perhaps the most profitable venture of all farming activities as it provides ample employment opportunities and scope to raise the income of the farming community. It also has tremendous potential to push the overall agriculture growth to more than the targeted 4 percent. It is the fastest growing sector in agriculture. It contributes to poverty alleviation, nutritional security and has ample scope for farmers to increase their income and helpful in sustaining a large number of agro-based industries which generate tremendous employment opportunities.
Maulana81 Corrugated fiberboard Azad is used Library, for packaging whichAligarh requires mechanical Muslim strength and University impact resistance. 82 Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban residency, the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas, and the ways in which each society adapts to this change. 83 Modernization theory is used to explain the process of modernization within societies. Modernization refers to a model of a progressive transition from a 'pre-modern' or 'traditional' to a 'modern' society.
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Following studies have been reviewed in this regard.
1. Anne Tallontire et al. (2007) wrote a paper title as, “Reaching the marginalized? Gender value chains and ethical trade in African Horticulture”. This paper explores the relationship between value chains in the horticulture sector, the employment patterns of African producers and the process of code implementation from a gender perspective.
2. ChoudharyK.S (2013) in his paper “horticulture’s development: prosperity and constraints,” stated the present status of horticulture produce and said that Indiahad made a good place for itself in the horticulture sector in comparison to rest of the world. However, there are certain areas where the need for improvement to be taken place for the overall growth of horticultural should be initiated. It also discusses the background to horticulture development in India, various constraint, cropping pattern change in India. At the conclusion part, it put forward a few suggestions such as technology up gradation, reasonable market access, the positive environment between farmers and organized sector, crop rotation84 and also strong need to strengthen the research on horticulture crops, etc.
3. Donald B. Freeman (1999) in his study, “Hill stations or horticulture, conflicting imperial visions of Cameroon Highlands Malaysia,” exemplifies the highland horticulture and its economic impacts. This study highlighted the legacies attached to the formation of these highlands.
4. GebrerufaelGirmay et al. (2014) titled their paper as “Empirical study on apple production marketing and its contribution to household income in Chencha, District of Southern Ethiopia.” In this paper, they concluded that apple production is unevenly distributed the income henceforth in Chencha. The paper found that the cooperatives play a critical role in apple marketing and protect members from exploitation by a selfish businessperson.
Maulana Azad Library, (2012) Aligarh Muslim University 5. JadabC.H and Das P. in their paper “present status and futuristic view of horticulture in West Bengal” stated the present status and prospect of horticultural in
84 Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar or different types of crops in the same area in sequenced seasons. It is done so that the soil of farms is not used for only one set of nutrients. It helps in reducing soil erosion and increases soil fertility and crop yield.
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West Bengal by considering the progress initiated by the Government of West Bengal. It also highlighted that constraint and future strategies in horticultural crop cultivation in the study area as well as suggested and recommended to create awareness and make the farmers receptive to new technology through farmers‟ participating demonstration and training so that the farmers can use their skill and knowledge to developed horticulture as a part of livelihood. On the other hand, another emphasis was also given for establishing a proper marketing system so that the vast potential of horticultural crops can be explored as commercial scale cultivation.
6. Kitinka Weinberger and Thomas A. Lumpkin (2005) in their study, “Horticulture for poverty alleviation- The unfunded Revolution,” highlighted the growing importance of fruit and vegetable production and how these crops can contribute in poverty alleviation and economic development. The expansion of markets and the liberalization85 of trade policies and providing new opportunities for rural people to escape from poverty, through production and exchange of non-staple crops.
7. Narayan Singh et al. (2015) titled a paper, “Apple Cultivation in Himachal Pradesh: SWOT analysis86 and identifies issues for the sector development – A case study.” This paper concludes that scientific steps should be taken to bring a revolution in the methods of apple orchard management, nursery management, and pest and disease management.
8. Pratap S. Birthal et al. (2008) in their paper, “Can horticulture revitalize agricultural growth87,” emphasized the role of the horticulture sector in speeding up agriculture growth. They concluded that technology had remained a vital source of growth in Indian agriculture. The diversification towards horticulture crops has considerable potential to accelerate agriculture growth. The horticulture led growth has an opportunity to raise the income of small farmers.
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 85 Liberalization (or liberalisation) is a general term for any process whereby a state lifts restrictions on some private individual activities. 86 SWOT analysis is a strategic planning technique used to help a person or organization identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats related to business competition or project planning. 87 Increases in agricultural productivity lead also to agricultural growth and can help to alleviate poverty in poor and developing countries.
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9. Rymbai H. et al. (2012) in their article “assessment of constraints and opportunities for horticultural development in Meghalaya88, northeastern, India” stated that the horticultural condition in Meghalaya provides insights in targeting the problems and constraints exist in the state. The research paper reveals some constraints in the growth of horticultural sectors such as inadequate infrastructure including road and no rail line which delayed the flow of import and export of goods lead to increased transportation cost and losses of perishable, dependence on traditional agriculture, lacks quality seeds and planting materials, etc. In the conclusion part it suggested that having many constraints and challenges, there are lots of opportunities for the horticultural industry in the state, such as exploiting differentiated market channels89and supply chains, the development and promotion of underutilized and indigenous vegetables.
10. Shakir Hussian Parrey (2015) in his paper, “Exploring marketing activities of apple growers: Empirical evidence from Kashmir” reveals that farmers understand marketing as a means to sell their product and reap their revenues and do not understand the principles behind how to successfully market their products to maximize revenues.
2.6. Horticulture Climate Change and Sustainability
If agriculture is the mainstay towards the emission of greenhouse gases90 induced climate change, horticultural crops have a much bigger role to play in countering the negative consequences of climate change by providing a better carbon trade91 and carbon sink92. One of the most ominous physiological responses that accrue in response to climate change is the shortened growing period, causing a distinctive
88 Meghalaya is a state in Northeast India. The name means "the abode of clouds" in Sanskrit. 89 A marketing channel is the people, organizations, and activities necessary to transfer the ownership of goods from the point of production to the point of consumption. It is the way products and services get to the end-user, the consumer; and is also known as a distribution channel. 90 A greenhouse gas is a gas that absorbs and emits radiant energy within the thermal infrared range. MaulanaIncreasing Azad greenhouse Library, gas emissions cause Aligarh the greenhouse effect. Muslim The primary greenhouseUniversity gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone. 91 Carbon trading is an approach used to control carbon dioxide (CO2) pollution by providing economic incentives for achieving emissions reductions. It is sometimes called cap andtradeorcarbonemissions trading. 92 A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period. The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration.
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reduction in the production of fruits and vegetables. These responses will leave a negative impact on the growth and development of horticultural crops due to terminal heat stress and deprived soil water availability. Interventions seeking climate-smart horticulture are, therefore, felt an unwarranted necessity integrating location-specific and knowledge-intensive premise for improving production under such a challenging environment. Crop-based adaptation strategies are needed keeping in view the nature of the crop, its sensitivity level, and the agro-ecological region. Simultaneously, keeping an eye on carbon sink potential of differenthorticultural crops vis-à-vis annual field crops will further aid in developing a blueprint for redressal of climate change related issues.
The related literature of this theme is as under.
1. Ali M. (1992) in his paper, “Developing sustainable horticulture production system for socio-economic and nutritional development in Asia,” focused on the vegetable production in Asia currently that is insufficient to meet the per capita requirements. It suggested that both production and trade-oriented strategies should be used to overcome storage and seasonality in vegetable supplies. The paper also found that minimum nutritive value requirement is taken in Asian countries.
2. B.E Clothier, S.R Green et al. (2010) wrote a paper, “The sustainable use of water resources for agriculture and horticulture.” This paper suggested that there are opportunities to reduce the amount of water used by irrigated agriculture. There is a need for seeking better techniques and devices to apply water on-farm use. Through quantification of the water footprint of products from irrigated agriculture and horticulture farmers and growers will be able to secure shell access in the market place and realize premium pricing93.
3. Candice A. Shoemaker et al. (2000) in their paper, “Social science methodologies for studying individuals’ Responses in human issues in horticulture research,” highlighted the role of research methodology in studying the research in the horticulture sector. MaulanaPlant scientists Azad can successfully Library, develop, participateAligarh in, and Muslim conduct human issuesUniversity in horticulture research by building an interdisciplinary research team.
93 Premium pricing (also called image pricing or prestige pricing) is the practice of keeping the price of a product or service artificially high in order to encourage favorable perceptions among buyers, based solely on the price.
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4. David Granatstein and Eugene Kupferman (2008) wrote a paper titled as, “Sustainable horticulture in fruit production.” In this paper, they found that public interest in sustainability is growing in many countries. Consumers are aware of the sustainability dimensions of the food they buy and express their interest with fruit products through their purchase of food with IFP, organic and other eco-labels94.
5. G.J Kenny et al. (1993) in their study, “The effects of climate change on agriculture and horticulture in Europe,” considered the time-dependent response of climate which previous studies have ignored. They suggested supporting crop modeling research in particular to that of vegetable crops with an
innovativeprogramme to derive fundamental data on the effects of increased CO2 and temperature on crop growth, development, and yield.
6. George Ouma et al. (2010) have written a paper titled as, “Sustainable horticulture crop production through intercropping95: the case of fruit and vegetable crops: A Review.” This paper discussed the practice of intercropping in horticulture crop production to promote sustainability. Due to increasing human population land size diminishes, intercropping as a tool to reduce soil erosion, increased food security should be practiced.
7. Lukas Bertschinger et al. (2004) in theirpaper, “Ecological apple production96: A comparison of organic and integrated apple growing,” provides a scientific comparison of organic and integrated apple production under European conditions. The paper highlighted that mice and soil structure caused unsatisfactory growth in the very first year of planting.
8. Lynn Ellen Doxon (1991) in his paper, “Sustainable horticulture,” narrated that selection of plant should be based on the ecological considerations as well as traditional considerations like form, color, and texture.
94 "Ecolabelling" is a voluntary method of environmental performance certification and labeling that is Maulanapractised Azad around the Library, world. An ecolabel Aligarh identifies products Muslim or services proven University environmentally preferable overall, within a specific product or service category. 95 Intercropping is a multiple cropping practice involving growing two or more crops in proximity. The most common goal of intercropping is to produce a greater yield on a given piece of land by making use of resources or ecological processes that would otherwise not be utilized by a single crop. 96 Ecological apple farming ensures healthy farming and healthy food for today and tomorrow, by protecting soil, water and climate, promotes biodiversity, and does not contaminate the environment with chemical inputs or genetic engineering.
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9. M.H Wani et al. (2015) in their paper, “Climate change in Kashmir valley: Is initiating the transformation of mountain agriculture?97” This paper concluded that climate change has initiated in this region which is supported by macro evidence, demanding a severe effort to its mitigation through awareness programmes designed as per farmers‟ perception for better payoff in the long run.
10. Mohd Younis Wani et al. (2017) titled a paper, “A study on the impact of climate change on the horticulture sector in Jammu and Kashmir: An overview.” This paper concludes that the productions of various fruits of Jammu and Kashmir are badly affected by changing climatic conditions. The main fruits of the valley that are major sources of income to state face a challenging movement day by day.
11. N. C. Sharma et al. (2013) in their paper, “Impact of changing the climate on apple production in Kotkhai area of Shimla District, Himachal Pradesh,” highlighted that the annual minimum temperature is gradually increasing in the area from year to year. This changing temperature impacts apple production badly.
12. P.D Newley and N.L Treverrow (2006) in their paper, “Sustainable horticulture,” found that sustainable horticulture builds on the long-standing desire of farmers to ensure their land expectations and concerns for safe food and environmental protection. There is a need for appropriate planning to achieve a sustainable horticulture system.
13. Portia AdedeWillams et al. (2017) in their paper, “Impact of climate variability on pineapple production in Ghana98,” concluded that pineapple production is challenged by changing climatic conditions. The study revealed that total annual rainfall exhibited an increasing trend in Ga, Akatsi and Gamoa district. Rainfall variation showed less significant correlation with yield variation.
14. Ratna Rai et al. (2015) titled a paper, “Implications of changing the climate on the Maulanaproductivity Azad of temperate Library, fruit crops with Aligarh special reference Muslim to apple.” This University paper found that climate change affects not only the winter chilling of fruit crops but
97 Cultivating mountain areas, with their patches of useable land dispersed at different altitudes, with many different climates and limited use for mechanization, is most effectively carried out by family farms. 98 Ghana, a nation on West Africa‟s Gulf of Guinea, is known for diverse wildlife, old forts and secluded beaches, such as at Busua.
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also affects the other aspects like an increase in the incidence of physiological disorders, pollination99 failure, and phenology100.
15. Richard L. Snyder (2017) in his paper, “Climate change impacts on water use in
horticulture,” concluded that increasing atmospheric CO2would decrease stomata
conductance and this will increase canopy resistance of C3 spices plants which
decrease plant transpiration. The increased atmospheric H2O decrease transpiration, while evapotranspiration101 responses to global change seem small; the projected changes in precipitation and water storage in the snowpack are large and could have a devastating impact on horticulture.
16. Suresh K Malhotra (2017) reviewed a paper titled as, “Horticulture crops and climate change: A review.” If agriculture is the mainstay towards emissions of greenhouse gasses induced climate change, horticulture crops have a much bigger role to play in countering the negative consequences of climate change by providing a better carbon trade and carbon sink.
17. Tom Nass (1970) in his study, “Sustainable horticulture crop production in The Netherlands102,” found that The Netherlands has become a prosperous country in horticulture production. Roughly 17% of all its exports of goods and services are from the agriculture industry. This accounts for almost 10 percent GDP of the country. The study found that The Netherlands has achieved sustainability in horticulture in spite of mechanization103.
18. Vera STEFANOVA et al. (2014) in their study, “Multi-criteria evaluation of sustainable horticulture,” developed a multi-criterion that is a transparent way of systematically collecting, processing and analyzing objective information. The paper found that horticulture development is influenced by many parameters like
99 Pollination is the transfer of pollen from a male part of a plant to a female part of a plant, enabling later fertilisation and the production of seeds, most often by an animal or by wind. 100 Phenology is the study of periodic plant and animal life cycle events and how these are influenced Maulanaby seasonal Azad and inter -Library,annual variations in Aligarhclimate, as well as habitatMuslim factors. University 101 Evapotranspiration is the sum of evaporation and plant transpiration from the Earth's land and ocean surface to the atmosphere. 102 The Netherlands, a country in northwestern Europe, is known for a flat landscape of canals, tulip fields, windmills and cycling routes. Amsterdam, the capital, is home to the Rijksmuseum, Van Gogh Museum and the house where Jewish diarist Anne Frank hid during WWII. 103 Mechanisation is the process of changing from working largely or exclusively by hand or with animals to doing that work with machinery.
62 Chapter 2: Review of Literature
soil climate, physiographic, social characters, cultural aspect, ecology, etc. GIS104 and AHP105 methods were used in this paper to find the results.
19. WANG Na et al. (2016) titled a paper, “Towards sustainable intensification of apple production in China yield gaps106 and nutrient use efficiency in apple farming systems.” This paper concludes that to achieve sustainable and eco- friendly107 apple production systems, it is essential to close the nutrient cycle as much as possible, to reduce nutrient emissions from apple orchards to the environment.
2.7. Post Harvest Techniques and Diversification of Horticulture
In agriculture, postharvest handling is the stage of crop production immediately following harvest, including cooling, cleaning, sorting and packing. The instant of a crop is removed from the ground or separated from its parent plant; it begins to deteriorate. Post-harvest treatment largely determines final quality, whether the product is sold for fresh consumption, or used as an ingredient in a processed food product. The most important goals of post-harvest handling are keeping the product cool, to avoid moisture loss and slow down undesirable chemical changes, and avoiding physical damage such as bruising, to delay spoilage. Sanitation is also an important factor, to reduce the possibility of pathogens that could be carried by fresh produce, for example, as residue from contaminated washing water.After the field, post-harvest processing is usually continued in a packing house. This can be a simple shed, providing shade and running water, or a largescale, sophisticated, mechanized facility, with conveyor belts, automated sorting and packing stations, walk-in coolers and the like. In mechanized harvesting, processing may also begin as part of the actual harvest process, with initial cleaning and sorting performed by the harvesting
104 A geographic information system (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present spatial or geographic data. 105 Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is one of Multi Criteria decision making method that was Maulanaoriginally developed Azad by Prof. Library,Thomas L. Saaty. In Aligarh short, it is a method Muslim to derive ratio scales University from paired comparisons. 106 The yield gap or yield ratio is the ratio of the dividend yield of equity and the yield of a long-term government bond. Typically equities have a higher yield thus reflecting the higher risk of holding equity. 107 Environmentally friendly or environment-friendly, (also referred to as eco-friendly, nature-friendly, and green) are sustainability and marketing terms referring to goods and services, laws, guidelines and policies that claim reduced, minimal, or no harm upon ecosystems or the environment.
63 Chapter 2: Review of Literature
machinery. Initial post-harvest storage conditions are critical to maintaining quality. Each crop has an optimum range for storage temperature and humidity. Also, certain crops cannot be effectively stored together, as unwanted chemical interactions can result. Various methods of high-speed cooling and sophisticated refrigerated and atmosphere controlled environments are employed to prolong freshness, particularly in large-scale operations.Regardless of the scale of harvest, from the domestic garden to industrialized farm, the basic principles of post-harvest handling for most crops are the same: handle with care to avoid damage (cutting, crushing, and bruising), cool immediately and maintain in cool conditions, and cull (remove damaged items).
Diversification is the act of investing in a variety of different industries, areas, and financial instruments, to reduce the risk that all theinvestmentswilldropin price at the same time. Diversification calls for spreading the portfolio108 among different types of assets, including not only stocks but also bonds109, real estate110, international investments, and cash equivalents. Through diversification, investors can offset losses on some investments with gains on others. Diversification is the act of investing in a variety of different industries, areas, countries, and types of financial instruments, to reduce the chance that all of the investments will drop in price at the same time. The challenge is both to produce more fruit and vegetables, and to do it sustainably. A sustainable horticultural production system with an ecosystem approach is necessary to cope with an increasingly degraded environment and uncertainties resulting from climate change while taking into consideration social, political, economic and environmental impacts.
Following studies have been reviewed to through light on this thematic portion.
1. Adel A. Kader (2003) in his paper, “A perspective on post-harvest horticulture (1978-2003)”, provided a brief review of developments in post-harvest horticulture during 25 years which represent the remarkable fourth generation of post-harvest horticulture. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 108 A portfolio is a grouping of financial assets such as stocks, bonds and cash equivalents, also their mutual, exchange-traded and closed-fund counterparts. 109 A bond is a fixed income investment in which an investor loans money to an entity (corporate or governmental) that borrows the funds for a defined period of time at a fixed interest rate. 110 Real estate is "property consisting of land and the buildings on it, along with its natural resources such as crops, minerals or water; immovable property of this nature; an interest vested in this an item of real property, buildings or housing in general.
64 Chapter 2: Review of Literature
2. Daniela Guitart et.al (2012) titled an article, “Past results and future directions in urban community gardens111 research”, reviews the extent of English academic literature on community gardens, including who has undertaken the research, where it has been published, geographical location of gardens studied and the various methods used to conduct the research.
3. Karina JUHNEVICA et al. (2016) in their paper, “Assessment of shelf life ability of apples CV Auksis after long term storage in different conditions,” found that apples kept in cold stores have a shelf life of 15-25 days. The cold store's apples were colorful but without taste. PCA112 of the sensory evaluation shows that storage technology has an impact on the sensory quality of apples (aroma, taste, acidity, sweetness, juiciness, etc.). This paper also found that the type of storage and duration of shelf life significantly affects the chemical composition of fruit.
4. Katinka Weinberger et al. (2007) in their paper, “Diversification into Horticulture and poverty reduction: A Research Agenda”, argued that development agencies must put more emphasis on horticulture research and development especially in priority areas like genetic improvement, safe production systems, commercial seed production, post-harvest facilities etc. the paper also highlighted a sample of possible horticulture R&D113 efforts that aim at following small and poor farmers to benefit from increasing importance of horticulture.
5. M. K. Verma (2014) in his paper, “Apple production technology,” highlighted the importance and essence of different techniques and technologies in apple production. In this paper, the author highlighted the importance of pruning, mulching, grafting, etc. for increasing the quality and quantity of fruit production.
6. Meena M. S. et al. (2009) in their article“farmers’ attitude towards post-harvest issues of horticultural crops” stated the issuesrelating to farmers attitude towards post-harvest of horticultural crops in Ludhiana districtof Punjab. It emphasized
Maulana111 A community gardenAzad is a singleLibrary, piece of land Aligarh gardened collectively Muslim by a group ofUniversity people. Community gardens utilize either individual or shared plots on private or public land while producing fruit, vegetables, and/or plants that are grown for attractive appearances. 112 Principal component analysis (PCA) is a type of factor analysis which can be used to generate a simplified view of a multi-dimensional data set, such as those from descriptive analysis. 113 Research and development (R&D, R+D, or R'n'D), also known in Europe as research and technological development (RTD), refers to innovative activities undertaken by corporations or governments in developing new services or products, or improving existing services or products.
65 Chapter 2: Review of Literature
the three main elements which act as a major factor for thestudy which is environmental, technological and economic aspects. It examines andanalyzes the attitude of farmers towards the adaption to equipped with the knowledge ondiversification, proper selection of appropriate technologies and financial assistance togain more return with minimum risk in the horticultural sector. The following measurehas been recommended and suggested to boost-up and commercialized of the horticultural,i.e., organization of small farmers into groups or association at the block level, informaleducation of farmer at the village level, shifting of paradigm towards high-value enterprises and diversification, an organization of need-based and skill-oriented training and analysis on marketing strategies.
7. Vinay Sharma and Afroz Alam (2013) in their article, “Current trends and emerging challenges in horticulture,” highlighted the role of R&D in the field of emerging horticulture. It also puts stress on the responsible use of objectionable compounds such as pesticides, fertilizers. The article also focuses on the judicious use of water resources for horticulture.
On viewing the various themes of horticulture it has been observed that horticulture in J&K is lacking behind in every themetic aspect. The problems can be mitigated to reap the prospects if due consideration is taken to research gap found in the study. The next chapter throws light on the Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir.
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
66
Chapter
3
Growth and Development of Horticulture in Maulana Azad Library,Jammu Aligarh and Muslim Kashmir University Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
CHAPTER 3
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF HORTICULTURE IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR
The State of Jammu and Kashmir, situated in the lap of the Himalayasi, is agro climatically suited for the cultivation of almost all kinds of temperateii fruits and also some kinds of tropicaliii fruits. It receives an annual rainfall and snowfall between 30 to 35 inches and 75 cms to 205 cms respectively. The temperature varies between 70Cto 480C. Among other factors affecting the growth of fruit, temperature and humidity are the chief ones. Agro climatically the State can be divided into four zones viz1:
a) Temperate zone comprising Kashmir Division as a whole and parts of Doda, Kathua,Udhampur, Rajouri, and Poonch district;
b) Semi-tropicaliv zone comprising of Jammu district; c) Intermediate zone located between temperate and semi-tropical zones of Jammu Division comprising parts of Kathua, Udhampur, Poonch, Rajouri and Doda Districts; and
d) Arid zonev covering a major part of Ladakh District. Kashmir has remained the symbol of fruits from the very early days. It is renowned throughout the world for its rich and delicious fruit. The Kashmiri Amiri and Kakzi Walnut have served over the ages as its unacknowledged ambassador of goodwill and fame outside the State. Apple, Pear, Cherry, Peaches, Plums, Walnuts and Almonds are some of the varieties of fruit that thrive in temperate conditions of the valley, in the sub-tropical area of Jammu the fruit grown include Malta, Orange, Guava, Citrus, Papaya, and Loquat.
3.1. Historical Perspective
A peep into the history of human civilization leaves one in no doubt that fruit Maulanacultivation Azad is as old Library,as the human civilization Aligarh itself2 .Muslim At a time when University man lived the
1 Annual Plan - 1979 - 80, Vol. I, p. 56, Planning and Development Department, Govt. of Jammu and Kashmir, March, 1979. 2 Survey Report on Prefall Rate and Average Yield Estimates of apple trees in Kashmir Division, 1977-78 1978-79, p. 1, Directorate of Horticulture ( Statistical Wing ) Jammu and Kashmir Government, Srinagar, 1980.
67 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
life of a noble savage, his easily accessible food on whose consumption he could survive was natural gifted fruit. From all available accounts, it follows that fruit cultivation is older than the cultivation of other agricultural products like food grain and cereals. Modern research has traced the origin of many fruits like Walnuts,Ambiri apple Treil and some currants to this tract.
Jammu and Kashmir State has a very rich history of fruit culture at its back. Although very little is known about the origin and growth yet as back as 1,000 B.C. during the reign of King Nara fruit cultivation was practiced in Kashmir as mentioned in Kalhana's Rajtargni3 . This is further elaborated by him when he said that grapes which were scarce even in heaven were common in Kashmir.
Mentioning about the trade links of Kashmir with rest of the world particularly Central Asia, Buddhist sources point out that fruits like pears, plums, peaches, apricots, and grapes were the chief articles of export to foreign lands. In fact, in the first century, AD juices from grapes and fruits were distilled into liquor and taken on special occasions4.
Testifying Kalhan'svi findings even Hiuen Tsangvii a famous Chinesetraveler who visited Kashmir in the 7th century A.D., declared that the land was good agriculturally and produced abundant fruits and flowers5. The pear (Li), the wild pi-urn (Nai), the peach (Tau), the apricot (Hang or Mui) and the grapes (Po-tau) were the principal fruits noticed by the pilgrim6.
The subsequent historical events bear eloquent testimony to the fact that fruit cultivation was greatly encouraged and promoted as also patronized right from Lalitaditya’sviii rule 900 A.D. to the Mughal period. It is significant to note that great ruler of Kashmir Budshahix and the Mughal emperors introduced new varieties of fruits in Kashmir by importing the same from Kabul and Persia7.Many gardens and orchards owe their birth to these rulers. Laying of gardens and orchards and planting
Maulana3 Ibid. p. 1 Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 4 "Horticultural Heritage of Kashmir", p. 4, Jammu and Kashmir Horticulture News Bulletin, No.I, Vol. 5, J & K Horticulture Department, Srinagar. 5 Ray, S.C. "Early history and culture of Kashmir", p. I20, MunshiramManharlal, New Delhi, 1970. 6 Ibid, p. 121. 7 "Survey Report on Prefall Rate and Average Yield Estimates of Apple trees in Kashmir Division” , p. 1, Directorate of Horticulture (Statistical Wing), Jammu and Kashmir Govt., Srinagar, 1980.
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fruits and other trees in them was not only the fondness of the rulers of the land but also Saints, Munies, and Riches, Who contributed a lot for the promotion of horticulture.
In the Mughal period, Kashmir produced many types of fruits. According to Abul Fazal, "besides plums and mulberry, the fruits are numerous, melons, apples, peaches, apricots are excellent. Although grapes are in plenty, the finer qualities are rare, and the vine bears on mulberry trees"8.
In the Waqyat-i-Jahangirix, it is said that Kashmir produced 400 monsxi of Saffron in an ordinary year. During the time of Akbar price of saffron ranged from Rs. 8 to Rs. 10 per seerxii and inJehangir's time also about the same9. During Mughal period water melons, cultivated on the floating gardens of Dal Lake, were so famous for the juice and taste that emperors of this period had taken them to Agra.
However, the fruit cultivation, during the aforesaid periods and even after that was carriedhaphazardly without knowing exactly the proper art of cultivating and nourishing the fruit trees. This fact is clearly borne out by Girdle stone's statement. "It is rare to get any fruit of first-rate quality in Kashmir simply because they are allowed to run wild, no heed being given into manuringxiii, pruningxiv and graftingxv10".The art of grafting was unknown until 1590 A.D. when Mohammed QuliIfrahan the Daroga of the Gardens first of all grafted Kashmiri fruit trees with peaches brought from Kabul11. The experiment proved successful, and grafting has since then been widely practiced. During the same period Zaffar Khan Ahsan, the Governor under Shah-i- Jehan also improved the quality of cherries, plums, peaches, and grapes by using grafts and planting imported saplings from Persia and Kabul.
Commenting on the fruit cultivation even Mr. Bernier, a French physician, who visited Kashmir in 1664 during the reign of Aurangzebxvi, deplored about the poor quality of fruits grown in the valley and attributed it to the lack of skilled art of
8 Horticulture Heritage of Kashmir, p. 5, Jammu and Kashmir Horticulture News Bulletin, No. 1,Vol. Maulana5, J & KAzad Horticulture Library, Deptt. Srinagar. Aligarh Muslim University 9 Koul, P. N. (Bamzai ) , "A History of Kashmir" p. 484, Metropolitan Book Co. (Pvt.) Ltd., New Delhi, 1973. 10 “Gazetter of Kashmir and Ladakh", p. 4-5, Quarter Master General of India, 1890 Vivek Publishing House, Delhi, India. 11 Koul, P.N. Bamzai, A History of Kashmir, p. 485, Metropolitan Book Co. (Pvt.) Ltd. New Delhi, 1973.
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cultivation and grafting of trees. While the fruit production techniques improved as a result of better methods of cultivation the industry as a whole received a set back during the reign of Afghansxvii and Sikhsxviii.
With the advent of Dograxix rule horticulture sector witnessed a great change with the introduction of new varieties imported from European countries, in fact, the year of 1856 proved a land mark in the history of fruit industry of the State when the French business firms through one of their agents namely M. Danvergne observed wild growth of grapes and conceived the idea of processing the same into the wine for his own consumption12. M. Danvergne, however, found that the wine processing unit could not be improved till such time better varieties of grapes were imported from Europe and technical know-how assured.
Thus in bid to promote the fruit processing in them State Mr. Ermerds formerly Head Gardner of Public Works in Paris was approached through the School of Horticulture at Versailles13. It is having tested the agro-climatic conditions of the region; Mr. Ermerds recommended several measures for the development of grape processing. As a result of these efforts the first nursery having 25,000 fruit trees came into existence in I886 -8714.Thus, it marked the beginning of the State Horticulture Department which formerly came into existence in 1907 to help and promote the fruit industry.
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
12 "Horticulture Heritage of Kashmir", p. 5, J & K Horticulture News Bulletin, No. 1 Vol. 5, J & K Horticulture Department, Srinagar. 13 Ibid. p. 6 14 Ibid. p. 6
70 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
Table 3.1: Growth pattern of Orchards in J&K Fig. 3.1: Line graph for the growth pattern of orchards in J&K Year Hectares 300000 1955-56 18000 Hectares 1960-61 21000 250000 (Approx.) 1965-66 23000 1970-71 25000 200000 1975-76 37000 150000 1980-81 51000 1985-86 54000 100000
1990-91 59000 50000 1995-96 66000 2000-01 142000 0 2005-06 175000
2010-11 217000
1955-56 1960-61 1965-66 1970-71 1975-76 1980-81 1985-86 1990-91 1995-96 2000-01 2005-06 2010-11 2015-16 2015-16 241000
Source: Digest of Statistics Govt. of J&K 2016. Source: Table 3.1
Most of the apple orchards lie at the altitudes of 1,800 to 2,700 m above the sea levelxx. In general, the sandy soil does not suit to apple trees as it induces root-boresxxi and pink diseasexxii to the orchard. Deep and heavy loams are more suitable for apple orchard as these soils can retain moisture for a longer period.
The Gazetteers lists the various varieties of fruit grown and found in Kashmir through various references as follows15:
Item Types Almonds Khagzi, Burzal, Wont Ambri, Khudsarai, Saffarkand, NaibadTrael, Silt Trael, TetShukar, Apple Balpurtsunt Bot Tsera, TsokTasera, ModerTsera, ThetTsera, Gurdol, and Apricot KhasTsera Cherry Habshi, Surukh Peach ModerTsunun, ThyutTsunun Goshbugh, Nakh, Koternal, Harnukh, Tanji, Modertung, Khartung, Pears Shiratung MaulanaPomegranate Azad TsukDaen Library,, ModerDaen, Aligarh JigerDaen Muslim University Quince Tsuk Bam tsunt, Moder Bam Tsunt Walnut Khagzi, Burzal, Wont
15 Gazetter of Kashmir and Ladakh, pp. 45 – 46, Quarter Master General of India, 1890 , Vivek Publishing House, Delhi, India.
71 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
This was further certified even by Walter, H. Lawrence (Settlement Commissioner, Jammu and Kashmir State) who in his book, "The Valley of Kashmir", (1895) revealed that, "Kashmir is a country of fruits, and perhaps no country has greater facilities for horticulture, as the indigenous apple, pear, vine, mulberry, walnut, hazel, cherry, peach, apricot, raspberry, goose berry, currant, and strawberry can be obtained without difficulty in most parts of the valley16. According to him the following varieties of fruits are grown in Kashmir17.
Almond Khagzi, Burzal, Wont Apple Ambri or Ambur, Kudusarai, MohiAmbur, NabadTrel, SielTrel, JambariTrel, KhatoniTrel, DudaAmbur, Tetshikar, Sammarkand and Molnni Cherry Black Murala, White heart, sour cherry
Mulberry Black, White, Shah tul Peach Wild Pear NakhSatarwati, Gosh bugh, Nakh, Gulabi
Plum Wild Walnut Khagzi, Burzal, Wont
In 1910 exotic French varieties of fruits were introduced into the State with fresh additions made till date18.
From the above historical records, it is clear that fruit cultivation in the State followed a steady growth right through the inception. Following the independence of India, the industry got further impetus along with other sectors.
3.2. Horticulture of the State after Post Independence Era
Horticulture like the discovery of wheel and fire was the pivot around which the socio-economic development of the State existed. Thus the responsibility of the government increased to develop the horticulture sector so that to harness its benefits. Accordingly,the government ponders many development schemes for growth of Maulanahorticulture in the Azad State with Library, the inception of Aligarhplanningxxiii. Muslim University
16 Lawrence, W.H., "The Valley of Kashmir", p. 348, Kesar Publishers, Residency Road, Srinagar, 1967. 17 Ibid, pp. 348 – 354. 18 “Horticulture Heritage of Kashmir”, p. 7 J&K Horticulture News Bulletin, No. 1, Vol.5 J&K Horticulture Department, Srinagar.
72 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
During the first five year plan,xxiv there were 17 nurseries to cater the need of the plant saplings, and some work was also done in protecting orchards from the pests. This plan didn’t manage to do much inthe horticulture sector because of its aim to increase the production of food grains.
In the second planxxv, the need was felt to enrich the dietary and make it more healthful by providing the essential protective elements such as vitamins and minerals. The increased production of fruits which are major natural sources of supply of these substances was included, therefore, as an item in agricultural planning. The programme for land use was thus reoriented to diversify farm enterprise and extend fruit orchards thereby and also to improve the productivity of existing orchards which become defunct or decrepit due to one reason or the other19.During this plan, each State was to concentrate on the production of such kind of fruits in which it excelled, leaving the rest to be grown elsewhere under more congenial conditions20. Against this background, the State Government realized the importance of apple industry in the State for the economic upliftment of the poor growers and the potential for the growth of orchards. To achieve these objectives, the State Agriculture Department was reorganized, and a small wing in the Department was created. This eventually led to the establishment of State Horticulture Department 23 in the year 1962- 6321. With the birth of a new department, a series of measures were taken for the development of the horticulture sector.
In the third five-year planxxvi agriculture was on stress due to Sino- India war 1962. Horticulture remained standstill during this period.
In the fourth planxxvii, an outlay of Rs. 226.68 lakhs was earmarked for horticulture development against which the expenditure has been Rs. 133.64 lakhs22 which amounts to 58.95 percent of the total outlay. During this plan maximum stress was given to solve the problem of efficient marketing of apples, as it was considered as a serious drawback facing apple industry. With a view of overcoming the
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 19 Agricultural Production Manual, p. 132, Indian Council of Agriculture Research, New Delhi, 1963. 20 Ibid., p. 132. 21 "Horticultural Heritage of Kashmir", p. 7, J&K Horticulture News Bulletin, No.1, Vol.5, J&K Horticulture Department Srinagar, B73. 22 Fifth Five Year Plan, p. 46, Planning and Development Department, Jammu and Kashmir Government, Srinagar.
73 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
problem,studies were made in some depth which resulted in the creation of a separate organization viz., Department of Horticulture Planning and Marketing in the year 1972.
The organization aimed at ensuring the better marketing of apples and reducing the influence of commission agents and middlemen on this trade. In addition to these the Department of Horticulture planning and Marketing has been charged with the responsibility of accomplishing the following objectives:
1. To organize the orchardists in the Cooperative Marketing and Processing Societies;
2. To introduce standardization in the fruit trade;
3. To assist the growers in getting problems relating to packing and transport solved;
4. To collect, compile, analyze and dissemination of market intelligence.
The inception of the Department led to improved apple marketing. It was decided to send the apple to produce directly to such important markets as Bombay, Madras, and Bangalore, besides Delhi were shops and a cold storage plant were built23. The developmental schemes were reoriented during 1972-73 to develop orcharding on five broad lines indicated below24:
1. Production and distribution of quality plant material;
2. Extending the area under fruit cultivation;
3. Increasing the productivity of existing orchard areas;
4. Protecting of plants against ravages of pests and diseases;
5. Research and education.
In the fifth five year planxxviii a new orientation was given to the horticulture sector Maulanaespecially to apple Azads. An outlay Library, of 329 lakhs Aligarhwas approved for Muslim the horticulture University sector
23 Fifth Five Year Plan, p 13, Planning and Development Department, Jammu and Kashmir Government. 24 Horticultural Heritage of Kashmir, p. 7 J&K Horticultural News Bulletin, No. 1, Vol. 5 Jammu and Kashmir Horticulture Department, 1973.
74 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
in this plan. It is 45.14 times more than the outlay displayed in the previous plan. The main features of this plan are as under:
1. To extent the area of apple production and to improve the condition of orchards by giving special incentives to growers.
2. To modify the horticulture staffing pattern so that more technical staff will be available to render technical advice to the growers.
3. To builtthe required organization with adequate facilities to extend the plant protection over the entire area under apple orchards. Spraying pumps were
proposed to be supplied to the growers @ % subsidized cost through the
Agro Industries Development Corporation Ltd.
4. To handle 23.57 percent of apple production by the cooperatives which will have to project as a cohesive force in marketing?
5. To conduct proper market surveys in order to exploit the new markets in Punjab, Haryana, Bombay, Gujarat, Hyderabad, Banglore, and Tamil Nadu.
6. To use card board cartoon in place of the wooden box for packing of fruit in order to meet the requirements of the plan.
7. To introduce mechanical grading and set up 70 grading centers.
Among other things the fifth plan envisaged improvement of old departmental orchards and nurseries for production of quality material, registration of private apple plant nurseries, establishment of horticulture information service/centre, intensification of research on varietal trials in apples, survey of agro-climatic regions for cultivation of different kinds of varieties of apples, and trainings25.
The following achievements were made in horticulture during the Fifth Five Year Plan: Maulana1. Special Azad incentives Library, had been offeredAligarh to growers Muslim in drought- prone,University hilly and Kandi areas to take to apple farming. Plant material in such areas was made available to the growers at 50 percent of the scheduled costs.
25 Fifth Five Year Plan, p.56, Planning and Development Department, Jammu and Kashmir Government, Srinagar.
75 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
2. Demonstration plants were maintained in fruit growing areas to educate even the most backward and illiterate growers about the benefits of harnessing scientific knowhow for better returns. Such plots were set up on the grower’s fields and were under direct supervision and control of the Department of Horticulture for a period of five years. All material inputs were provided free of cost during this period as an incentive. The number of such demonstration plots was 140026.
3. As a result of plant protection measures, the fungicides were made available at 75 percent at subsidized in apple growing areas. Further 4400 spraying pumps were purchased out of which 4100 were distributed amongst the growers at the subsidized cost of Rs. 150/ per sprayer. An amount of Es. 1.59 crores were spent on account of subsidy up to 1978, in respect of scab fungicides, distributed to the orchardists27.
4. The training schools were established in the State where basic horticulture training was given to young growers. A total of 2,000 personnel were imparted training in these schools.
5. Ninety-four fruit growers’ cooperative marketing and processing societies were organized with 80000 members in the State.
Horticulture sector continued to receive special attention during the Sixth Five Year Planxxix as an outlay of Rs. 919.50 lakhs was allotted for this period, out of which Rs. 128.50 lakhs amounting to 3.97 percent of the total are to be spent on horticulture research and Rs. 791 lakhs, amounting to 86.03 percent of the total, on crop husbandry28.
The menace of apple scab, which has come in the form of a big challenge to the apple industry a few years ago has persisted from the years and continues in a patent form. For this, the scale of subsidy on fungicides has been brought down from 50 percent to 25 percent to be borne by State and 25 percent by the centre29.
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 26 Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir, p.2, Directorate of Information (Publicity Wing), Jammu and Kashmir Govt., 1978. 27 ibid. p, 3. 28 Sixth Five Year Plan, 1980 - 85 and Annual Plan 1981-82, p. 12, Planning and Development Department, Jammu and Kashmir Govt. 29 Ibid. p. 16.
76 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
For plant protection programme a provision of Rs. 276.87 lakhs was made for 1980- 85. The horticulture research, other plant protection measures, horticulture development in hilly, kandi and backward areas, community canning and fruit preservation, and revival of Ambri variety of apple, etc. form the essential components of the 6th Plan Period.
It is also gratifying to note that an outlay of Rs. 370 lakhs has been proposed for different marketing activities during the 6th Plan. An institute for fruit preservation and canning was also proposed to be set up in the State during 6th Plan. This institute aimed to conduct post graduate diploma course on the subject, standardize new receipts for products and also conduct short term craft course for 34 house wives for change of food habits30. For this purpose an amount of Rs. 7.97 lakhs has been proposed during 1981-82. The 6th Five Year Plan emphasizes the following points in this behalf:
1. To increase the area under orchards from 1.05 lakh hectares in 1979-80 to 1.20 lakhs hectares by the end of the 6th Plan.
2. To increase the fruit production from 4 lakh tonnes in 1979-80 to 6 lakh tonnes by the end of the Sixth Plan.
3. To increase the export of fruit from 3.44 lakh tonnes in 1979-80 to 19.12 lakh tonnes by the end of the plan period. To increase the export of fruit from 3.44 lakh tonnes in 1979-80 to 19.12 lakh tonnes by the end of the plan period.
4. To solve the problems of apple growers like the high cost of packing material, non availability of transport and extension of marketing facilities.
Plan Agriculture (Rs. in Crore) Horticulture
9th (1997-2002) 37546 1453 (3.9%)
10th (2002-2007) 58933 5025 (8.5 %) Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 11th (2007-2012) 136381 15800 (11.6 %)
12th (2012-2017) 363273 16840 (4.6%)
30 Ibid. p. 36.
77 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
3.3. Horticulture Area
Table 3.2 depicts the horticulture area of Jammu and Kashmir for different varieties of fruits from 1953-54 to 2000-01. From 1974-75 we see an absolute increase in the horticulture area of different fruit crops in Jammu and Kashmir. The compound annual growth rate of the total horticulture area in the state is 8.3 percent.
Table 3.2:The area under horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir
Area in Hectares Year Apple Pear Cherry Walnut Almond Others Total
1953-54 ------12400
1955-56 ------14000
1960-61 ------16000
1965-66 ------23000
1969-70 ------45600
1970-71 ------48000
1971-72 ------52000
1972-73 ------56000
1973-74 ------60000
1974-75 46189 2296 654 13246 9361 10740 82486
1975-76 47342 2387 673 14084 9669 11353 85508
1976-77 48598 2524 694 15191 9907 12302 89216
1977-78 50014 2676 721 17196 10089 13333 94029
1978-79 51730 2809 751 19324 10267 14418 99299
1979-80 52713 3002 759 20739 10474 16305 103002
Maulana1980-81 60286 Azad 5491 Library,1054 26737Aligarh 16328 Muslim 21112 University131008
1981-82 60837 5652 1063 28563 16525 21939 134579
1982-83 61321 5040 1074 30306 16675 22814 138030
1983-84 62188 6097 1093 31181 16934 23883 141376
78 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
Area in Hectares Year Apple Pear Cherry Walnut Almond Others Total
1984-85 63096 6400 1110 32149 17194 38001 145044
1985-86 63796 6724 1123 32849 17402 26270 148164
1986-87 67031 7816 1176 35092 18195 31690 160000
1987-88 67462 7874 1245 36648 18660 34593 166422
1988-89 67791 7935 1319 38427 18957 35545 169965
1989-90 68201 7969 1387 39715 19118 36539 172929
1990-91 68723 8085 1438 40917 19197 37937 176297
1991-92 69486 14014 1834 41844 19396 34420 180994
1992-93 70364 12233 1850 42590 19542 38042 184621
1993-94 73103 6169 1352 42595 20211 43972 187502
1994-95 74990 6409 1388 44341 20222 44379 191729
1995-96 78007 7628 1904 49458 19318 42152 198467
1996-97 80360 9104 2047 52434 19302 42296 205543
1997-98 82578 9088 1972 56762 18791 41787 211158
1998-99 83336 8736 1987 58379 18851 42439 213728
1999-00 86651 9110 2293 59428 18817 41246 217545
2000-01 88149 9169 2368 59900 18059 41394 219039
Source: Department of Horticulture Jammu and Kashmir Government.
The CAGR of apple area is 2.42 percent from 1974-75 to 2000-01, the CAGR of pear area is 5.26 percent for the same period, the CAGR of cherry area is 4.88 percent, the CAGR of walnut area in the state for the mentioned period is 5.75 percent, and the MaulanaCAGR ofAzad almond area Library, during the same Aligarh period is 2.46 Muslim percent. It is f oundUniversity that during the period 1974-75 the walnut area showed the highest growth followed by pear area and the least growth is seen in the case of apple area during the same period.
79 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
Fig 3.2: The total area under different fruits in Jammu and Kashmir
250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
1960-61 1973-74 1953-54 1969-70 1971-72 1975-76 1977-78 1979-80 1981-82 1983-84 1985-86 1987-88 1989-90 1991-92 1993-94 1995-96 1997-98 1999-00
Total Area
Source: Table 3.2
The fig. 3.2 shows that there is a constant increase in the horticulture area from 1974- 75 to 2000-01. The curve shows the equivalent increase in area with the time frame.
Table 3.3 shows the horticulture area of J&K State from 2016 to 2017, for the same period the total horticulture area growth with compound annual growth rate (CAGR) as 2.87 percent. The growth rate of the total horticulture area decreased from 2000 onwards because the growth rate prior to it was 8.3 percent while it reduced to 2.87 percent. Thus there is a decrease in the growth of horticulture area in the state since 2000 A.D.
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
80 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
Table 3.3: The area under horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir from 2000 to 2017
S.N Fruit 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17
1 Apple 90080 94874 100702 107925 111881 119041 131845 133102 138191 141717 154720 157280 163432 161773 162971
2 Pear 9674 9858 10175 10541 10995 11250 15860 12350 12547 12536 13218 13883 15006 14475 14532
3 Apricot 4099 4234 4349 4932 5252 5428 5766 4923 5248 5856 6051 6287 6458 6097 6123
4 Peach 1702 1677 1889 1940 2112 2238 2256 2261 2364 2425 2510 2772 2619 2615 2615
5 Plum 2856 2903 3328 3391 3579 3858 3810 4032 4085 4397 4341 4628 4870 4279 4038
6 Cherry 2384 2594 2531 2554 2587 2753 2829 3294 3295 3465 3488 3728 3874 2816 2835
7 Mango 7471 7562 7700 7984 262 9334 11044 10699 10672 11787 12306 12498 13057 19040 12739
8 Ber 7423 7362 7683 7967 10907 7935 6245 7815 7836 7852 7852 7904 7886 1967 5376
9 Grapes 208 211 227 229 361 238 232 290 306 310 329 344 431 315 321
10 Citrus 9461 9659 10000 10397 8863 11206 12208 12286 12756 13436 13555 13882 14531 14392 14556
11 Olive 231 276 291 306 8100 407 412 459 430 481 514 533 559 707 346
12 Litchi NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 611 631 963 1016 872 940
13 Aonla NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 520 1248 1466 1530 1720 NA 1987
14 Guava NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 2045 2280 2342 2372 2479 2451 2480
15 Kiwi NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 2 14 45 18 12 7 3
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh81 Muslim University Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
S.N Fruit 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17
16 Papaya NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 0 0 0 0 0
17 Strawberry NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 0 15 188 176 174
18 Pomegranate NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 6 112 13 13
19 Loquat NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 41 3 0 0
20 Quince NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 74 111 0 0
21 Other Fresh 6636 7273 8710 9195 10197 11208 11713 11910 9053 8700 16717 8022 7706 10187 9572
22 Total Fresh 142225 148483 157585 167568 175096 184716 204220 203421 209664 217116 240185 236780 246071 241182 241620
Dry Fruits
1 Walnut 61782 66340 69182 74894 77226 81393 84781 84558 87280 89788 83613 93641 96397 88900 89339
2 Peanut NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 461 428 551 619 656 415 414
3 Almond 17247 16526 15379 15433 15549 16374 16261 16563 17540 17654 16418 15932 15776 7132 7107
4 Other Dry 335 378 400 416 413 602 241 561 144 148 2024 251 188 48 48
5 Total Dry 79364 83244 84961 90743 93188 98369 101283 101682 105425 108017 102606 110443 113017 96495 96908
6 Grand Total 221589 231727 242546 258311 268284 283085 305503 305621 315089 325133 342791 347223 359089 337677 338528
Source: Department of Horticulture Jammu and Kashmir Government.
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh82 Muslim University Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
From 2000 A.D, the horticulture area is showing diversification because various new varieties of fruits were grown such as peach, mango, aonla, peanuts, grapes, ber, etc. The CAGR of total fresh fruits area since 2000 to 2017 is 3.6 percent, the CAGR of apple area 4.03 percent, the CAGR of pear area is 2.75 percent, the CAGR of apricot area is 2.71 percent, CAGR of mango area is 2.49 percent, the CAGR of walnut area is 2.49 percent, and the CAGR of almond area is -5.74 percent during the period 2000 to 2017.
On compared with the period 1974-75 to 2000-01, the CAGR of the apple area in the latter period increased while that of the of other varieties pear, cherry, walnut and almond decreased, an almond area in the later period shows negative growth. This decrease in area in some varieties allows addition to increase in some new varieties of fruit crops in the state which means diversification took place since 2000 A.D onwards.
Table 3.4 shows the percentage of horticulture area under different fruit crops in the state. It can be seen that the percentage area under apple has decreased from 56 percent in 1974-75 to 48.1 percent in 2016-17. The percentage area under pear increased from 2.78 percent in 1974-75 to 4.29 percent in 206-17. The percentage of the cherry area has also increased.
Table 3.4: Percentage area under horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir
Year Apple Pear Cherry Walnut Almond Others 1974-75 56.00 2.78 0.79 16.06 11.35 13.02 1975-76 55.37 2.79 0.79 16.47 11.31 13.28 1976-77 54.47 2.83 0.78 17.03 11.10 13.79 1977-78 53.19 2.85 0.77 18.29 10.73 14.18 1978-79 52.10 2.83 0.76 19.46 10.34 14.52 1979-80 51.18 2.91 0.74 20.13 10.17 15.83 1980-81 46.02 4.19 0.80 20.41 12.46 16.12 1981-82 45.21 4.20 0.79 21.22 12.28 16.30 Maulana1982- 83Azad 44.43 Library, 3.65 Aligarh0.78 21.96 Muslim 12.08 University16.53 1983-84 43.99 4.31 0.77 22.06 11.98 16.89 1984-85 43.50 4.41 0.77 22.16 11.85 26.20 1985-86 43.06 4.54 0.76 22.17 11.75 17.73 1986-87 41.89 4.89 0.74 21.93 11.37 19.81
83 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
Year Apple Pear Cherry Walnut Almond Others 1987-88 40.54 4.73 0.75 22.02 11.21 20.79 1988-89 39.89 4.67 0.78 22.61 11.15 20.91 1989-90 39.44 4.61 0.80 22.97 11.06 21.13 1990-91 38.98 4.59 0.82 23.21 10.89 21.52 1991-92 38.39 7.74 1.01 23.12 10.72 19.02 1992-93 38.11 6.63 1.00 23.07 10.58 20.61 1993-94 38.99 3.29 0.72 22.72 10.78 23.45 1994-95 39.11 3.34 0.72 23.13 10.55 23.15 1995-96 39.30 3.84 0.96 24.92 9.73 21.24 1996-97 39.10 4.43 1.00 25.51 9.39 20.58 1997-98 39.11 4.30 0.93 26.88 8.90 19.79 1998-99 38.99 4.09 0.93 27.31 8.82 19.86 1999-00 39.83 4.19 1.05 27.32 8.65 18.96 2000-01 40.24 4.19 1.08 27.35 8.24 18.90 2001-02 40.65 4.37 1.08 27.88 7.78 14.89 2002-03 40.94 4.25 1.12 28.63 7.13 14.75 2003-04 41.52 4.20 1.04 28.52 6.34 15.21 2004-05 41.78 4.08 0.99 28.99 5.97 15.02 2005-06 41.70 4.10 0.96 28.79 5.80 14.59 2006-07 42.05 3.97 0.97 28.75 5.78 15.73 2007-08 43.16 5.19 0.93 27.75 5.32 15.61 2008-09 43.55 4.04 1.08 27.67 5.42 15.52 2009-10 43.86 3.98 1.05 27.70 5.57 15.26 2010-11 43.59 3.86 1.07 27.62 5.43 16.03 2011-12 45.14 3.86 1.02 24.39 4.79 18.49 2012-13 45.30 4.00 1.07 26.97 4.59 15.80 2014-15 45.51 4.18 1.08 26.84 4.39 15.79 2015-16 47.91 4.29 0.83 26.33 2.11 18.25 2016-17 48.14 4.29 0.84 26.39 2.10 16.65
Source: Calculated from Table 3.2 and 3.3. MaulanaOn the dry fruit Azad side, the percentageLibrary, area ofAligarh walnut was 16.06Muslim in 1974-75 University, and it increased to 26.39 percent in 2016-17. The almond area has decreased from 11.35 percent to 2.10 percent during the same period. In percentage terms, the horticulture area shows a decrease from 1974-75 to 2016-17. Although in absolute terms the horticulture area increased, but in percentage terms, it shows a mild decrease.
84 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
Fig. 3.3: Percentage area under different fruits in Jammu and Kashmir
60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
1974-75 1976-77 1978-79 1980-81 1982-83 1984-85 1986-87 1988-89 1990-91 1992-93 1994-95 1996-97 1998-99 2000-01 2002-03 2004-05 2006-07 2008-09 2010-11 2012-13 2015-2016
Apple Pear Cherry Walnut Almond Others
Source: Table 3.4.
On viewing the graph 3.3, the percentage area of apple up to 1995 shows a decrease, but after that, the apple area shows an increase, while the walnut area shows an increase and all other shows a decrease in the area. The apple curve is at the highest level indicating that apple covers a greater area than other fruits. The lowest area is covered by cherry and pear.
Table 3.5 shows the percentage of horticulture area to net sown area; it is seen in that horticulture area to that of the net sown area is increasing. Horticulture area increased from 2.05 percent in 1953-54 to 44.8 percent in 2016-17. It indicates that there occurs diversification at a steady rate of growth.
Table 3.5: Percentage of horticulture area to net sown area in J&K (In Hectares)
Horticulture Net Sown Percentage of Horticulture Net Sown Percentage of Year Year Area Area HA* to NSA** Area Area HA* to NSA** 1953-54 12400 603000 2.056 1991-92 180994 732700 24.702
Maulana1955-56 Azad14000 Library,614000 2.28 Aligarh 1992-93 Muslim184621 738160 University 25.011
1960-61 16000 657000 2.435 1993-94 187502 733340 25.568
1965-66 23000 675000 3.407 1994-95 191729 735060 26.083
1969-70 45600 706000 6.459 1995-96 198467 733990 27.039
85 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
Horticulture Net Sown Percentage of Horticulture Net Sown Percentage of Year Year Area Area HA* to NSA** Area Area HA* to NSA** 1970-71 48000 716320 6.701 1996-97 205543 729900 28.16
1971-72 52000 717210 7.25 1997-98 211158 736790 28.659
1972-73 56000 685320 8.171 1998-99 213728 735540 29.057
1973-74 60000 696000 8.621 1999-00 217545 733160 29.672
1974-75 82486 693800 11.889 2000-01 219039 748310 29.271
1975-76 85508 707320 12.089 2001-02 221589 748340 29.611
1976-77 89216 699800 12.749 2002-03 231727 732560 31.632
1977-78 94029 706400 13.311 2003-04 242546 746950 32.472
1978-79 99299 705600 14.073 2004-05 258311 752430 34.33
1979-80 103002 712300 14.46 2005-06 268284 733690 36.566
1980-81 131008 715300 18.315 2006-07 283085 741560 38.174
1981-82 134579 716460 18.784 2007-08 305503 734000 41.622
1982-83 138030 708640 19.478 2008-09 305621 738620 41.377
1983-84 141376 715640 19.755 2009-10 315089 735320 42.851
1984-85 145044 721800 20.095 2010-11 325133 731630 44.44
1985-86 148164 732260 20.234 2011-12 342791 746080 45.946
1986-87 160000 732810 21.834 2012-13 347223 744990 46.608
1987-88 166422 734600 22.655 2014-15 359089 741150 48.45
1988-89 169965 737000 23.062 2015-16 337677 758450 44.522
1989-90 172929 735700 23.505 2016-17 338528 754150 44.889
1990-91 176297 730710 24.127 2018-18 338932 756432 44.807
Source: Digest of Statistics by Govt. of Jammu and Kashmir 2016-17. (*Horticulture Area, ** Net Sown Area)
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
86 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
Fig. 3.4: Graph depicting the trend line for the percentage of horticulture area to net sown area in Jammu and Kashmir
Source: Table 3.5.
On viewing the graph, the green line makes a 45-degree angle with the x-axis, which indicates that the slope of the line is increasing at a constant rate. From 1953-54 to 2016-17 we find that the horticulture area in the state has increased at a constant rate but from 2001 onwards the steepness of the graph increased meaning that horticulture area increased at a greater rate than the preceding years.
3.4. Horticulture Production
In this section, we will see the horticulture production of various fruit crops in the state from 1953-54 to 2016-17.Table 3.6 shows that the CAGR of the total fruit production is 11.95 percent. The CAGR of apple production from 1974-75 to 2000- 01, is 5.21 percent and that of pear is 5.36 percent, cherry 9.05 percent, walnut 7.97 percent and 7.56 in almonds. Although in absolute terms proportion of apple production is higher than other varieties, but in growth terms, the highest growth in Maulanaproduction Azad is shown Library,by cherry followed Aligarh by walnut and Muslim least by apple fromUniversity 1974-75 to 2000-01.
87 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
Table 3.6: Production of horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir (in M. tonnes)
Production in M. Tonnes Year Apple Pear Cherry Walnut Almond Others Total 1953-54 ------16000 1955-56 ------18000 1960-61 ------33000 1965-66 ------47000 1969-70 ------93000 1970-71 ------128000 1971-72 ------134000 1972-73 ------183000 1973-74 ------247000 1974-75 190452 7655 510 10520 1525 5502 216167 1975-76 348011 953 436 14400 1808 9460 375068 1976-77 311334 14193 611 17935 756 4577 349406 1977-78 348266 880 1182 16522 1115 7475 375470 1978-79 450516 3830 752 18501 1427 5853 480879 1979-80 462627 2190 907 20531 1745 10766 498766 1980-81 536300 3200 530 15000 1860 6138 563028 1981-82 494421 2230 720 16430 4020 6340 523161 1982-83 431140 6698 1054 16298 1441 14913 471544 1983-84 619471 2920 1242 14660 969 3820 643082 1984-85 638771 4488 605 20190 576 8213 672743 1985-86 760666 5257 569 13491 2590 9910 792483 1986-87 723826 7775 1679 21849 1925 6474 763168 1987-88 427063 960 1013 10982 518 30218 470754 1988-89 658255 15992 4000 36586 4032 28194 747059 1989-90 644814 21429 3538 43125 3374 47331 763611 1990-91 658165 16665 4168 38588 2208 50159 769949 1991-92 624469 17941 2042 40325 4002 56350 745129 1992-93 669260 15695 3206 42385 7379 48982 786907 1993-94 792750 17822 6669 57070 8228 51187 933726 1994-95 674046 14224 2855 60120 14460 55071 820776 1995-96 714834 20471 3337 63870 6569 51723 860804 Maulana1996-97 816050 Azad 25487 Library, 2354 68880Aligarh 7158 Muslim48711 968640University 1997-98 864124 31306 2043 80072 6521 55151 1039217 1998-99 791584 26450 4738 81357 8712 58495 971336 1999-00 929022 29241 5316 74906 9672 57616 1105773 2000-01 751310 31324 5293 83399 10901 49573 931800
Source: Department of Horticulture Jammu and Kashmir Government.
88 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
Fig 3.5 shows the trend line of horticulture production in Jammu and Kashmir from 1953-54 to 2000-01.
Fig. 3.5: Graph depicting the production of horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir
1200000
1000000
800000
600000
400000
200000
0
2000-01 1955-56 1965-66 1970-71 1972-73 1974-75 1976-77 1978-79 1980-81 1982-83 1984-85 1986-87 1988-89 1990-91 1992-93 1994-95 1996-97 1998-99
Fruit Production
Source: Table 3.6.
On viewing the graph, we see that there is an increasing trend with fluctuations in horticulture production. Till 1975 the graph moves smoothly but kinks downwards, and from the same year, there is a jump in the production which comes with the same steep till 1980 in which there is a downward trend, from 1980 the production shows the fluctuations with the lowest horticulture production in 1989-90 and highest production in 1999-00.
Table 3.7 shows the production of various fruit crops in Jammu and Kashmir from Maulana2000-01 Azadto 2016-17. Library, The CAGR of apple,Aligarh pear, apricot, Muslim cherry, mango, University walnut and almond production is 4.37, 6.24, 6.07, 0.97, 8.55, 7.8 and -2.89 percent respectively. The CAGR of total production from 2000 to 2017. The CAGR of total horticulture production of different varieties in the State is 4.86 percent from 2000 onwards.
89 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
Table 3.7: Production of horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir from 2000 to 2016
(in M. tonnes)
S.N Fruit 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17
1 Apple 909583 953946 1041538 1093275 1151712 1222176 1311845 1332812 1372973 1852412 1756192 1348149 1170306 1966417 1726834
2 Pear 35608 36089 39920 40250 42358 43089 45860 47392 47982 52503 47820 54847 59721 105935 88329
3 Apricot 5620 5835 12575 11975 12380 13158 12766 13492 15609 15572 10310 14501 15381 14142 13598
4 Peach 2256 2460 2082 2130 2353 2375 4256 4400 4262 4781 3910 4855 5698 5953 6221
5 Plum 4679 4320 3757 3710 4124 4711 7810 8140 7687 8603 8102 8682 7937 11658 10112
6 Cherry 7164 7703 7308 7365 8149 8730 10629 10575 10910 11445 11467 11122 9530 10244 8282
7 Mango 7057 6680 12906 13292 374 17671 21044 38278 12065 41094 22860 23090 17704 23856 24150
8 Ber 5657 5477 12427 12799 18227 18286 16245 16333 15917 12756 13074 13200 13141 10752 10779
9 Grapes 328 375 329 333 10 380 532 551 543 569 803 746 781 1299 648
10 Citrus 11597 9111 14718 15157 14895 18445 19208 18778 19067 18988 19734 20814 21792 33961 34192
11 Olive 2 2 2 5 15760 13 12 13 20 22 77 22 33 25 224
12 Litchi NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 1724 1767 967 1246 2264 2315
13 Aonla NA NA NA 0 512 669 1248 1324 1768 3269 3496
14 Guava NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 7238 5444 5608 5692 5101 8530 9153
15 Kiwi NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 1 1 2 1 10 0 0
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh90 Muslim University Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
S.N Fruit 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17
16 Papaya NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 1499 1530 0 0 0 0
17 Strawberry NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 3 295 400 388
18 Pomegranate NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 3 327 8 2
19 Loquat NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 0 9 0 0
20 Quince NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 651 367 0 0
21 Other Fresh 11336 13749 18226 17313 18954 24725 27713 27624 19896 17474 44669 15924 13404 18871 20629
22 Total Fresh 1000887 1045747 1165788 1217604 1289296 1373759 1477920 1529907 1534682 2045555 1949173 1524593 1344553 2217584 1959351
Dry Fruits
1 Walnut 86263 90032 94579 100596 109167 114926 146781 147642 165024 163745 208738 209051 181443 266133 266280
2 Peanut NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 20 15 12 13 81 86
3 Almond 9879 10621 13263 13473 14327 15192 11261 12040 12515 12506 3258 8208 16537 7060 6360
4 Other Dry 179 187 183 188 202 224 241 250 170 170 278 130 3141 2903
5 Total Dry 96321 100840 108025 114257 123696 130342 158283 159932 177728 176435 211996 217549 198123 276415 275629
6 Grand Total 1097208 1146587 1273813 1331861 1412992 1504011 1636203 1689842 1712409 2221990 2161169 1742142 1542676 2493999 2234980
Source: Department of Horticulture Jammu and Kashmir Government.
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh91 Muslim University Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
Apple shows the highest production in terms of absolute production but in growth terms, the highest production is shown by cherry followed by walnut and the least and negative growth is shown by almond production in the state in the latter era. It implies that almonds are at the verge of extinction.
Table 3.8 shows the percentage production of horticulture in the state, the highest percentage of fruits is shown by apple production with mean production about 85 percent followed by walnut with mean production about 5 percent and the rest 10 percent is distributed among the other varieties.
Table 3.8: Percentage production of horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir
Year Apple Pear Cherry Walnut Almond Others 1974-75 88.10 3.54 0.24 4.87 0.71 2.55 1975-76 92.79 0.25 0.12 3.84 0.48 2.52 1976-77 89.10 4.06 0.17 5.13 0.22 1.31 1977-78 92.75 0.23 0.31 4.40 0.30 1.99 1978-79 93.69 0.80 0.16 3.85 0.30 1.22 1979-80 92.75 0.44 0.18 4.12 0.35 2.16 1980-81 95.25 0.57 0.09 2.66 0.33 1.09 1981-82 94.51 0.43 0.14 3.14 0.77 1.21 1982-83 91.43 1.42 0.22 3.46 0.31 3.16 1983-84 96.33 0.45 0.19 2.28 0.15 0.59 1984-85 94.95 0.67 0.09 3.00 0.09 1.22 1985-86 95.99 0.66 0.07 1.70 0.33 1.25 1986-87 94.84 1.02 0.22 2.86 0.25 0.85 1987-88 90.72 0.20 0.22 2.33 0.11 6.42 1988-89 88.11 2.14 0.54 4.90 0.54 3.77 1989-90 84.44 2.81 0.46 5.65 0.44 6.20 1990-91 85.48 2.16 0.54 5.01 0.29 6.51 Maulana1991-92 Azad83.81 2.41Library, 0.27 Aligarh5.41 Muslim0.54 University7.56 1992-93 85.05 1.99 0.41 5.39 0.94 6.22 1993-94 84.90 1.91 0.71 6.11 0.88 5.48 1994-95 82.12 1.73 0.35 7.32 1.76 6.71 1995-96 83.04 2.38 0.39 7.42 0.76 6.01
92 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
Year Apple Pear Cherry Walnut Almond Others 1996-97 84.25 2.63 0.24 7.11 0.74 5.03 1997-98 83.15 3.01 0.20 7.71 0.63 5.31 1998-99 81.49 2.72 0.49 8.38 0.90 6.02 1999-00 84.02 2.64 0.48 6.77 0.87 5.21 2000-01 80.63 3.36 0.57 8.95 1.17 5.32 2001-02 82.90 3.25 0.65 7.86 0.90 4.44 2002-03 83.20 3.15 0.67 7.85 0.93 4.20 2003-04 81.77 3.13 0.57 7.42 1.04 6.06 2004-05 82.09 3.02 0.55 7.55 1.01 5.77 2005-06 81.51 3.00 0.58 7.73 1.01 6.18 2006-07 81.26 2.86 0.58 7.64 1.01 6.65 2007-08 80.18 2.80 0.65 8.97 0.69 6.71 2008-09 78.87 2.80 0.63 8.74 0.71 7.57 2009-10 80.18 2.80 0.64 9.64 0.73 6.02 2010-11 83.37 2.36 0.52 7.37 0.56 5.82 2011-12 81.26 2.21 0.53 9.66 0.15 6.19 2012-13 77.38 3.15 0.64 12.00 0.47 6.36 2014-15 75.86 3.87 0.62 11.76 1.07 6.82 2015-16 78.85 4.25 0.41 10.67 0.28 5.54 2016-17 77.26 3.95 0.37 11.91 0.28 6.21
Source: Calculated from table 3.6 and 3.7.
Although 85 percent of contribution in fruit production comes from the apple production but other varieties are significantly important as the production of other varieties is also increasing as a result of a sluggish decrease in apple production across the years.
Fig. 3.6 shows that the line graph of fruit production in the State, it is seen that the Maulanablue line Azadrepresenting Library, apple production Aligarh covers the maximum Muslim area as it Universityis above all the lines, indicating that the highest contribution in the fruit production as this line is parallel to x-axis with a slight decrease from 1990 onwards indicates that the apple production remained somehow constant throughout the time period from 1974-75 to 2016-17.
93 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
Fig. 3.6: Percentage of horticulture production under different fruits in Jammu and Kashmir
120.00
100.00
80.00
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
1974-75 1976-77 1978-79 1980-81 1982-83 1984-85 1986-87 1988-89 1990-91 1992-93 1994-95 1996-97 1998-99 2000-01 2002-03 2004-05 2006-07 2008-09 2010-11 2012-13 2015-16
Apple Pear Cherry Walnut Almond Others
Source: Table 3.8.
The line graph of other varieties overlaps with one another and are close to x-axis meaning that their contribution in the production of fruits in the state is less. Among these walnut shows an increasing trend with a better performance since 1988 onwards.
Table 3.9 shows the horticulture yield31 of different fruit crops in the state. The yield has been calculated by the following formula:
The trends in yield show that the apple yield is having highest share than other varieties of fruits in the State, the yield of apple is more than that of the total yield, pear shows the highest fluctuations in the yield.
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
31 Yield refers to the earnings generated and realized on an investment over a particular period of time, and is expressed in terms of percentage based on the invested amount or on the current market value or on the face value of the security.
94 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
Table 3.9: Horticulture yield in Jammu and Kashmir
(MT/Hec.)
Yield Year Apple Pear Cherry Walnut Almond Total 1974-75 4.12 3.33 0.81 0.24 0.3 2.62
1975-76 7.35 0.4 0.05 0.14 2.5 4.39
1976-77 6.41 5.62 0.88 0.16 0.18 3.92
1977-78 6.96 0.33 0.05 0.14 3.04 3.99
1978-79 8.71 1.36 0.16 0.11 0.73 4.84
1979-80 8.78 0.73 0.08 0.11 1.37 4.84
1980-81 8.9 0.58 0.07 0.11 1.72 4.3
1981-82 8.13 0.39 0.05 0.12 2.53 3.89
1982-83 7.03 1.33 0.19 0.14 0.75 3.42
1983-84 9.96 0.48 0.05 0.1 2.09 4.55
1984-85 10.12 0.7 0.07 0.1 1.43 4.64
1985-86 11.92 0.78 0.07 0.08 1.28 5.35
1986-87 10.8 0.99 0.09 0.09 1.01 4.77
1987-88 6.33 0.12 0.02 0.16 8.2 2.83
1988-89 9.71 2.02 0.21 0.1 0.5 4.4
1989-90 9.45 2.69 0.28 0.11 0.37 4.42
1990-91 9.58 2.06 0.22 0.1 0.49 4.37
1991-92 8.99 1.28 0.14 0.11 0.78 4.12
1992-93 9.51 1.28 0.13 0.11 0.78 4.26
1993-94 10.84 2.89 0.27 0.09 0.35 4.98
Maulana1994- 95Azad 8.99 Library, 2.22 Aligarh0.25 0.11 Muslim 0.45 University 4.28
1995-96 9.16 2.68 0.29 0.11 0.37 4.34
1996-97 10.15 2.8 0.28 0.1 0.36 4.71
1997-98 10.46 3.44 0.33 0.1 0.29 4.92
95 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
Yield Year Apple Pear Cherry Walnut Almond Total 1998-99 9.5 3.03 0.32 0.11 0.33 4.54
1999-00 10.72 3.21 0.3 0.09 0.31 5.08
2000-01 8.52 3.42 0.4 0.12 0.29 4.25
2001-02 10.1 3.68 0.36 0.1 0.27 4.95
2002-03 10.05 3.66 0.36 0.1 0.27 4.95
2003-04 10.34 3.92 0.38 0.1 0.25 5.25
2004-05 10.13 3.82 0.38 0.1 0.26 5.16
2005-06 10.29 3.85 0.37 0.1 0.26 5.27
2006-07 10.27 3.83 0.37 0.1 0.26 5.31
2007-08 9.95 2.89 0.29 0.1 0.35 5.36
2008-09 10.01 3.84 0.38 0.1 0.26 5.53
2009-10 9.94 3.82 0.38 0.1 0.26 5.43
2010-11 13.07 4.19 0.32 0.08 0.24 6.83
2011-12 11.35 3.62 0.32 0.09 0.28 6.3
2012-13 8.57 3.95 0.46 0.12 0.25 5.02
2014-15 7.16 3.98 0.56 0.14 0.25 4.3
2015-16 12.16 7.32 0.6 0.08 0.14 7.39
2016-17 10.6 6.08 0.57 0.09 0.16 6.6
Source:Calculated from table 3.3, 3.4, 3.6 and 3.7
Fig. 3.7 shows the trend lines of horticulture yield in Jammu and Kashmir; the graph shows fluctuations in the horticulture yield and the pattern of fluctuations in apple yield are followed by the total yield which means apple yield has a dominant position Maulanain fruit cultivation Azad of the State. Library, There is a surprise Aligarh peak in the Muslimalmond yield in Universitythe year 1987-88 it is a year of the great divide in the almond yield in horticulture production of the state.
96 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
Fig. 3.7: Line graph for horticulture yield in Jammu and Kashmir
14.00
12.00
10.00
8.00 Apple yield Pear yield 6.00 Cherry yield
4.00 Walnut yield Almond yield 2.00 Total yield
0.00
1974-75 1976-77 1978-79 1980-81 1982-83 1984-85 1986-87 1988-89 1990-91 1992-93 1994-95 1996-97 1998-99 2000-01 2002-03 2004-05 2006-07 2008-09 2010-11 2012-13 2015-16
Source: Table 3.9
There is stability in apple yield from 2004 to 2010 probably because these were the prosperous years in the Indian economy; there is a boom in the apple yield in the year 2010-11 that was the stable year politically and economically in the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
3.5. Contribution of Horticulture Income to State Income
In this section, we will see the trends in horticulture income towards state income over the years. Table 3.10 shows that the contribution of horticulture income towards net state domestic product is constantly decreasing, this can be possible because of two reasons; first, either NSDP is increasing at greater speed than horticulture income. Second, either horticulture productivity is decreasing, or the horticulture does not fetch the desired price in the market. From table 3.10, it is evident that the rate of Maulanaincrease Azadof NSDP is Library,more than the rate Aligarh of increase of horticultureMuslim income. University
97 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
Table 3.10: Percentage contribution of horticulture sector to the state income
(Rs. In Crores)
NSDP at Horticulture Percentage of Year CurrentPrices Income HorticultureIncome to NSDP 1980-81 1049.5 139.48 13.29 1985-86 1929.23 239.42 12.41 1986-87 2134.01 307.72 14.42 1987-88 2086.26 327.54 15.70 1988-89 2547.67 290.43 11.40 1989-90 2688.38 336.05 12.50 1990-91 2908.26 296.64 10.20 1991-92 3249.87 497.23 15.30 1992-93 3564.56 581.74 16.32 1993-94 5500.2 974.09 17.71 1994-95 6001.44 962.03 16.03 1995-96 6973.05 1005.51 14.42 1996-97 7850.89 1072.43 13.66 1997-98 8857.86 1070.03 12.08 1998-99 11128.21 1516.78 13.63 1999-00 13532.97 1805.30 13.34 2000-01 14328.4 1768.12 12.34 2001-02 15456.42 1922.78 12.44 2002-03 17399.87 2046.22 11.76 2004-05 23292.21 2843.98 12.21 2005-06 25278.1 2957.54 11.70 2006-07 27652.9 3011.40 10.89 2007-08 30720.05 3065.86 9.98 2008-09 34290.32 2900.96 8.46 2009-10 38718.2 3089.71 7.98 2010-11 46740.12 3421.38 7.32 2011-12 61513.56 4349.01 7.07 2012-13 68143.05 6064.73 8.90 Maulana2013-14 Azad77580.52 Library, 6462.46 Aligarh Muslim8.33 University 2014-15 81945.93 5941.08 7.25 2015-16 94764.6 6197.60 6.54 2016-17 109080.55 5999.43 5.50 2017-18 126103.23 6557.37 5.20
Source: Department of Horticulture Jammu and Kashmir Government.
98 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
Horticulture contributed about 13.3 percent of State Domestic Income in 1980-81, and it reduced about three times,i.e.upto 5.2 percent in 2017-18. The highest contribution was in the year 1993-94 probably due to peak almond yield and much foreign exchange earning in that year.
Fig. 3.8 shows the trend line of the contribution of horticulture income towards state income. On viewing the graph thoroughly, we found that there was a decrease in the horticulture income till 1990 and an increase afterward probably due to the new economic policy of 1991. From 1994 there is a decrease and a sharp decline from 1999 onwards in the horticulture income contribution to state income. If this trend continues, there will be the negligible contribution of horticulture income in the state.
Fig. 3.8: Percentage contribution of Horticulture Sector to the State income
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2
0
1996-97 1980-81 1986-87 1988-89 1990-91 1992-93 1994-95 1998-99 2000-01 2002-03 2005-06 2007-08 2009-10 2011-12 2013-14 2015-16 2017-18
Percentage of Horticulture Income to NSDP
Source: Table 10
3.6. Horticulture and Foreign Exchange Earnings
In this section, we find the foreign exchange earned by the horticulture sector mostly dry fruits in Jammu and Kashmir State from 2000-01 onwords.
MaulanaTable 3. 11Azad shows the Library, foreign exchange Aligarh earned from the Muslim export of almonds University; it is found that it was 0.22 crore in 2000-01 and reached to 6.42 crore in 2015-16. The CAGR of foreign exchange earned in Rs. is 25.22 percent, and CAGR is of export in physical quantity is 12.5 percent in case of export of almonds.
99 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
Table 3.11: Foreign Exchange earned from Export of Almond Fig. 3.9 Export of Foreign Exchange Year Almond(Metric Earned in Crores 7 Tonnes) (Rs.) Foreign Exchange Earned from Export of Almond (Rs. in Crores) 2000-01 20 0.22 6 2001-02 19.74 0.22 5 2002-03 21 0.22 4 2003-04 34.86 0.24 2004-05 302.01 1.19 3 2005-06 296.45 1.48 2 2006-07 260.88 1.82 1 2007-08 197.108 0.91 2008-09 56.64 N.A. 0
2010-11 81.29 1.44
2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2015-16 2011-12 54.47 1.09 2000-01
2012-13 181 5.9 2013-14 N.A. N.A. 2014-15 327.94 16.11 2015-16 117.04 6.42
Source: Digest of Statistics by Govt. of Jammu and Kashmir 2016-17.
Table 3.12: Foreign Exchange earned from Export of Walnut Fig. 3.10
Walnut Foreign (in Metric Tonnes) 400 Year Exchange Foreign Exchange from Walnut (Rs. in Shell Kernel (Rs. in Crores) 350 Crores) 2000-01 597 7145 109.94 300
2001-02 987 6415 117.78 250 2002-03 656 6976 121.23 200 2003-04 300 6001 99.3 150 2004-05 257 5417 92.83 2005-06 179 5077 114.47 100 2006-07 376 5061 118.02 50 2007-08 161 6531 160.53 0 2008-09 273 4000 NA
2010-11 235 3124 87.89
2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 Maulana2011-12 142 Azad4321 Library,177.91 Aligarh Muslim University 2012-13 309 4986 199.82 2013-14 NA 5274 344.9 2014-15 178.71 1866.34 99.21 2015-16 88.84 2940.2 12.45
Source: Directorate of Horticulture Jammu and Kashmir.
100 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
Table 3.12 shows the foreign exchange earned from the export of walnut. In 2000-01 the FOREX earned from walnut export was 109.9 crore it reduced to 12.45 crores in 2015-16. There is a drastic decline in foreign exchange earnings from walnut export both in monetary and physical values. The CAGR of foreign exchange earned from export of walnut is -13.51 percent from 2000 to 2016. The CAGR of export of kernel is -5.75 percent and that of the shell is -11.93 percent.
Although in absolute terms the walnut received the highest share in foreign exchange earnings than almonds but it has a negative growth while as almonds show positive growth. There is a sharp decline in the walnut FOREX earning in the year 2015-16.
3.7. Employment by Horticulture Sector in Jammu and Kashmir
At present, about 8.12 percent of the population in the State of Jammu and Kashmir is directly and indirectly linked with the horticulture sector32. In fact, this sector directly provides full time, part time and seasonal employment to 7.02 lakh persons33. If its dependent sectors like transport, forest, insurance, banking, etc. are also considered then this sector provides a livelihood to more than 26,00 lakh of people in and outside the State34.
3.8. Apple Industry
The age-old apple cultivation has profusely colored the serenity and tranquility of Kashmir's landscape. Kashmir apple has lived up to its reputation for being one of the choicest fruits. Kashmir has for long been considered the home of apples. Hundred and ten35 varieties of apple are found in Jammu and Kashmir. The chief varieties being Delicious, American, Ambri, Maharaji, Kesari, Hazaratbali. However Ambri or Amri is the most popular and has a large round red and while sweet fruit, ripening in October and keeping its condition for a long time36. This variety attracts maximum consumer's attraction due to its sweetness and handsome appearance. Unlike Amri,
32 Calculated from the information of the; (i) Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Planning & Development Deptt., Govt, of J &K, Srinagar. (ii) Directorate of Horticulture, Planning Maulana&Mariceting, Azad Govt, ofLibrary, J & K, Srinagar Aligarh Muslim University 33 Ibid. 34 Ibid. 35 Open House Discussion on fruit Processing Industry, p 7, Small Industries Service Institute, Govt. of India, Karan agar, Srinagar, 1981. 36 Lawrence, W.R., "The Valley of Kashmir", p. 349, Kesar Publishers, Residency Road, Srinagar, Kashmir, 1967.
101 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
MohiAmri has acid and redness. Another species known as Kudau Sari is longer in shape and possesses more juice rather than acid but has a short life.
Though the cultivation of apple in India is concentrated in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttrakhand yet, Kashmir enjoys the distinction of being still the hub of apple industry of the country. This is obviously so because theState has not only superiority over Himachal and Uttar Pradesh in the field of Production but alsoin marketing. The production of apple in the State is confined to six districts of the valley viz, Anathnag, Baramulla, Badgam, Pulwama, Kupwara, and Srinagar. However, in Jammu Division apple cultivation is found in a limited scale in Doda district only. In two districts of the valley namely Baramulla and Kupwara, the apple cultivation is found on a large commercial scale as these have suitable land, for temperate fruits.
3.9. Marketing Channel
Because of the scattered nature of horticultural markets, the choice of distribution channel has a great bearing on other elements of the marketing mix. To tap successfully and profitably it is highly essential to frame an effective and appropriate distribution network which seriously affects the quality of service to the consumer and the selling cost. As such, the distribution of horticultural produce is a pyramid of fruit growers and consumers.
The main objective of the corporation is to provide the horticulture fruit growers/traders of the state an alternative, economical and efficient marketing channel. The main purpose of providing an alternative marketing channel was designed to eliminate the various intermediaries functioning between grower and consumer. These intermediaries have been the main beneficiaries of high returns on horticulture fruits. The Corporation has failed in its promise of providing an efficient and suitable alternative. The corporation has failed to eliminate the intermediaries who wereits primary objective. In fact, it has itself become an intermediary in the Maulanadistribution net work.Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
Although the Corporation has enough potential to mitigate the influence of these intermediaries from horticulture trade, yet unfortunately it has shown its inability to do so because of political expediency. The moment the Corporation can weed out the influence exerted by resourceful people; it might be able to eliminate at least the
102 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
commission agents at the terminal market. In fact, such a scheme is adopted by the Corporation at Delhi fruit market where it has its own market outlet. In other export centers viz. Bombay, Chennai, Bangalore, Calcutta, Ahmadabad, etc. the Corporation adopts age-old channel,i.e. commission agents, to dispose of its horticulture production. Though the auction of the produce at these markets takes place before the Area Marketing officers of the Corporation, yet such a strategy is not efficient and suitable. The commission agents usually sell this produce to those wholesalers who are known to them and with whom they have a mutual understanding. At the same time much depends on the efficiency of these Area Marketing officers in this system of auction. In addition to this, the Corporation has to pay commission-cum-service charges to these commission agents. As a consequence thereof it reduces the horticulture returns.
Maulana Azad Library,The supply chain Aligarh for horticulture Muslim produce. University This chapter gave broad spectrum of horticulture growth and development of Jammu and Kashmir State. It stressed on the area, production and productivity of horticulture crops in the State. This chapter focused on the foreign exchange earned from the horticulture produce. The next chapter is about the Research Methodology applied to understand broadly the various problems and prospects of horticulture in the State.
103 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
i The Himalayas or Himalaya form a mountain range in Asia separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The Himalayan range has many of the Earth's highest peaks, including the highest, Mount Everest. The Himalayas include over fifty mountains exceeding 7,200 metres (23,600 ft) in elevation, including ten of the fourteen 8,000-metre peaks. By contrast, the highest peak outside Asia (Aconcagua, in the Andes) is 6,961 metres (22,838 ft) tall. (Yang, Qinye; Zheng, Du (2004). Himalayan Mountain System. ISBN 9787508506654.Retrieved 30 July 2016). iiIn geography, the temperate or tepid (latitudes from 35° to the polar circles at about 66.5°, north and south) climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes, which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. ("Weather & Climate Change: Climates around the world". Education Scotland, Archived from the original on 14 April 2016). Many of the world's best-known and favorite fruits (such as apple, pear, peach, plum, grape, and strawberry) are adapted to climates in the middle latitudes and are known as temperate fruits. Temperate fruits have two climatic adaptations: they require some cold periods (dormancy) to complete their life cycle, which conditions their adaptation in tropical climates, and they have various degrees of winter hardiness, which conditions their adaptability in cold climates. iii A tropical climate in the Köppen climate classification is a non-arid climate in which all twelve months have mean temperatures of at least 18 °C (64 °F). In tropical climates there are often only two seasons: a wet season and a dry season. Tropical climates are frost-free, and changes in the solar angle are small. In tropical climates temperature remains relatively constant (hot) throughout the year. Tropical fruits typically are very sensitive to cold and are often injured by low temperatures above freezing. iv The subtropics are geographic and climate zones located roughly between the tropics at latitude 23.5° (the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn) and temperate zones (normally referring to latitudes 35–66.5°) north and south of the Equator. v A region is arid when it is characterized by a severe lack of available water, to the extent of hindering or preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life. Environments subject to arid climates tend to lack vegetation and are called xeric or desertic. Most "arid" climates straddle the Equator. vi Kalhana (c. 12th century), a Kashmiri, was the author of Rajatarangini (River of Kings), an account of the history of Kashmir. He wrote the work in Sanskrit between 1148 and 1149. Kalhana was born to a Kashmiri minister, Chanpaka, who probably served king Harsa of the Lohara dynasty. It is possible that his birthplace was Parihaspore and his birth would have been very early in the 12th century. He had great command over Sanskrit as evident from his poetry. The introductory verses to each of the eight Books in his Rajatarangini are prefaced with prayers to Shiva, a Hindu deity. vii Hiuen Tsang c. 602 – 664) was a Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator who travelled to India in the seventh century and described the interaction between Chinese Buddhism and Indian Buddhism during the early Tang dynasty. viii Lalitaditya alias Muktapida (724 CE – 760 CE) was the most powerful ruler of the Karkota dynasty of Kashmir region in the Indian Subcontinent. ix Ghiyas-ud-Din Zain-ul-Abidin (reigned: 1418–1419 and 1420–1470) was the eighth sultan of Kashmir. He was known by his subjects, and indeed still is, as Bud Shah (the Great King). (Hasan, Mohibbul (2005) [1959]. Kashmir Under the Sultans (Reprinted ed.) Delhi MaulanaAakar Books, p.Azad 78. ISBN 978 Library,-81-87879-49-7.Retrieved Aligarh 2011-08-03). Muslim University x Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri is the autobiographical account of the Mughal Emperor jahangir (1605-1627 AD). It is variously called Tarikh-i-Salimxahi, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, Karnama-i- Jahangiri, Waqiat-i- Jahangiri and Jahangirnamah etc. The Memoirs of the first twelve years, when completed, was bound and presented to imperial officers, the first person to get a copy was Prince Khurram, the emperor's son (later emperor shahjahan).
104 Chapter 3: Growth and Development of Horticulture in Jammu and Kshmir
xi A varying unit of weight in some Asian countries, especially an Indian unit of weight equivalent to about 37 kg. xii In India, the seer (Government seer) was defined by the Standards of Weights and Measures Act (No. 89 of 1956, amended in 1960 and 1964) as being exactly equal to 1.25 kg (1.792 lb). xiii Applying fertilizers. xiv Pruning is a horticultural and silvicultural practice involving the selective removal of certain parts of a plant, such as branches, buds, or roots. Reasons to prune plants include deadwood removal, shaping (by controlling or redirecting growth), improving or sustaining health, reducing risk from falling branches, preparing nursery specimens for transplanting, and both harvesting and increasing the yield or quality of flowers and fruits. xv Grafting or graftage is a horticultural technique whereby tissues of plants are joined so as to continue their growth together. The upper part of the combined plant is called the scion while the lower part is called the rootstock. The success of this joining requires that the vascular tissue grow together and such joining is called inosculation. xvixvi Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad (3 November 1618 – 3 March 1707), commonly known by the sobriquet ")"Persian( ,) or by his regnal )rnament of the Throne: اورنگزیب اَورنگسیب :Aurangzeb (Urdu Persian( ,) was the sixth Conqueror of the oorld"(,"Mughal: عالمگیر عالم ِگیر :title Alamgir (Urdu emperor. Widely considered the last effective Mughal emperor, his reign lasted for 49 years from 1658 until his death in 1707. (Spear, Percival. "Aurangzeb".Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 6 April 2016). xvii Afghan rulers (1750s–1819) , Afghan rule in Kashmir was extremely cruel and oppressive, particularly for the Hindus. Locals were extorted from, captured and forced into slavery during this period. xviii Sikhs, under Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir. In 1846, after the Sikh defeat in the First Anglo-Sikh War, and upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar, the Raja of Jammu, Gulab Singh, became the new ruler of Kashmir. xix Dogra dynasty was a dynasty of Hindu Rajputs who ruled Jammu & Kashmir from 1846 to 1947. xx Mean sea level (MSL) (often shortened to sea level) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth's oceans from which heights such as elevation may be measured. xxi Hallow part made on apple root because of insects and borers. xxii Pink disease (Erythriciumsalmonicolor) is a serious pest of citrus that can affect entire limbs and/or kill trees. xxiii From 1947 to 2017, the Indian economy was premised on the concept of planning. This was carried through the Five-Year Plans, developed, executed, and monitored by the Planning Commission (1951- 2014) and the NITI Aayog (2015-2017). xxiv First Plan (1951–1956). The first Indian Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru presented the First Five-Year Plan to the Parliament of India and needed urgent attention. The First Five-year Plan was launched in 1951 which mainly focused in development of the primary sector. xxv Second Plan (1956–1961) was particularly in the development of the public sector and "rapid Industrialization". The plan followed the Mahalanobis model, xxvi Third Plan (1961–1966) The Third Five-year Plan, stressed agriculture and improvement in the production of wheat, but the brief Sino-Indian War of 1962 exposed weaknesses in the economy and shifted the focus towards the defence industry and the Indian Army. Maulanaxxvii Fourth AzadFive Year Plan Library, (1969-1974) Fourth FiveAligarh Year plan was theMuslim first plan launched University by Indira Gandhi government amid pressure of drought, devaluation and inflationary recession. The country was fighting with population explosion, increased unemployment, poverty and a shackling economy. xxviii The Fifth Five-Year Plan laid stress on employment, poverty alleviation (GaribiHatao), and justice. The plan also focused on self-reliance in agricultural production and defence. xxix The Sixth Five-Year Plan marked the beginning of economic liberalization. Price controls were eliminated and ration shops were closed. This led to an increase in food prices and an increase in the cost of living. This was the end of Nehruvian socialism.
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Chapter
4
Research Maulana Azad Library,Methodology Aligarh Muslim University
Chapter
4
Research Maulana Azad Library,Methodology Aligarh Muslim University Chapter 4: Research Methdology
CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter introduces the problem under study and discusses the tools and techniques employed in the course of analysis. The tools applied have been chosen to keep in mind the objectives of the study. It also discusses the scope of the study, the research design and procedures employed for data collection. An overview of the profile area identified for the study is also presented in this chapter.
4.1. Statement of the Problem
The Jammu and Kashmir Economy depends mostly on the traditional form of occupation. Unaffected and unaltered by modern-day industrial developments and changing times, the traditional indigenousrules of farming, animal husbandry, and horticulture constitutes the stamina of the economy of the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Prevalently referred to as the valley of flowers, the horticulture in Kashmir is one of the prominent economic segment and identity of the state. Becauseof the wide variety of pomes and flowers, the horticultural area forms the pivot of the economy of Jammu and Kashmir. The horticultural industry contributes around twelve hundred crores to the annual income of the state of Jammu and Kashmir. The state government has declared the horticulture to be one of the most important economic sectors of the state that has contributed immensely to the strengthening of the financial condition of Jammu and Kashmir.
Horticulture plays a crucial role in promoting economic growth and development of in Jammu and Kashmir. Horticulture as an industry employs a big chunk of the population of the state. This sector widened the rural-urban divide in the state and make polarity towards urban areas. In other words, this sector is a push force for urban migration in the state.Horticulturesuffers from severe infrastructural Maulanainadequacies Azad in the stateLibrary,. Aligarh Muslim University
Blessed with a salubrious climate and suitable soil, Kashmir produces many different kinds of fruits and flowers. The majority of the local population of Jammu and Kashmir is directly or indirectly involved with horticulture of the state.The government of Jammu and Kashmir has devised several plans to improve the
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marketing strategy of the numerous horticultural products of the state. Most of the products of horticulture are exported that helps the state to earn a large chunk of the revenue.
The Department of Horticulture has formulated many different kinds of schemes to enhance the growth of horticultural products. Some of the most important programmes are the Agriculture Export Zones (AEZ) and Technology Mission (TM). As per the Agriculture Export Zone (AEZ), Kashmir has been accredited to be the Agri export zone for quality apple and walnut quality. The TM seeks to further advance the infrastructural facilities of the state‟s horticultural area.
Kashmir horticulture is a mark of blooming socio-economic clause of Jammu and Kashmir state. An essentialelement of the state economy, the diversity of horticultural produce of the province has earned universal fame because of its taste and quality.
To address the policy challenges in the rural economy, the Government of Jammu and Kashmir has pioneered in launching a comprehensive program that encompasses the provision of developing the horticulture infrastructure.
The present study has been undertaken with the purpose to understand problems and prospects of the horticulture sector in Jammu and Kashmir. The study also tries to identify how the problems hanker the growth and development of the horticulture sector. It also analysis those factors and prospects that have played a significant role and which have enabled the growers and cultivars in converting the opportunity that has been provided by the government into valuable functioning and to understand the differences between states in the achievement of these functions.The study also tried to measure the role of noneconomic factors such as women engagement in horticulture activities.
4.2. Significance and Scope
A widely accepted meaning of development is an improvement in the standard of Maulanaliving of the poor. Azad It is the Library, development thatAligarh enhances the Muslim welfare of the University people. Horticulture development not only reduces the extent of poverty in rural areas but also helps in preventing the problems faced by urban areas due to Rural-Urban migration. There is a wide range of development programmes across the country aimed at creating employment opportunities, providing social security benefits, housing
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schemes, and access to electricity and so on. But, the horticulture sector singly encompasses them all because it is one of the largest and highest liquid sectors in the economy of Jammu and Kashmir. The present study focuses on the following aspects:
a. Problems in horticulture infrastructure b. Problems in marketing c. Prospects of the horticulture sector d. Demand for consumer nondurables e. Limitations faced by growers and cultivars f. Impact of horticulture on health g. Role of women in horticulture h. Garden tourism and sustainability i. Therapeutic horticulture
The study aims at analyzing the improvement in the standard of living of the people in various aspects as mentioned above. The study also tries to discover those factors which hinder effective implementation of cultivar oriented scheme.
There are nine areas of horticulture which can be broadly classified into two sections;
1. Ornamentals 2. Edibles
Arboriculture: It is the study of the selection and plant-cares through the removal of shrubs, vines, etc.
Turf management comprisesevery aspect of the preservationand production of turf grass for sports and leisure use.
Floriculture is the production and promotion of flower crops in the market.
Landscape horticulture constitutes the production, promotion, and safeguarding of countrysideflora.
Maulana Olericulture Azad isLibrary, the study of Aligarhthe production, Muslim processing, andUniversity promotion of vegetables.
Pomology incorporates the production and marketing of pomes.
Viticulture refers to grapes production and marketing.
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Enology is related towinemaking.
Postharvest physiology entails maintaining the quality of and preventing the spoilage of plants and animals.
All the areas mentioned above have the great potential for development in the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
4.3. Research Gap
The presentstudy which the researchers have conducted has majorly focused on the marketing problems of horticulture. The currentresearch mainly focuses on the following factors as summarized below
There are independent researches on the factors affecting apple fruit in Jammu and Kashmir but not about horticulture.
There are various studies conducted on the marketing problems of the horticulture sector but none of the study focus on the other infrastructure problems.
This study statistically tries to find the problems and prospects in the infrastructure development of the horticulture sector and also try to limit the survey about the role played by women folk in this sector. This is a socio-economic and politico geographic study of the fruits and gardens in the state.
4.4. Objectives of the Study
This study is concerned about the development of fruit crops and vegetables. The aim and objective of this study are to examine the structure of fruits cultivation in Jammu and Kashmir State and to find out its role in regional development. To make it more concrete, the objectives of the study are:
To understand the geographical distribution of fruits and vegetable production and to study various fruit plants grown their uses and importance. Maulana To study Azad the intra- regionalLibrary, (Ladakh, Aligarh Kashmir, and Jammu)Muslim disparity University in the horticulture sector in the State.
To study the socio-economic condition of fruit growers of the State.
To study the growth and trends in the production of fruits in the different regions of the State.
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To study the prospectus and further development of the horticulture sector of the State.
To examine the problems of the horticulture sector of the State.
To understand the role of therapeutic horticulture in the State.
To know and understand the role of women in the horticulture sector of the State.
To know the role of horticulture towards environmental sustainability.
4.5. Research Design
The present study is pivoted on both primary and secondary data. The primary data was collected by structured questionnaire and the secondaryone, from the various sources like Directorate of Horticulture Jammu and Kashmir Government, Digest of Statistics, Reports of Ministry of Horticulture Jammu and Kashmir Government, Ministry of Agriculture GOI, National Horticulture Board, National Horticulture Mission, Economic survey, etc.
The study encompasses both qualitative and quantitative data techniques to achieve the intended objectives. The primary aim of the study is to analyze and understand how horticulture includes socio-economic development in the State. As an initial step, all the relevant information about the Horticulture was collected from various web resources, government portals, and newspaper articles. After meeting the concerned officials and obtaining the necessary permissions, personal visits were made to the cultivars of horticulture particularly apple, walnut, and vegetables. A focus group discussion was organized in Wagoora Block with few growers and cultivators to obtain essential information about the scheme from them.A comprehensive, structured questionnaire was evolved for the sample survey. Once the questionnaire was prepared, a pilot study was undertaken in Wagoora to pre-test the questionnaire after which the final questionnaire was evolved. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University The present study does a detailed analysis of how horticulture is subject to different problems and how the prospects can be understood.To understand the changes in the socio-economic conditions of the growers,various information was collected including their basic demographic profile, about their living conditions, family structure, land use
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pattern, post-harvest techniques, etc. To underpin the role of women in the horticulture sector, some significant questions were composed in the questionnaire. The focus group discussions facilitated in identifying the various socio-economic factors that were influenced by the horticulture. Some of these variables have also been compared across tehsils and the growers of the year 2016-17 and 2017-18.
Several statistical tools have been applied to study the various socio-economic indicators and to know the various problems in the horticulture sector. A regression model has been evolved to study the changes in socio-economic conditions, and a Structural Equation Model has been evolved to study the horticulture production performance.
For secondary data,a log-linear regression model was used to know the percentage effect of various factors on the apple, walnut, almond and vegetable production in the state. Besides that Coase Theorem was used to see the impact of gardens on sustainability. ANOVA was used to identify the intraregional disparities of horticulture produce in the State.
4.6. Hypothesis
A statistical hypothesis is a postulationregarding a population parameter. There may or may not be the validity of the assumption. Hypothesis testing refers to the formal procedures used by statisticians to accept or reject statistical hypotheses. There are two types of statistical hypotheses.
Null hypothesis;the null hypothesis, denoted by H0, is usually the hypothesis that sample observations result purely from chance, and the alternative hypothesis,
denoted by H1 or Ha, is the hypothesis that testinterpretationissubjective by some non- random cause.
The following hypotheses have been framed in line with the overall purpose and objectives of the study and using appropriate statistical techniques the following Maulanahypotheses will beAzad tested. Library, Aligarh Muslim University There is no significant difference among socio-economic status with respect to problems of horticulture in the study area.
There is no significant difference between levels of education with respect to problems of horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir.
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There is no significant difference between income levels with respect to problems of horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir
There is no significant difference between age groups with respect to problems of horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir.
There is no significant difference between nuclear and joint family with respect to problems of horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir.
There is no association between factors and level of satisfaction of horticulture production by the growers.
There is no association between educational qualification and level of satisfaction on horticulture cultivation.
There is no association between educational qualification and level of satisfaction on horticulture cultivation.
There is no association between soil variety and level of satisfaction on horticulture cultivation.
There is no significant difference among mean ranks towards problems of horticulture growers.
Interrelationship among factors of horticulture cultivation has a good fit.
There is no significant difference in the mean production of fruits and vegetables in the three natural regions (i,eJammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh) of the state.
There is no significant problem of infrastructure in the horticulture sector.
There is no significant role of women in horticultural activities.
There is no significant role of horticulture on human health.
There is no significant relation between horticulture gardens and sustainability.
There is no significant improvement in the socio-economic condition of fruit Maulanagrowers Azad in the Library, State. Aligarh Muslim University 4.7. The Focus Group Discussion
Powell and Single (1996) define focus group as “a group of individuals selected and assembled by researchers to discuss and comment on, from personal experience, the
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topic that is the subject of the research.” Merton and Kendall‟s (1946) article lays down the chief functions of focus group interviews. They are “to discover: 1. the significant aspects of the total situation to which response has occurred; 2. discrepancies between anticipated and actual effects; 3. responses of deviant subgroups in the population; and 4. the processes involved in experimentally induced effects.” The article further lays down a set of parameters for focus group development in terms of ensuring that participants have a preciseunderstanding of orbelief about the topic under examination; that an explicit interview guide is used; and that the subjective experiences of participants are explored about predetermined research questions.
The focus group discussion was conducted in the Panchayat office of the Wagoora village of Baramulla district in Kashmir. It was identified to be more appropriate to perform the focussed group discussion as 70 percent of horticulture produce comes from this division. Eight growers and two agents were chosen from this village from among who were willing to participate in the focus group discussions. Maximum care was taken to ensure participation of growers from different socio-economic backgrounds. Several open-ended questions were framed related to the scheme to collect all the essential information about how they face the various problems associated with horticultural activities. The responses given by the members of the focus group discussion was collated and analyzed and presented in the next chapter.
4.8. Design of the Questionnaire
A final well-structured questionnaire was evolved for the primary survey, to cull out all the essential information from the sample growers and agents. Information on land use policy, post-harvest expenditures, utilization pattern of horticulture, the participation of women in horticulture activities, etc. The questions in the questionnaire were segregated into various sections such as demographic details, socio-economic profile, and response from the grower, the response from agents and Maulanawomen participation Azad. Library, Aligarh Muslim University Both nominal and ordinal scales were used to understand the growers‟ opinion about the problems, prospects and other horticulture activities and to measure their level of economic welfare.
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4.8.1 Pilot Survey and Reliability Test
The questionnaire meant for the respondents was pre-tested with 30 respondents from the selected villages of block Wagoora J&K. After pretesting necessary adjustment were made in the questionnaire to fit it for the present study. Finally, the questionnaire was checked by the reliability test for thirty samples. The Cronbach‟s Alpha value calculated is 0.9218 which is greater than 0.70 that indicates the information collected through the questionnaire for pilot study is reliable.
Table 4.1: Reliability Test (Pilot Study)
Variable Sample Size No. of items Cronbach's Alpha Problems and prospects of 30 208 0.9218 horticulture
4.9. Primary Survey 4.9.1. Procedure Before meeting the growers of the scheme,importantdiscussions were made with the experts‟ to build a suitable interview schedule. During interaction with the concerned expert group, a tremendous amount of information about the problems and prospects of horticulture was obtained. The general information about the issues related to marketing, storage, harvesting, etc. was obtained from the growers, traders and business units. The districts to be taken up for the study were then chosen on a random basis,and there was continuous interaction with the growers.
Determination of Sample Size
[ ]
Where,
Z = Standardized value to confidence value of 95 percent = 1.96 MaulanaS = SD fromAzad pilot study Library, of 30 sample Aligarh from apple growers Muslim of Kashmir=0. University4841 E = Acceptance Level of sampling error = 5 percent = 0.05
Therefore,
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[ ]
= 360
The total sample size as per estimate is 360.
4.9.2. Sampling Methodology
The primary data was collected from the sample beneficiaries for the year 2016-17 and 2017-18. Twenty-two districts in of the state have been classified into Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh divisions. The districts in the Kashmir Division/Zone are Anantnag, Bandipora, Baramulla, Budgam, Ganderbal, Kulgam, Kupwara, Pulwama, Shopian and Srinagar. The districts in the Jammu Division/Zone are Doda, Jammu, Kathua, Kishtwar, Poonch, Rajouri, Ramban, Reasi, Samba and Udhampur. The districts that are in the Ladakh Zone include Kargil and Leh. Two districts from each of these zones were selected on a random basis for the study. The districts selected on a random basis were Baramulla from the North Kashmir, Anantnag from South Kashmir, Jammu and Rajouri from the Jammu division and Leh and Ladakh from the Ladakh zone.
The name Baramulla is derived from the Sanskrit Varahamula a combination of Varaha (boar) and mul (root or deep) meaning "boar's molar.".The city was founded in 2306 B.C by Raja Bhimsina.Several visitors have traveled to Baramulla, including Xuanzang from China and a British historian named Moor craft.Mughalswere ensnared by Baramulla, the gateway of the Kashmir valley,it was a Sarai during their stay to the vale. In 1508 A.D., Akbar the great entered the valebyPakhil spent quite a few days at Varmulua. As perTarikh-e-Hassan, the city was tintedfor the period of his stay. The population of the town was less than 200,000 as per 2011 census. According to the 2011 census, the literacy rate of the district is 66.9% (61% for males and 49% for females) which is higher than the national average. Theregionhas a majority Muslim with minority Sikh and Hindu Maulanacommunity.It is Azadthe largest horticultureLibrary, producer Aligarh in the state, Muslimwith an apple asUniversity one of the most important crops.
Anantnag “countless springs" also called Islamabad, is situated at a distance of 53 kilometers (33 miles) from capital city Srinagar. It is the third biggest city in the state
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after Srinagar and Jammu with an urban population of more than 200,000.As per the 2011 census, the population ofAnantnag is 1,070,144, roughly equal Cyprus. The density of the district is 375 persons per square kilometer (970/sq mi), the sex ratio of 937, and a literacy rate of 64.3 %. Anantnag district comprises Kokernag, Shangus, Anantnag, Bijbehara, DoruShahabad, Pahalgamand Qazigund tehsils. The district consists of seven blocks: Breng, Khoveripora, Shahabad, Achabal, Dachnipora, Qazigund and Shangus. In 2010 Anantnag was declared as major City of Export excellence with a total income of 3.7 b$. The high income of Anantnag is due to the centralized position and horticulture (mainly the apple town Shopian) has a tacticallocation lying on the main North-South Corridor Road and with the highest number of tourist destinations, it is an economic hub of Kashmir Valley.
Jammu is the most crowded district in the state and is home to the winter capital (Jammu) of land. Jammu district is divided into four tehsils: Akhnoor, Bishnah, Jammu and Ranbir SinghPora. Jammu got its name from Raja Jambulochan, who ruled the area in the 9th century. It is bounded by Shivalik hills to the north, east and southeast while the Trikuta hillsambiance it in the north-west. It is roughlyabout 600 kilometers (370 mi) from the national capital, New Delhi. As per 2011 census, the population of Jammu city was 502,197. The sex ratio was 898 against the national average of 940. The literacy rate of the area is 89.66%, much higher than the national average.
Rajouri is a district of Jammu province of the state. The LoC lies to its west, Poonchto its north, the Reasito the east and the Jammu district to its south.The Rajouri district comprises six tehsils. The region is mainly fertile and hilly. Maize, wheat, and rice are the key crops of the region, and the majorfont of the irrigation is the river Tawi. As per2011 census, Rajouri district has a population of 642,415. The density of the population is 235 persons per square kilometer (610/sq mi). The sex ratio of the district is 863, and the literacy rate is 68.54%. MaulanaKargil, aAzad district of Library,Ladakh division , Aligarhlies near the L oMuslimC facing Gilgit –UniversityBaltistan to the north, the Kashmir and Jammu provinces to the west, and the Leh to the east.Zanskar is part of along with Suru,Wakha and Dras valleys are parts of Kargil. Kargil derived from the two words Khar and Kil,Khar means castle and Kil means center; thus it is the center of castles. As per 2011 census, Kargil has a population of
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143,388, density of 10 persons per square kilometer (26/sq mi), a sex ratio of 775, and a literacy rate of 74.49%. It is divided into three tehsils: Kargil, Sankoo and Zanskar. These are further subdivided into nine blocks: Drass, Kargil, Shargole, Shakar-Chiktan, GundMangalpur- Trespone, Sankoo, Taisuroo, Zanskar, Lungnuk.
Leh with an area of 45,110 km2, is the second largest district in the country after Kutch, Gujarat. It is surrounded on the north by Gilgit-Baltistan, China, via the Karakoram Pass. Aksai Chin and Tibet are towards east, Kargil district to the west, and Lahul and Spiti to the south. As per 2011 census, Lehhas a population of 147,104, roughly equal to the nation of Saint Lucia. The density of the population is three persons per square kilometer (7.8/sq mi), a sex ratio of 583, and a literacy rate of 80.48%. Leh is divided into three tehsils and nine blocks. The blocks in Lehare Durbuk, Khalsi, Saspol, Kharu, Leh, Chuchot, Nobra, Panamik and Nyoma.
To select the samples from each of these districts,the multistage random sampling method was adopted. From each of the districts one block was chosen on a random basis, and from each block, those six villages were chosen, where people were engaged with horticultural activities.
In Baramulla, sample data was collected from Wagoora and Zainagir blocks. The strategy of taking two blocks from each district was based on the fact that one block represents the hilly areas of the district and the other one the terrain. In Anantnag, the data was collected from Anantnag and Shopianblock. Although Shopian is a separate district but being an apple town of south Kashmir, it has been taken as a block of the Anantnag district to represent the hilly areas of the south. In Jammu district data was collected from the Jammu and Akhnoor blocks. In Rajouri, the data was collected from the Rajouri and Budhal blocks. In Leh data was collected fromLeh and Nobrablocks. In Kargil, the data was collected from Kargil and Zanskar.
A survey was conducted in all those houses where the horticulture grower or headand agent was available and had consented for the interview. Data were collected from 30 Maulanahouseholds from Azad each block Library,, six houses fromAligarh each village. MuslimThe total number University of households interviewed were 380. After the elimination of the invalid samples, the analysis was carried out with 360 samples from the year 2016–17. About 60 villages were covered during the course of the primary survey.
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4.10. Data Analysis
The complete analysis of the data collected is presented in the next chapter. Various statistical tools have been applied for the analysis of the data collected. The statistical tools applied were chosen on the basis of objectives of the study.
A qualitative analysis has been done on the data collected through focus group discussion. The responses of the participants have been discussed, and various points brought out by the respondents while answering the questions put forth to them have been discussed in detail. The number of respondents who were in consensus and the disagreements among the respondents concerning various problems of horticulturehasbeen discussed here.
The second part deals with the analysis of the data collected through a primary survey. Both quantitative and qualitative techniques have been employed to support the findings of the study. Descriptive statistics provide an overview of the heterogeneity of the sample. Correlation and Chi-square tests have been applied wherever the association between attributes have to be studied. The F-test and t-test have been used where comparative analysis has to be made. The p-values in all these tests indicate the statistical significance of the relationship between variables.
A structural equation model has been evolved to understand the overall problems and their association with other factors. The structural equation modeling is a multivariate technique that is used to estimate the inter-related dependence between variables simultaneously. According to “Structural Equation Modelling is a methodology for representing, estimating, and testing a theoretical network of (mostly) linear relations between variables” (Rigdon, 1998). The important purpose of the SEM is “to understand the correlation or covariance among a set of variables and to explain as much of their variance as possible with the model specified” (Kline, 1998).
Friedman‟s test studies the differences in the mean ranks in factors affecting the Maulanasatisfaction Azad with the Library, horticultural activities Aligarh. This test Muslim ranks the variables University related to problems, women activities and sustainability issues of horticulture and helps in determining the most influential factors. Factor analysis has been applied for post- occupancy evaluation of various horticultural attributes. It is a technique that studies the relationship between a set of observed variables and latent variables. The various results obtained have been summarised in the next chapter titled as, the summary of findings.
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The Triangulation technique has been applied to validate and support the research findings. Triangulation strengthens the research findings and helps in increasing its credibility. It is a widely used technique in qualitative research.
Softwares used: SPSS, EVIEWS-10, STATA-14, MS Excell-10 etc.
4.11. Ethical Considerations
Throughout the study, care was taken to follow strict ethical considerations. The beneficiaries voluntarily accepted to participate in the interview without physical or psychological coercion. Ethical concerns were taken care of during planning, conducting and evaluating the information. Due care was taken to certify that the respondents fully understood the purpose of the study. The respondents were ascertained of the confidentiality of the data at all times, and that the identification of participants will not be made public during or after the study. Hence, no names of the respondents have been mentioned anywhere in this report.
The insights in this chapter thus provide a framework of the entire study and would facilitate understanding of the following chapter on data analysis.
4.12. Limitations of the Study
Time is the first and foremost constraint which restricts a researcher to go to an in- depth study of the topic. In order to maximize the utility of time, a well-defined topic has been chosen from a well-defined area of Agronomics.
The topic of the present study has been taken from the area of Agronomics titled „Horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir: Problems and Prospects.‟ The data presented in the study shall be taken from various secondary sources which may vary from source to source and may lead to biased results. For primary data, there may be a respondent bias also which can deviate the reliability of the results. MaulanaJammu and Kashmir Azad have Library, a rough topography Aligarh and economy Muslim with three University natural divisions Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh, causing a difference in the analysis of data by keeping the elasticity of some problems faced by horticulture sector in three regions constant.
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The study covered mainly three fruits i.e mango from Jammu, apple from Kashmir and apricot from Ladakh divisions. It was not possible to analyze the impact of all the fruits and vegetables produced in the State.
There may exist randomized error because the villages were selected randomly. This study has not taken into account the horticulture sustainability and the role played by landscape gardening in the economy of the State.
Both growers and businessman face the problems of horticulture but in this study more stress has been put on the part of growers as they are the actual producers of the horticulture in the State.
4.13. Sample Strata
The survey has been conducted through the following way of stratification of the population and the sample was collected accordingly.
Jammmu and Kashmir State
Jammu Kashmir Ladakh Division Division Division
Jammu Rajouri Baramulla Anantnag Leh Ladakh Districts District District District District District
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Jammu Division
Jammu Rajouri District District
Jammu Akhnor Budhal Rajouri Block Block Block Block
Agor Adgan Agrat Budhal
Drabi Bakor Bagla Hubbi
Dong Chajwal Dabrot Mohra
Kainakh Rajpora Dhangri Soker
Ranjan R.S Pora Jamula Tarkasi
4.13.1.A brief introduction of villages surveyed in Jammu Division
Villages surveyed in Jammu Block of Jammu District
1. Agor
Agor village is located in tehsil Jammu. It is situated 23 km away from Jammu, which headquarters of Agor village. The total geographical area of the village is 146.2 hectares. Agor has a total population of 1,040 peoples. There are about 189 houses in this village. Akhnoor is the nearest town to Agor which is approximately 4km away.
2. Drabi
Drabi village is located in tehsil Jammu. It is situated 48 km away from Jammu, which headquarters of Drabi village. The total area of the village is 644.3 hectares, a Maulanapopulation of 702 Azad peoples. Library, There are about Aligarh 126 houses in thisMuslim village. Katra University is the nearest town to it which is approximately 12km away from it.
3. Dong
Dong village is located in tehsil Jammu. It is situated 37km away fromheadquartering Jammu.The total area of the village is 878.2 hectares, a total population of 606
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persons. There are about 115 houses in this village. Katra is the nearest town to Dong which is just about 12km away from it.
4. Ranjan
Ranjan village is located in tehsil Jammu. It is situated 20 km away fromdistrict headquarter Jammu. The total geographical area of the village is 1030.3 hectares. Ranjan has a total population of 3,859 peoples. There are about 766 houses in Ranjan village. Akhnoor is the nearest town to Ranjan which is approximately 10km away from it.
5. Kainkh
Kainkh village is located in tehsil Jammu. It is situated 30 km away from district headquarter Jammu. The total area of the village is about 1091.5 hectares, a total population of 2,623 persons. There are about 525 houses in this village. Akhnoor is the nearest town to Kainkh which is approximately 10km away from it.
Villages surveyed fromBlock Akhnorof Jammu District 1. Adgan Adgan village is located in tehsil Akhnoor. It is situated 40 km away from Akhnoor and 68km away from Jammu. The total area of village is 297.9 hectares, a population of 261 persons. There are about 50 households in this village. Akhnoor is the adjacent town to Adgan which is just about 40km away.
2. Bakori Bakori village is located in tehsil Akhnoor It is situated 22 km Akhnoor and 50km away from Jammu. The total physical area of village is 96.7 hectares, a total population of 662 persons. There are about 137 houses in this village. Jouriam is adjoining town to it which is approximately 4km away.
3. Chajwal Chajwal village is located in tehsil Akhnoor It is situated 21 km Akhnoor and 49km Maulanaaway from Azad Jammu. Library, The total physical Aligarh area of the village Muslim is 368.3 hectaresUniversity, a total population of 365 peoples. There are about 98 houses in the village. Akhnoor is the neighboring town to Chajwal which is approximately 21km away from it.
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4. Ranbir Singh Pora Ranbir Singh Pora village is located in tehsil Akhnoor. It is situated 25 km away from Akhnoor and 53km away from Jammu. The total physical area of the village is 158.6 hectares. Khour is the next-door town to Ranbir Singh Pora which is just about 8km away.
5. Rajpora Rajpora village is located in tehsil Akhnoor. It is situated 30 km away from Akhnoor and 40km away from Jammu. The total physical area of the village is 212.9 hectares, a total population of 493 persons. There are about 117 houses in this village.
Villages surveyed in Block Rajouri of Rajouri District 1. Agrat Agrat village is located in tehsil and district Rajouri. It is situated 23 km away from headquarters Rajouri. The total physical area of the village is 898.4 hectares, a total population of 2,393 peoples. There are about 525 houses in this village.
2. Bagla Bagla village is located in tehsil Rajouri. It is situated 28 km away from district headquarter Rajouri. The total physical area of the village is 1918.6 hectares, a total population of 2,797 persons. There are about 548 houses in the village.
3. Dabrot Dabrot village is located in tehsil Rajouri. It is sited 35 km away from district headquarters Rajouri. The total physical area of the village is 270.7 hectares, a total population of 889 peoples. There are about 187 houses in the village.
4. Dhangri Dhangri village is located in tehsil Rajauri. It is situated 8 km away from district town Rajouri. The total area of the village is 688.4 hectares. It has a total population of 3,553 peoples, 771 households live in Dhangri village.
Maulana5. Jamula Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Jamula village is located in tehsil Rajauri. It is situated 24 km away from Rajouri. The total land area of village is 105.2 hectares. It has a total population of 540 persons, about 127 householdslive in Jamula village.
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Villages surveyed in Block Budhal of Rajouri District 1. Budhal Budhal village is located in tehsil Budhal It is situated 5 km away from Budhal and 40km away from Rajouri. The total land area of the village is 1525.3 hectares. It has a total population of 3,624 persons. There are about 585 houses in this village.
2. Hubbi Hubbi village is located in tehsil Budhal. It is situated 5 km away from Budhal and 32km away from Rajouri. The total area of the village is 691.6 hectares, a total population of 2,790 persons. There are about 507 houses in this village.
3. Mohra Mohra village is located in tehsil Budhal. It is situated 4 km away Budhal and 33km away from Rajouri. The total physical area of the village is 895.2 hectares, a total population of 3,286 peoples. There are about 607 houses in the village.
4. Soker Soker village is located in tehsil Budhal. It is situated 40km away Budhal and 23km away from Rajouri. The total land area of the village is 86.2 hectares, a total population of 681 peoples. There are about 140 houses in the village.
5. Tarkasi Tarkasi village is located in tehsil Budhal. It is situated 25 km away from Budhal and 35km away from Rajouri. The total area of the village is 287.3 hectares, a total population of 1,732 peoples, and about 392 households live in this village.
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Kahmir Division
Baramulla Anantnag District District
Wagoora Sopore Anantnag Shopian Block Block Block Block
Wagoora Tarzooa Arsoo Saidpora
Nowpora Wagub Brar Pinjorah
Vizer Seer Jagir Dialgam Gagran
Kreeri Panjipora Hatmonoh Heff
Saloosa Warpora Zodar Ratnipora
4.13.2. A brief overview of surveyed villages in Kashmir Division
Villages surveyed in Block Wagoora ofBaramulla District
1. Nowpora NowporaJagir is a village of district Baramulla. It is well-known for its history in the field of horticulture. Nowpora is also one of the largest apple producers in the districtBaramulla. There are about 530 households in this village and a population of about 5100.
2. Wagoora Wagoora lies on the banks of NallahNingli. It is located 21 km towards East from district headquarter Baramulla and 49 km from State capital Srinagar. There are about Maulana460 households inAzad Wagoora Library,and a population Aligarhof about 4300. Muslim University 3. Vizar Vizaris a village in Wagoora Block in Baramulla. It is located 19 km towards East from district headquarters Baramulla and 46 km from State capital Srinagar. It has about 300 households counting about 2000 as population.
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4. Kreeri
Kreeri is a village in Wagoora Block in Baramulla district of Jammu and Kashmir State. It is located 42 km towards East from District headquarters Baramulla and 26 km from State capital Srinagar. It has about 600 households with a population approximately 5500.
5. Saloosa
Saloosa is a Village in Wagoora Block in Baramulla District of Jammu and Kashmir State. It is located 20 km towards East from District headquarters Baramulla and 45 km from State capital Srinagar. It has a population of about 4800 and about 470 households.
Villages surveyed in Block Sopore of Baramulla District
1. Tarazuea
Tarazuea village is located in Sopore Tehsil of Baramulla district in Jammu and Kashmir. It is situated 5km away from Sopore and 25 km away from Baramulla. The total area of the village is 681.9 hectares. It has a total population of 6,910 persons. There are about 1,059 houses in the village.
2. Wagub
Wagub village is located in tehsil Sopore. It is situated 6 km away from Sopore and 16 km away from Baramulla. The total land area of the village is 233.5 hectares, a total population of 2,618 peoples, and about 334 households live in Wagub village.
3. Seer Jagir
Seer Jagir village is located in Sopore Tehsil of Baramulla district. It is situated 3km away from Sopore and 17 km away from Baramulla. The total area of the village is 471.5 hectares, a total population of 7,997 peoples. There are about 1,194 houses in the village. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 4. Panjipora
PanjiPora village is located in tehsil Sopore. It is situated 4 km away from Sopore and 18km away from district Baramulla. The total area of the village is 159.1 hectares, a total population of 1,957 peoples, and about 236 households live in Panjipora village.
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5. Warpora
Warpora village is located in tehsil Sopore. It is situated 6 km away from Sopore and 22 km away from district Baramulla. The total land area of the village is 635 hectares, a total population of 5,891 peoples, and about 863 houses are in Warapora village.
Villages Survyed in Block Anantnag of Anantnag District
1. Arsoo
Arsoo village is located in tehsil Anantnag It is situated 16 km away from Anantnag. The total area of village is 69.3 hectares, a total population of 756 peoples. There are about 123 houses in this village.
2. Brar Anigandan
Brar Anigandan village is located in tehsil Anantnag. It is situated 13 km away from Anantnag. The total area of the village is 249.3 hectares, a total population of 2,673 peoples. There are about 368 houses in the village.
3. Dialgam
Dialgam village is located in tehsil Anantnag. It is situated 5 km away from Anantnag. The total land area of the village is 192.6 hectares, a total population of 3,615 peoples, and about 509 houses are in this village.
4. Hutmarah
Hutmarah village is located in tehsil Anantnag. It is situated 10 km away from Anantnag. The total area of the village is 272 hectares, a total population of 2,885 peoples, about 441 houses are in Hutmarah village.
5. Zodar
Zodar village is located in tehsil Anantnag. It is situated 6 km away from Anantnag. The total area of the village is 85 hectares, a total population of 1,812 peoples, and Maulanaabout 277 houses Azad are in Zodar Library, village. Aligarh Muslim University
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Villages surveyed in Block Shopian 1. Saidpora Saidpora village is located in tehsil Shopian. It is situated 6 km away from Shopian. The total area of the village is 289.2 hectares, a total population of 2,598 peoples, and about 449 houses are in Saidpora village.
2. Pinjorah Pinjorah village is located in tehsil Shopian. It is situated 2 km away from Shopian. The total physical area of village is 513.5 hectares, a total population of 4,870 peoples, and about 818 houses are in Pinjorah village.
3. Gagren Gagren village is located in tehsil Shopian. It is situated 1 km away from Shopian. The total area of village is 75.7 hectares, a total population of 1,628 peoples, and about 279 houses live in Gagren village.
4. Heff Heff village is located in tehsil Shopian. It is situated 15 km away from Shopian. The total area of village is 413.6 hectares, a total population of 2,125 peoples, and about 310 houses are in Heff village.
5. Ratni Pora RatniPora village is located in tehsil Shopian. It is situated 10 km away from Shopian.The total land area of village is 129.5 hectares, a total population of 993 peoples, and about 163 houses reside in Ratni Pora village.
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Ladakh Division
Leh Kargil District District
Leh Nobra Kargil Zanskar Block Block Block Block
Anlay Turtuk Apati Abran
Samad Bogdang Chulichan Chah Rakchan
Nyoma Diskit Sinho Padam
Koyul Khardong Lalung Testa
4.13.3. A brief overview of surveyed villages in Ladakh Division
Villages surveyed in Block Leh of Leh District 1. Anlay Anlay village is located in tehsil Leh. It is situated 270 km away from Leh. The total area of village is 222.2 hectares, a total population of 1,879 peoples, and about 371 houses reside in Anlay village.
2. SamadRakchan SamadRakchan village is located in tehsil Leh. It is situated 170 km away from Leh. The total area of village is 12.6 hectares, a total population of 361 peoples, and about 71 households live in SamadRakchan village. Maulana3. Nyoma Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Nyoma village is located in tehsil Leh. It is situated 184 km away from Leh. The total physical area of village is 153.4 hectares, a total population of 918 peoples, about 202 houses live in Nyoma village.
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4. Koyul
Koyul village is located in tehsil Leh. It is situated 265 km away from Leh. The total land area of village is 193 hectares, a total population of 493 peoples, and about 115 households shelter in Koyul village.
5. Demjok
Demjok village is located in tehsil Leh. It is situated 325 km away from Leh, The total area of village is 32.8 hectares, a total population of 78 peoples, andabout 31 houses reside in Demjok village.
Villages surveyed in Block Nobraof Leh District
1. Turtok
Turtok village is located in tehsil Nubra. It is situated 93 km away from Nubra and 211 km away from Leh. Ithas a total population of 3,371, and about 384 houses reside inTurtok village.
2. Bogdang
Bogdang village is located in tehsil Nubra. It is situated 70 km away from Nubra and 188km away from Leh. The total area of village is 87 hectares, a total population of 1,988 peoples, and about 272 households live in Bogdang village.
3. Diskit
Diskit village is located in tehsil Nubra. It is situated 32 km away from Nubra and 118 km away from Leh. The total area of the village is 495.3 hectares, a total population of 1,760 peoples, and about 344 houses in the village.
4. Khardong
Khardong village is located in the Nubra. It is situated 45 km away Nubra and 63 km away from Leh. The total area of village is 587.2 hectares, a total population of 468 Maulanapeoples , Azadand about 144 Library, houses in Khardong Aligarh village. Muslim University 5. Sumoor
Sumoor village is located in tehsil Nubra. It is situated 118 km away from Nubra. The total area of village is 324.1 hectares, a total population of 711 peoples, and about 164 houses in this village.
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Villages surveyed in Block Kargil of Kargil District 1. Apati Apati village is located in tehsil Kargil. It is situated 8 km away from Kargil. The total area of village is 110.9 hectares, a total population of 1,245 peoples, and about 142 houses reside in Apati village.
2. Chulichan Chulichan village is located in tehsil Kargil. It is situated 42 km away from Kargil. The total area of village is 125.9 hectares, a total population of 912 peoples, and about 112 houses reside in Chulichan village.
3. Silmo Silmo village is located in tehsil Kargil. It is situated 45 km away from Kargil. The total area of village is 166.7 hectares, a total population of 1,627 peoples, and about 209 householdsreside in Silmo village.
4. Lalung Lalung village is located in the Kargil. It is situated 40 km away from Kargil. The total land area of village is 97.9 hectares, a total population of 685 peoples, and about 87 houses took shelter in Lalung village.
5. Poyan Poyan village is located in tehsil Kargil. It is situated 2 km away from Kargil. The total area of village is 22.66 hectares, a total population of 216 peoples, and about 29 householdslive in Poyan village.
Villages surveyed in Block Zanskar of District Kargil 1. Abran Abran village is located in tehsil Zanskar. It is situated 55 km away from Zanskar and 23 km away from Kargil. The total area of village is 158.6 hectares, a total population of 418 peoples, and about 71 householdslive in Abran village.
Maulana2. Chah Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Chah village is located in tehsil Zanskar. It is situated 40 km away Zanskar and 234 km away from Kargil. The total area of village is 83.8 hectares, a total population of 465 peoples, and about 61 houses are in Chah village.
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3. Padam Padam village is located in tehsil Zanskar. It is situated 25 km away from Zanskar and 226 km away from Kargil. The total area of village is 342 hectares, a total population of 1,538 peoples, and about 261 houses are in Padam village.
4. Testa Testa village is located in tehsil Zanskar. It is situated 55km away from Zanskar and 260 km away from Kargil. The total area of village is 170.8 hectares, a total population of 460 peoples, and about 71 houses are in Testa village.
5. Zangla Zangla village is located in tehsil Zanskar. It is situated 33 km away from Zanskar and 260 km away from Kargil. The total land area of village is 227.8 hectares, a total population of 954 peoples, and about 182 households live in Zangla village.
In this chapter detailed research methodology has been discussed. The focus of this chapter was on the models to be used to analyze the colleted data on the basis of objectives set for the study. This chapter focus on how the set hypothesis should be tested to interpret the results and to reach the conclusion. The next chapter pertains to status of Jammu and Kashmir in certain inter state comparaisions of horticulture in India.
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Chapter
5
Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Maulana Azad Library,Horticulture Aligarh Muslim in India University Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
CHAPTER 5
STATUS OF JAMMU AND KASHMIR:CERTAIN INTER
STATE COMPARISONS OF HORTICULTURE IN INDIA
Jammu and Kashmir are one among the 29 states of Indian Federalism. It has a unique topography, political stance, society, and economy. This chapter clarifies the position of Jammu and Kashmir in the horticulture sector in India.
5.1. Comparison on the Basis of Money Value
This comparison is based on the monetary value; received by selling the product in the market. In other words, it is price fetched by the sale of a quantity of a particular horticulture product in the market. Simply it is the total revenue earned by horticulture products in the market at a particular point of time.
5.1.1. State-wise Value of Total Horticulture
Total horticulture means the sum total of vegetables and fruits of a particular state in India. The eight yearly (from 2010-11 to 2017-18) of the total value of horticulture of each state was calculated by the following formula:
∑ Eight yearly average =
This average was calculated to know the mean value of total horticulture. The percentage value of horticulture of each state was calculated by the following formula:
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Table 5.1: State wise value of total horticulture (in lakhs) S. Eight yearly State/U.Ts 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 Percentage No. average 1 West Bengal 4027724 4239709 4403434 4784321 4202628 5886277 6769219 7649217 5245316 12.39
2 Maharashtra 2911837 3065092 3019288 3405453 3610057 4564629 5249323 5931735 3969677 9.38
3 Tamil Nadu 3079535 3241616 2721896 2973939 2778979 3104578 3570265 4034399 3188151 7.53
4 Madhya Pradesh 1888440 1987832 2584805 2862783 2927341 3719953 4277946 4834079 3135397 7.41
5 Gujarat 2329885 2452511 2717532 2813937 2772849 3157716 3631373 4103452 2997407 7.08
6 Andhra Pradesh 2061677 2170186 2220472 2375386 2556495 3191032 3669687 4146746 2798960 6.61
7 Uttar Pradesh 2002430 2107821 2339927 2807209 2257534 3054760 3512974 3969661 2756539 6.51
8 Karnataka 2247057 2365323 2267775 2335263 2377631 2893346 3327348 3759903 2696706 6.37
9 Odisha 1653656 1740690 1753471 2012428 1748258 2079781 2391748 2702675 2010338 4.75
10 Bihar 1437356 1513006 1643027 1827426 1485790 1866028 2145932 2424903 1792934 4.23
11 Kerala 1408519 1482652 1460259 1466034 1451960 1417432 1630047 1841953 1519857 3.59
12 Telangana 1275389 1342515 1532227 1690015 1244835 1414989 1627237 1838778 1495748 3.53
13 Assam 925576 974291 1131928 1211191 1119622 1238769 1424584 1609780 1204468 2.84
14 Chhattisgarh 868475 914184 966008 1021041 1058923 1284297 1476942 1668944 1157352 2.73 15 Jharkhand 845027 889502 953114 1028754 945158 1271554 1462287 1652384 1130973 2.67
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S. Eight yearly State/U.Ts 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 Percentage No. average Jammu and 16 559739 589199 530380 777562 574052 932116 1071933 1211285 780783 1.84 Kashmir 17 Rajasthan 613381 645664 545210 630713 566799 770971 886617 1001877 707654 1.67
18 Punjab 583847 614576 631928 631991 650265 718547 826329 933752 698904 1.65
19 Haryana 519068 546387 552539 607985 613183 790739 909350 1027565 695852 1.64
20 Himachal Pradesh 419009 441062 508734 582269 511846 637611 733253 828575 582795 1.38
21 Uttrakhand 376845 396679 384921 429707 333747 392621 451514 510211 409531 0.97 Arunachal 22 201208 211798 234494 266624 242250 287383 330490 373454 268463 0.63 Pradesh 23 Tripura 158180 166505 197283 223384 205603 278366 320121 361737 238897 0.56
24 Manipur 124387 130934 146575 153006 161774 194358 223512 252568 173389 0.41
25 Meghalaya 113360 119326 115448 119793 147628 161156 185329 209422 146433 0.35
26 Nagaland 87463 92066 85015 95324 148941 187374 215480 243493 144394 0.34
27 Sikkim 84726 89185 92819 106582 94057 117000 134550 152042 108870 0.26
28 Mizoram 71434 75194 74365 81864 83057 100957 116101 131194 91771 0.22
29 Goa 72697 76523 76783 82178 84313 91407 105118 118783 88475 0.21
Source: State-wise estimates of output from Agriculture & Allied Activities, CSO, M/o Statistics &Programme Implementation.
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In terms of the value of horticulture produce, West Bengal leads among all other States. Jammu and Kashmir rank at 16th position. The value of total horticulture produce of Jammu and Kashmir is higher than Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Uttrakhand, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. About 13 States are lagging behind Jammu and Kashmir in terms of the value of total horticulture. In other words, we can interpret that J&K has the largest Share among northern states of India.
5.1.2. State-wise Value of Fruits and Vegetables
Average and Percentage value of fruits and vegetables were calculated by the above formula. This section depicts the position of Jammu and Kashmir among different states of India in terms of value of fruits and vegetables. West Bengal leads in value of fruits and vegetables among all states of India.
West Bengal, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana have upper bounds while as northeastern seven sister states Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Manipur, has less than 0.6 percent value of fruits and vegetables in India. Jammu and Kashmir extend a marginal advantage over the neighboring states of Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, and Uttrakhand.
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Table 5.2: State wise value of fruits and vegetables
(in lakhs)
S. No. State/U.Ts 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 Eight Year Average Percentage
1 West Bengal 3772466 3929652 4090044 4462165 3872039 5541652 6206650 7013515 4861023 14.32
2 Maharashtra 2710697 2823643 2770881 3168554 3350024 4311287 4828641 5456365 3677512 10.83
3 Madhya Pradesh 1659988 1729154 2302525 2573328 2394347 3153151 3531529 3990628 2666831 7.85
4 Uttar Pradesh 1895414 1974390 2194397 2662033 2104781 2865983 3209901 3627188 2566761 7.56
5 Gujarat 1714029 1785447 1932753 2193942 1979889 2470824 2767323 3127075 2246410 6.62
6 Andhra Pradesh 1496906 1559277 1686091 1852893 1939083 2574236 2883144 3257953 2156198 6.35
7 Tamil Nadu 1827813 1903972 1657147 1812886 1741950 2175164 2436184 2752888 2038500 6
8 Bihar 1443150 1503281 1631570 1816370 1474402 1853878 2076343 2346268 1768158 5.21
9 Odisha 1371371 1428511 1434651 1673513 1426396 1768414 1980624 2238105 1665198 4.9
10 Karnataka 1151526 1199506 1169754 1223867 1212942 1644479 1841816 2081253 1440643 4.24
11 Chhattisgarh 856989 892697 942253 996233 1033941 1254655 1405214 1587891 1121234 3.3
12 Telangana 955695 995516 1125579 1296222 900930 1020030 1142434 1290950 1090919 3.21
13 Assam 660118 687623 745176 800755 733204 834378 934503 1055989 806468 2.38
14 Kerala 576829 600864 588902 675477 598853 984545 1102690 1246040 796775 2.35
Maulana Azad Library, 137Aligarh Muslim University Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
S. No. State/U.Ts 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 Eight Year Average Percentage
15 Jharkhand 609613 635014 657643 708896 651346 912284 1021758 1154587 793893 2.34
16 Jammu & Kashmir 560478 583831 524628 771743 568052 925797 1036893 1171689 767889 2.26
17 Punjab 560500 583854 591380 593124 609706 679082 760572 859446 654708 1.93
18 Haryana 488166 508506 506624 569533 567171 742981 832139 940317 644430 1.9
19 Himachal Pradesh 388637 404830 475945 561590 478004 586351 656713 742086 536769 1.58
20 Uttrakhand 344777 359143 358676 398671 311758 360089 403300 455729 374018 1.1
21 Rajasthan 171426 178569 174723 209201 170209 289448 324182 366325 235510 0.69
22 Tripura 132348 137862 168569 192021 188132 256908 287737 325143 211090 0.62
23 Arunachal Pradesh 145676 151746 167235 191080 169069 195094 218505 246911 185665 0.55
24 Manipur 110426 115027 130698 139867 146323 174836 195816 221272 154283 0.45
25 Meghalaya 97301 101355 94048 98091 126410 139073 155762 176011 123506 0.36
26 Nagaland 74517 77622 70951 79407 124779 159133 178229 201399 120755 0.36
27 Goa 61362 63919 65823 68674 73213 84847 95029 107382 77531 0.23
28 Mizoram 55807 58132 59552 64666 68830 82330 92210 104197 73215 0.22
29 Sikkim 25464 26525 27781 32510 28171 35661 39940 45133 32648 0.1
Source: State wise estimates of output from Agriculture & Allied Activities, CSO, M/o Statistics &Programme Implementation.
Maulana Azad Library, 138Aligarh Muslim University Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
Fig. 5.1: Graph depicting the percentage value of horticulture of different states
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2
0
Goa
Bihar
Kerala
Assam
Punjab
Odisha
Sikkim
Gujarat Tripura
Haryana
Manipur
Mizoram
Nagaland
Rajasthan
Jharkhand Karnataka
Telangana
Meghalaya
Uttrakhand
TamilNadu
Maharashtra
Chhattisgarh
WestBengal
Uttar Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh
Himachal Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir
Percentage value of total horticulture Percentage value fruits and vegetables
Source: Table 5.1 and 5.2
The Graph depicts that West Bengal leads both in percentage value of total horticulture and value of fruits and vegetables. The lowest percentage is that of Goa. All the seven sisters are in drowning condition. Jammu and Kashmir is almost at midway between the highest peak and lowest peak.
5.1.3. State-wise Percentage Value of Various Fruits Produced
Table 5.3 depicts the state wise and variety-wise percentage value of multiple fruits in 29 states of India. The percentage is calculated from data taken from the mean value of fruits produced from the year 2010-11 to 2017-18.
Uttar Pradesh receives the highest percentage value in Mango followed by Bihar and Andhra Pradesh the least value is received by North Eastern states in the selling of mango in the market. Maharashtra dominates almost the entire market in value receipts of grapes in India. Madhya Pradesh has an advantage in lemon and Guava followed by Maharashtra.
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
139 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
Table 5.3: State wise percentage value of various fruits produced
S. State/U.Ts Mango Grapes Apple Lemon Litchi Cherry Almonds Guava Pear Walnut No. Andhra 1 8.8 0.71 0.52 15.51 2.64 1.22 Pradesh Arunachal 2 0.01 4.89 0 0.21 0.03 0.51 Pradesh 3 Assam 0.45 4.81 5.76 4.21
4 Bihar 12.99 2.84 36.15 8.3
5 Chhattisgarh 2.46 3.21 4.15 4.25
6 Goa 0.26
7 Gujarat 4.44 18.35 4.14
8 Haryana 0.57 0.05 0.45 3.54 0.74
Himachal 9 0.31 0.01 34.28 0.44 0.63 4.13 7.78 0.14 11.05 0.45 Pradesh Jammu & 10 0.13 0.03 49.05 0.83 0.14 95.86 92.22 0.3 16.55 94.76 Kashmir 11 Jharkhand 3.06 1.87 8.74 2.41 0.08
12 Karnataka 6.18 9.32 5 4.97
13 Kerala 1.67
Madhya 14 1.94 0.04 12.64 15.27 Pradesh 15 Maharashtra 7.22 83.32 10.73 9.41
16 Manipur 0.01 1.61 0 0.17
17 Meghalaya 0.15
18 Mizoram 0.01 1.21 0.4 0.15 0.04 0.02
19 Nagaland 0.02 0.04 0.09 0.33 0.23 0.1 0.66
20 Odisha 5.85 5.08 2.78
21 Punjab 0.82 0.76 0.25 4.44 5.92 20.33
22 Rajasthan 0.51 0.02 0.82 0.95
23 Sikkim 0.01
24 Tamil Nadu 3.65 3.79 0 1.01 2.49 5.75
25 Telangana 8.48 0.72 0.83 12.28 1.83
26 Tripura 0.29 0.96 2.2 0.18
Uttar 27 21.55 0.07 0.27 11.86 Pradesh 28 Uttrakhand 0.92 10.34 5.79 5.57 43.44 4.27
West 29 7.33 25.82 14.22 Bengal
Source: Calculated from the eight-year average of state wise value of different fruits from M/o Stat. and Implementation. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Jammu and Kashmir capture the highest share in the market of apple, cherry almonds and walnut. While it ranks 3rd in the market value earned in terms of pear among 29 states of the Indian union. In terms of value receipts, J&K has some significant contribution in apple and walnut, but it lags behind in terms of value received in other varieties of horticulture production.
140 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
Fig. 5.2: Pie Chart showing State wise percentage value of various fruits produced
Himachal Andhra Arunachal Pradesh, Telangana, Pradesh, Pradesh, 4.13 0.83 0.52 4.89
Nagaland, 0.09 Uttarakhan d, 10.34
Himachal Pradesh, 34.28 Jammu & Kashmir, 49.05 Jammu & Kashmir, 95.86
Apple Cherry
Arunachal Pradesh 2%
Himachal Pradesh 8% Himachal Pradesh 14%
Jammu & Uttarakha Kashmir nd 21% Jammu & 56% Kashmir 92%
Tamil Nadu 7% Almond Pear
Arunachal Uttarakhan Pradesh d 1% 4% Assam, 5.76 West Uttar Bengal, Pradesh, 25.82 0.27
Bihar, 36.15 Jammu & Kashmir Maulana Azad 95%Library, AligarhTripura, Muslim University 2.20 Punjab, Odisha, 4.44 5.08
Jharkhand, Jammu & 8.74 Walnut Kashmir, Chhattisgar Litchi 0.14 h, 4.15
Source: Table 5.3
141 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
Fig 5.2 depicts that Jammu and Kashmir has a comparative advantage1 in apple, pear,and litchi while an absolute advantage2 in almond, walnut and cherry. In terms of dry fruits, i.e. almond and walnut, the value received by J&K is 92% and 95% respectively. Jammu and Kashmir face tough competition from Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhand in apple and pears respectively.
5.1.4. State-wise Percentage Value of Various Vegetables Produced
Table 5.4 elaborated the various categories of vegetable percentage value of different states in India. Jammu and Kashmir shows competitiveness in vegetable production, but that are not extensively grown there because of the market constraints prevalent in the state. Uttar Pradesh leads in potato production followed by West Bengal. Maharashtra receives the highest value in terms of onion followed by Madhya Pradesh. Odisha receives the highest percentage of money value in brinjaland cabbage among all other states.
Table 5.4: State wise percentage value of various vegetables produced
S. State/U.Ts Potato Onion Brinjal Cabbage Cauliflower Tomato Green Peas Chilies Garlic No. Andhra 1 0.09 1.84 7.66 0.84 0.41 16.11 1.28 26.66 0 Pradesh Arunachal 2 0.14 0.04 0.39 0.17 0.13 0.17 0.08 Pradesh 3 Assam 3.04 0.27 1.74 7.32 3.51 2.68 0.65 1.24 8.56
4 Bihar 3.94 1.65 6.86 8.23 6.36 4.42 1.77 0.24 0.41
5 Chhattisgarh 0.3 0.2 5.96 6.04 6.88 4.99 1.8 0.41 0.53
6 Goa 4.71
7 Gujarat 7.43 8.89 6.94 5.12 6.47 3.83 16.81
8 Haryana 0.58 0.29 1.55 2.3 3.79 2.99 4.03 0.46 1.33 Himachal 9 0.87 0.51 0.17 1.53 1.17 3.26 10.39 0.02 6.99 Pradesh Jammu & 10 0.15 0.01 0.3 0.95 1.15 0.77 1.7 0.07 0.1 Kashmir 11 Jharkhand 1.19 0.11 2.11 6.62 5.22 1.87 8.44 16.48 0.06
12 Karnataka 0.92 2.68 2.12 1.32 0.63 6.96 1.01 4.56 0.59
13 Kerala 0.01 0.03 0.09 0.72 Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Madhya 14 8.81 18.36 6.87 8.58 7.91 12.08 10.56 11.82 20.15 Pradesh
1 Comparative advantage is an economic term that refers to an economy's ability to produce goods and services at a lower opportunity cost than that of trade partners. 2 In economics, the principle of absolute advantage refers to the ability of a party to produce a greater quantity of a good, product, or service than competitors, using the same amount of resources.
142 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
S. State/U.Ts Potato Onion Brinjal Cabbage Cauliflower Tomato Green Peas Chilies Garlic No. 15 Maharashtra 1.01 46.49 4.44 5.15 5.44 5.19 1.76 2.31 5.12
16 Manipur 0.18 0.04 0.14 0.74 0.33 0.35 3.23 0.66
17 Meghalaya 0.59 0.03 0.06 0.42 0.56 0.22 0.18 0.04
18 Mizoram 0.01 0.04 0.08 0.4 0.02 0.06 0.06 0.64 0
19 Nagaland 0.29 0.07 0.02 1.39 0.04 0.12 0.22 0.68 0.1
20 Odisha 0.2 3.33 15.15 10.23 5.41 5.8 1.85 3.87 2.93
21 Punjab 3.95 1.47 0.32 0.54 1.68 1.08 7.07 0.11 7.64
22 Rajasthan 0.25 3.72 0.11 0.04 0.32 0.39 0.66 0.84 9.55
23 Sikkim 0.28 0.02 0.1 0.07 0.07 0.36 0
24 Tamil Nadu 0.63 2.08 1.17 1.61 0.26 2.08 0.23 0.79 0.37
25 Telangana 0.14 2.84 1.66 0.91 10 0.12 15.34 0.13
26 Tripura 0.47 0.01 0.38 0.78 0.46 0.31 0.29
Uttar 27 34.02 2.23 0.49 0.4 1.4 1.69 30.91 0.6 12 Pradesh 28 Uttrakhand 0.27 0.07 0.15 0.7 0.42 0.65 2.04 0.51 0.2 West 29 30.21 2.7 33.3 27.29 41.14 9.18 9.05 7.34 5.72 Bengal
Source: Calculated from the eight-year average of state wise value of different vegetables from M/o Stat. and Implementation
Jammu and Kashmir lags behind in tomato, green peas, chilies, and garlic. It receives a low money value from these products in the market. Andhra Pradesh being the highest receptor of the money value from tomatoes and chilies but pitfalls behind Uttar Pradesh in money value reception of green peas. Gujarat receivesthe highest market value of money from garlic sale among the states of India.
5.2. Comparison on the Basis of Area, Production, and productivity
This section shows the comparison on the based on the area, production and productivity of fruits and vegetables among 29 states of India. This section shows the position of Jammu and Kashmir in Indian federating units in terms of horticulture.
5.2.1. State-wise Productivity of Horticulture Products in India Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Table 5.5 depicts the state wise productivity of different horticulture products such as fruits, vegetables, plantation, aromatics, flowers and spices in different states of India. This table elaborated the status of Jammu and Kashmir State in terms of the productivity of different fruit crops among the states of India.
143 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
Table 5.5: State wise productivity of horticulture products in India
Productivity
State Fruits Vegetables Plantation Aromatics Flowers Spices Total Andhra Pradesh 20 24 4 38 8 0 13 Arunachal Pradesh 5 8 8 2 1 164 4 Assam 15 12 2 0 7 2 9 Bihar 14 17 7 0 12 0 16 Chhattisgarh 11 14 2 7 4 0 12 Gujarat 22 19 7 0 9 0 14 Haryana 14 16 0 4 10 2 15 Himachal Pradesh 3 20 0 1 33 1 8 Jammu and Kashmir 7 22 0 0 1 10 9 Jharkhand 10 13 0 0 5 0 12 Karnataka 17 17 5 7 7 4 1 Kerala 10 14 5 0 0 249 6 Madhya Pradesh 18 19 0 7 12 0 13 Maharashtra 14 15 2 2 6 1 12 Manipur 9 7 0 0 0 53 7 Meghalaya 12 11 1 0 0 7 8 Mizoram 5 5 1 1 2 0 4 Nagaland 10 12 5 4 13 25 9 Odisha 7 14 1 0 4 2 9 Punjab 21 20 0 0 6 0 19 Rajasthan 15 10 0 1 2 0 2 Sikkim 1 5 0 0 69 359 2 Tamil Nadu 20 25 7 14 13 14 13 Telangana 12 18 3 4 4 17740 10 Tripura 11 17 2 0 0 0 12 Uttar Pradesh 22 19 0 0 2 1 18 Uttrakhand 4 11 0 0 1 1 6 West Bengal 15 18 6 0 3 1 16 Others 8 13 3 1 0 4 5 Total 14 17 5 2 5 6 7
Source: M/o Stat. and Implementation
Jammu and Kashmir has the lowest productivity in flowers followed by fruits. It Maulanashows relatively Azad a good growthLibrary, in the spice Aligarh sector. In termsMuslim of vegetables University, its productivity is at par with the other states. The land in J&K is fertile to grow vegetables, but that are not extensively grown in the state because of limited irrigation facilities available to small holding farmers. Marginal farmers prefer to grow fruits more extensively apple that does not need much water for irrigation,and that also
144 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
aregrown in the hilly land in which other horticultural activities are not possible. Plantation and aromatics have zero potential in J&K. Viewing the above table, J&K is lagging behind other states in productivity of horticulture; in other words, J&K is not growing in conformity with other states of India in the horticulture sector. Thus, there exists a disparity in productivity of horticulture produce in J&K.
Fig. 5.3: Bar graph depicting State wise productivity of horticulture products in India
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
0
Bihar
Kerala
Assam
Punjab
Odisha
Sikkim
Gujarat Tripura
Haryana
Manipur
Mizoram
Nagaland
Rajasthan
Jharkhand Karnataka
Telangana
Meghalaya
Uttrakhand
TamilNadu
Maharashtra
Chhattisgarh
WestBengal
Uttar Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh
Himachal Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh Jammu Kashmir &
Fruits Vegetables Plantation Aromatics Flowers
Source: Table 5.5
Keeping an eye on the above graph 5.3, it shows that the horticulture sector (except vegetables) of Jammu and Kashmir is worse than the BIMARU3 States of India. Certain northeastern states are excelling well in terms of productivity of horticulture than J&K. Only the height of the vegetable bar of J&K in the graph is showing productivity equivalent to that of other states of India. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
3 BIMARU is an acronym formed from the first letters of the names of the Indian states of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. It was coined by Ashish Bose in the mid- 1980s. BIMARU has a resemblance to a Hindi word "Bimar" which means sick. This was used to refer to the poor economic conditions within those states.
145 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
5.2.2. State wise area and production of various fruits in India
Table 5.6: State wise Area and Production of various fruits in India (2014-2018)
Almond Apple Lemon Grapes Mango Walnut State A P A P A P A P A P A P
Andhra Pradesh
Assam Bihar Chhattisgarh Gujarat Himachal Pradesh
Jammu and Kashmir
Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Odisha Punjab Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Telangana Uttrakhand Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Source: Digest of statistics Government of J&K, 2017-18
(shows increasing trend, shows a decreasing trend, indicates the first increase Maulanathen decrease,) Azad indicates Library, the first decrease Aligarh then increase, Muslim = means no University change, means first decrease then no change).
The table shows that that horticulture area of the Jammu and Kashmir state is decreasing in all the categories of the fruits except in mango that shows an upward trend. Production of most of the fruits is also decreasing expect in lemon, apple, and
146 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
mango. The alarming aspect is that walnut area and production of the state id also showing a downward trend. Among other states, J&K is performing better in apple and mango.
5.2.3. State-wise Area and Production of Various Vegetables in India
In the table below the percentage change of area and production has been calculated by the following formula
Table 5.7: State wise Percentage change in area and production of various vegetables in India
Brinjal Cabbage Onion Potato Cauliflower Tomato State A P A P A P A P A P A P Andhra 2.02 3.01 22.53 10.63 -1.51 44.49 -0.38 -10.81 -17.43 -16.71 2.36 42.58 Pradesh Arunachal 1.04 56.00 -19.08 6.25 -73.00 -52.00 -76.07 Pradesh Assam 3.90 0.01 3.01 3.23 50.57 501.6 6.76 -37.97 2.94 2.52 2.02 -0.63
Bihar 0.07 0.69 4.92 4.55 0.49 1.00 0.46 -4.03 0.99 1.04 -3.08 -3.38
Chhattisgarh -5.35 5.85 4.86 8.07 20.65 33.35 11.77 9.87 5.47 7.36 7.07 9.74
Gujarat 12.96 0.10 -7.23 -7.08 16.73 20.35 14.46 19.75 0.52 0.70 4.11 4.77
Haryana 0.00 5.12 37.19 36.98 11.61 24.56 20.44 33.52 21.03 37.54 15.56 14.58 Himachal 12.66 18.20 13.67 9.15 11.33 23.30 -21.88 -19.84 18.08 22.24 11.58 18.43 Pradesh Jammu & -4.86 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Kashmir Jharkhand -5.99 -15.57 -0.98 -1.00 4.26 -13.52 12.47 -1.18 -11.19 -24.68 -26.98 -10.93
Karnataka 9.65 -2.11 6.83 9.95 4.37 -14.23 -22.17 -19.85 6.77 5.26 -0.81 5.10
Kerala 16.99 17.48 16.16 25.38 288.8 191.6 -22.58 -9.61 -99.01 -60.15
Madhya 6.00 -20.38 41.81 1.39 1.88 14.52 14.84 2.84 42.18 21.79 42.39 42.49 Pradesh Maharashtra -20.34 0.56 4.82 6.31 26.34 105.96 169.30 16.72 52.88 23.10 25.59
Manipur 0.00 7.17 1.05 3.96 9.09 12.09 -61.29 -73.61 -3.64 -34.71
Meghalaya 12.20 9.22 9.50 26.09 12.77 3.46 12.07 4.04 2.94 19.69 22.32
Mizoram -3.89 0.00 0.27 0.16 42.53 -15.60 -23.08 -30.56 0.00 0.00 1.87 0.79
MaulanaNagaland Azad9.51 12.50 Library,-1.73 -7.35 4.11Aligarh -2.99 2.28 Muslim0.86 7.46 7.06University 12.13 9.25
Odisha 29.59 -4.17 -7.41 -7.47 0.75 -4.37 59.33 12.41 -8.45 -7.86 -5.73 -4.60
Punjab 89.67 11.60 4.32 3.57 5.20 7.51 7.31 11.34 18.99 26.52 6.33 7.67
Rajasthan 32.61 18.12 -57.32 -63.20 27.81 40.51 19.90 60.20 35.77 39.45 27.12 12.99
Sikkim 13.36 1070.59 -5.79 -12.13 15.79 20.93 28.22 28.86 -5.41 -4.96 -34.65 -43.83
147 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
Brinjal Cabbage Onion Potato Cauliflower Tomato State A P A P A P A P A P A P
Tamil Nadu -2.43 87.02 66.07 60.68 24.47 33.66 -30.49 -50.44 34.62 65.91 52.86 156.01
Telangana 73.61 -22.74 4.59 18.38 -56.39 -39.99 -16.11 4.50 18.18 68.00 0.85 26.31
Tripura 34.97 24.73 -5.18 -4.61 -72.73 -47.10 -15.82 -20.22 -8.56 8.71 -2.19 20.99 Uttar 0.64 73.72 257.02 241.05 3.70 2.47 0.63 -6.47 35.37 55.23 99.24 99.68 Pradesh Uttrakhand -11.09 -4.06 -9.86 -7.35 0.80 -8.67 -20.82 -4.97 0.50 -9.41 -19.20
West 1.12 0.74 2.89 12.72 22.44 2.50 -8.10 0.27 0.51 0.79 7.27 Bengal
Source: Calculated from tables in the book of Ministry of agriculture GOI
In the above table, Jammu and Kashmir shows negative or no change in percentage of area and production of different vegetables from 2010 to 2017. While most of the states in India show a negative change both in area and production of vegetables. Punjab and Uttar Pradesh shows a positive growth of vegetable area and production; both these states are performing well among all other states of India.
5.2.4. State-wise Productivityof Various Fruits in India
The productivity has been calculated by the following formula
Table 5.8: State wise productivity of various fruits in India
(MT/Hec.)
Average Productivity of Fruits in various States from 2010-11 to 2016-17
S.N States Almonds Apple Lemon Grapes Mango Strawberry Walnut Andhra 1 15.18 19.37 9 Pradesh Arunachal 2 1.77 2.67 0.4 0.4 Pradesh 3 Assam 8.53 13.78 10.14
4 Bihar 7.16 8.56 9.41
Maulana5 Chhattisgarh Azad Library,7.35 Aligarh14.51 5.85 Muslim University
6 Goa
7 Gujarat 3.69 24.31 8.11
8 Haryana 4.33 10.33 11.68
9 Himachal 0.17 5.72 0.59 1.48 1.07 7.01 0.42
148 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
Average Productivity of Fruits in various States from 2010-11 to 2016-17
S.N States Almonds Apple Lemon Grapes Mango Strawberry Walnut Pradesh
Jammu and 10 0.9 11.01 2.37 2.36 1.81 0.83 2.82 Kashmir 11 Jharkhand 9.85 8.71
12 Karnataka 23.37 18.72 9.46
13 Kerala 10.19 5.54 7.83
Madhya 14 15.65 15.57 13.49 0.33 Pradesh 15 Maharashtra 9.58 22.63 3.65 6.43
16 Manipur 9.06
17 Meghalaya 4.81 7.15
18 Mizoram 3.2 4.73 7.57
19 Nagaland 5.47 7.83 3.42 6.7
20 Odisha 9.74 3.97
21 Punjab 7.7 28.42 16.83
22 Rajasthan 6.08 1.67 15.8
23 Sikkim 0.2
24 Tamil Nadu 2.91 7 7.33
25 Telangana 18.68 9.22
26 Tripura 4.99 5.22
Uttar 27 17.21 Pradesh 28 Uttrakhand 2.75 1.4 4.01 1.13
29 West Bengal 8.03
Source: M/o Stat. and Implementation
Jammu and Kashmir is the only state having an advantage on other states in almonds walnut and apple. J&K has the highest productivity in apple followed by walnuts and lemon. Comparing with Himachal, J&K leads in productivity of all fruits except in Maulanastrawbe rry.Azad The productivity Library, of apple Aligarh in J&K is twice Muslim than Himachal University and about five times more than Uttrakhand. J&K is performing better in productivity of fruits than the northeastern states also.
149 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
5.2.5. State-wise Productivity of Vegetables in India
This section provides information about the average productivity of vegetables among different states of India. Table 5.9 shows that Uttar Pradesh has the highest productivity in brinjal, Tamil Nadu in cabbage, J&K in cauliflower, Gujarat in onion, Punjab in potato and Himachal in tomato. North eastern states are lagging among all other states in the productivity of vegetables.
Table 5.9: State wise productivity of various vegetables in India
(MT/Hec.)
State wise Average Productivity of some vegetables
S.N State Brinjal Cabbage Cauliflower Onion Potato Tomato
1 Andhra Pradesh 23.9 17.8 13.5 18.9 15.5 34.3
2 Arunachal Pradesh 3.8 16.3 16.7 5 18.8
3 Assam 16.1 21.7 20.7 8.4 12.4 23.8
4 Bihar 19.8 17.8 15.3 23.1 19.6 21.9
5 Chhattisgarh 18.1 18.6 18.8 15.9 15.3 16.6
6 Gujarat 19.9 21.8 21.8 25.5 31.1 28.4
7 Haryana 19.8 15.2 16.3 23.3 25.2 24
8 Himachal Pradesh 22.5 33.2 23.1 18.4 12 43.3
9 Jammu and Kashmir 22.4 29.4 26.2 22.9 18.4 24.6
10 Jharkhand 11.6 15.6 13.8 17.7 13 11.3
11 Karnataka 25.3 21.2 17.4 15.2 13.6 32.9
12 Kerala 12.4 17.5 13.2 1.7 16.1 11.2
13 Madhya Pradesh 23 23.9 25.9 25.1 21.6 31
14 Maharashtra 19.8 20.6 18 13 20.7 21.8
15 Meghalaya 13.9 21.8 24.2 8.7 10.4 18.5
16 Manipur 12 10.9 13.3 10.3 Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 17 Mizoram 7.4 13.3 8.3 5.2 10.7 9.4
18 Nagaland 8.1 19.2 7.9 10.6 13.3 7.2
19 Odisha 17.1 28.1 15.1 11.5 13.4 14.3
20 Punjab 21.5 17.9 18.1 22.7 25.7 24.7
150 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
State wise Average Productivity of some vegetables
S.N State Brinjal Cabbage Cauliflower Onion Potato Tomato
21 Rajasthan 4.4 5.3 4.1 16.1 14.7 4.2
22 Sikkim 4.3 5.8 5.4 5.4 4.9 8.1
23 Tamil Nadu 13 56.4 24.2 10.2 18.3 18.8
24 Telangana 19.2 16.1 13.5 18.5 21.2 23.7
25 Tripura 18 26.4 23.2 6.4 17 27.8
26 Uttar Pradesh 34.3 34.4 22.8 16.8 23.4 39.5
27 Uttrakhand 9.6 11.3 12.5 10 14.5 11.3
28 West Bengal 18.5 28.5 25.5 15.7 25 20.9
Source: Directorate of Marketing and Inspection (DMI) upto 2009, National Horticulture Board (NHB), National Horticulture Mission (NHM) & Ministry of Food Processing
On comparing J&K with the neighboring state Himachal Pradesh, it is found that J&K has higher productivity in cauliflower, onion, and potato while as the reverse is the case for brinjal, cabbage and tomato. Although Jammu and Kashmir is competing with all the states in productivity of all the varieties of vegetables but they are not extensively grown there as both area, and production shows a stagnant growth. It may be because of the lack of proper irrigation system, topography, and climate of the state.
5.3. Certain Intra State Comparisons
In this section,some intra-state comparisons of J&K state have been made to understand the disparity within the state in area, production, and productivity of horticultural products. The comparison has been made at divisional and district level. As we know that there are three divisions of the state Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh that are based on the difference in topography and climate. First we saw the disparity in horticultural products among these three divisions, and later on, district level Maulanadisparity Azad shall be seenLibrary, within the division.Aligarh This disparity Muslim is shown University based on the calculated growth rates by compound annual growth rate (CAGR) formula as under:
151 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
( )
Where, CAGR = Compound Annual Growth Rate
= Final Value
= Initial Value
t = Number of years
5.3.1. CAGR of Horticulture Area in Kashmir Division
This section depicts the disparity in horticulture area within Kashmir division. Table 5.10 shows inter-district disparity in growth of horticulture area of different fruit crops in Kashmir valley. There are ten districts in the Kashmir division as mentioned in the table below. This table also depicts variety wise disparity of fruit crops among the districts of Kashmir valley.
Table 5.10: CAGR of horticulture area in Kashmir Division
Fresh fruits Dry fruits All fruits
District Apple Pear Apricot Peach Plum Cherry Almond Walnut Overall
Srinagar -0.06 -0.02 -0.07 0.03 -0.09 -0.06 -0.97 -1 -0.28
Budgam 0.03 0.01 -0.02 -0.16 -0.03 -0.16 -0.95 -0.99 -0.28
Baramulla 0 0.01 0 0 0 -0.01 -0.94 -0.97 -0.24
Kupwara 0.02 0.02 0.07 0.02 0.02 0.01 -0.92 -0.9 -0.21
Anantnag 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.1 0.06 -0.01 -1 -0.93 -0.22
Pulwama 0 0.07 0.04 0.09 0.07 -0.08 -0.96 -0.94 -0.21
Ganderbal -0.14 -0.16 -0.1 -0.04 -0.11 0 -0.81 -0.95 -0.29
Kulgam -0.15 -0.15 -0.17 -0.16 -0.18 -0.17 -0.88 -0.97 -0.35 MaulanaBandipora -0.19 Azad-0.14 Library,0.02 0.06 0Aligarh -0.07 Muslim0 -0.98 University-0.16 Shopian -0.2 -0.17 -0.1 0.09 0.1 -0.19 -0.98 -0.97 -0.30
Overall -0.068 -0.052 -0.031 0.003 -0.016 -0.074 -0.841 -0.96 -0.25
Source: Calculated from the tables in Digest of Statistics Govt. of J&K 2017.
152 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
Shopian shows a highest decrease in apple area followed by Bandipora, Kupwara, Budgam, and Anantnag shows slight growth in apple area. Baramulla and Pulwama show stagnant growth in apple area. Srinagar, Ganderbal, Kulgam, Bandipora, and Shopian show negative growth in pear area while as Budgam, Baramulla, Kupwara, Anantnag and Pulwama show positive growth in the pear area. The growth of apricot area ranges from -0.17 to 0.7 with Kulgam as highest negative growth and Kupwara as highest positive growth. In terms of peach area Budgam, Ganderbal and Kulgam shows a negative growth while other districts show a positive growth Pulwama and Shopian as highest growth. Srinagar, Ganderbal, Budgam, and Kulgam show negative growth in the area of plum while the rest of the districts shows positive growth in the plum area.Kupwara is the only district that shows slight positive growth in the cherry area and Ganderbal shows a stagnant growth in cherry area while all other districts show negative growth in the cherry area. In all the districts almond area is decreasing except Bandipora which shows a stagnant growth in the almond area. All the districts in Kashmir Valley show negative growth in the walnut area.
The highest decrease in area is shown by walnut followed by almond and apple respectively. Peach shows a negligible increase in area in Kashmir division. The horticulture area of all the districts is decreasing with Kulgam in highest decrease followed by Ganderbal and Srinagar. The overall decrease in the horticulture area of Kashmir division is -0.25 percent.
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153 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
Fig. 5.4: Bar Charts CAGR of horticulture area in Kashmir Division
0.05 0.1 0 0.05 -0.05 0
-0.1 Srinagar Apple -0.05 Pear
Anantnag
Baramulla Ganderbal Bandipora
Kulgam
Shopian Srinagar
-0.15 -0.1 Budgam
Kupwara
Pulwama
Anantnag
Ganderbal
Baramulla Bandipora -0.2 -0.15 -0.25 -0.2
0.1 0.15 0.05 0.1 0.05 0 0 -0.05 Apricot Peach -0.05
-0.1 Srinagar
Anantnag -0.1
Ganderbal
Baramulla Bandipora
Kulgam
Shopian
Srinagar Budgam
Kupwara
Pulwama
Anantnag
Ganderbal Bandipora -0.15 -0.15 Baramulla -0.2 -0.2
-0.85 0 -0.2
-0.9 Srinagar
Srinagar -0.4
Anantnag Anantnag
Ganderbal Ganderbal
Bandipora Baramulla Bandipora Baramulla -0.95 walnut -0.6 Almond -0.8 -1 -1 -1.05 -1.2
Source: Table 5.10
5.3.2. CAGR of Horticulture Area of Ladakh Division
This section will show the scenario of horticulture area in Ladakh division that has two districts Leh and Kargil. The disparity in the horticulture area between these two districts is shown in table 5.11 below.
Kargil shows negative growth in walnut and almond area while Leh has positive Maulanagrowth. The marginal Azad increase Library, in the area Aligarh of apple, pear, Muslim apricot, and peachUniversity of Kargilis more than Leh. Peach and almond shows a stagnant growth in Leh.
154 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
Table 5.11: CAGR of horticulture area in Ladakh
Fruits Leh Kargil 0.16 0.14 Apple 0.03 0.11 0.12 Pear 0.03 0.15 0.1 0.08 Leh Apricot 0.01 0.01 0.06 Kargil Peach 0 0.04 0.04 0.02 Walnut 0.003 -0.004 0
-0.02
Pear Peach
Almond 0 -0.025 Apple
Walnut Apricot -0.04 Almond Source: Calculated from the tables in Digest of Statistics Govt. of J&K 2017.
Pear shows the highest peak in the graph while walnut and almond are on the side of negative quadrant for both the districts.
5.3.3. CAGR of horticulture area in Jammu
This section portrays the disparity in the horticulture area among ten districts of Jammu division. The calculated CAGR rates try to decipher the difference among districts in the horticulture area of Jammu division.
Table 5.12: CAGR of horticulture area in Jammu Division
Fresh Fruits Dry Fruits All Fruits
Districts Apple Pear Apricot Peach Plum Cherry Mango Walnut Almond Overall
Jammu 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.03 0 0 0.00
Kathua 0.03 0.01 0.1 0 0.04 0 0.08 0.02 -0.02 0.03
Poonch 0.04 0.02 -0.02 0.01 0.03 -1 -1 0.01 -1 -0.32
Udhampur 0 -0.01 0.03 0 -0.02 -1 -0.02 -0.01 -0.05 -0.12
Doda 0.01 -0.03 -0.04 -0.08 -0.04 -1 0 -0.02 -0.09 -0.14
Rajouri 0.12 0.05 0.12 0.05 0.05 0 0.06 0.02 -0.04 0.05 MaulanaSamba Azad0 0.19 Library, 0 0.14 Aligarh0.3 0 Muslim0.01 0 University0 0.07 Reasi 0.03 0.01 -0.01 -0.04 0 0 0.03 0.03 -0.14 -0.01
Kishtwar 0.07 -0.08 0.14 0.05 0.15 -1 0 0.03 -1 -0.18
Ramban 0.04 0.05 0.11 0 0.05 -1 0 0.06 -0.32 -0.11
Overall 0.034 0.021 0.043 0.013 0.056 -0.5 -0.081 0.014 -0.266 -0.07
Source: Calculated from the tables in Digest of Statistics Govt. of J&K 2017.
155 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
Apple area shows slight positive growth in all the districts of Jammu division expect Jammu, Udhampur and Samba districts that have stagnant CAGR. Rajouri shows the highest growth in apple area, the overall growth of the apple area in the division is 0.034. Udhampur, Doda, and Kishtwarshow negative growth in pear area while other districts show positive growth. The overall growth in pear area of the division is positive. There is negative growth of the apricot area in Poonch, Doda and Reasi and stagnant growth in Jammu and Samba. The overall apricot area shows a malignant growth in the Jammu division. The peach area has adverse growth in Doda and Reasi while as zero growth in Jammu, Kathua, and Ramban. Samba, Rajouri, Poonch, Kathua, and Kishtwar shows some sort of positive growth in the peach area. Most of the districts show a negligible positive growth in the plum area with Jammu as zero growth and Udhampur and Doda as negative growth. The area of cherry is decreasing in the Jammu division. Jammu, Kathua, Rajouri, Samba, and Reasishow an increase in mango area while Poonch and Udhampur show a decrease in the mango area. Doda, Kishtwar, and Ramban have stagnant growth in mango area. At divisional level, there is zero growth in mango area in Jammu. Walnut area of Udhampur and Doda is decreasing while for other districts it is increasing at a mild rate. The overall growth of the walnut area is positive in Jammu division. All the districts of Jammu division show negative growth in the almond area except Jammu and Samba that have stagnant growth.
The best performing fruit in terms of area in Jammu division is apricot followed by walnut, and the least performance is shown by cherry and almond. The best performing district in increasing the horticulture area is Rajouri and Samba while least performing districts are Poonch and Kishtwar.
On comparing the overall horticultural area of Jammu and Kashmir divisions we found that:
Overall CAGR of horticulture area of Kashmir division = - 0.25
Overall CAGR of horticulture area of Jammu division = -0.07
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156 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
It indicates that Kashmir division has 3.4 times worse condition in the decrease of horticulture area than Jammu division. This can be possible because of the un-toward activities prevailing in Kashmir valley or progress towards high yielding varieties of horticulture.
Fig. 5.5: Bar Charts CAGR of horticulture area in Jammu Division
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
Source: Table 5.12
157 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
5.4. CAGR of Horticulture Production in Kashmir Division
In this section, we will discuss the disparity in production of horticulture in Kashmir division. This section will depict the interstate disparity in horticulture production in Kashmir vale. The below table depicts that CAGR of production of fresh and dry fruits in ten districts of Kashmir division.
Table 5.13: CAGR of horticulture production in Kashmir Division
Fresh Fruits Dry fruits All fruits
Districts Apple Pear Apricot Peach Plum Cherry Walnut Almond Overall
Srinagar -0.05 -0.03 -0.13 0.05 -0.1 -0.05 -0.1 -0.06 -0.06
Budgam 0.07 0.08 -0.04 -1 0.06 -1 0.05 -0.03 -0.23
Baramulla -0.01 0.1 0.07 0.09 0 0.05 0.01 0.23 0.07
Kupwara 0.1 0.08 0.06 -0.01 0.05 -0.01 0.12 0 0.05
Anantnag 0.01 -0.02 0.05 0.07 0.03 -0.05 0.02 -0.26 -0.02
Pulwama 0.01 0.05 0.12 0.19 0.08 -0.07 0.02 -0.02 0.05
Ganderbal 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.09 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.03 0.06
Bandipora 0.02 0.07 0.11 0.09 0 -0.09 0 0.07 0.03
Kulgam 0.08 0.04 -0.05 0 -0.04 -0.09 0.03 0 0.00
Shopian 0.01 0.02 -0.06 0.13 0.12 -0.12 0.06 -0.02 0.02
Overall 0.03 0.02 0.02 -0.03 0.03 -0.14 0.03 -0.01 0.00
Source: Calculated from the tables in Digest of Statistics Govt. of J&K 2017.
Apple production shows negative growth in Srinagar and Baramulla while other districts show positive growth in apple production with the highest growth of apple production in Kulgam. On an overall basis, apple production shows positive growth in Kashmir division. Pear has a negative growth in Srinagar, and Anantnag shows negative growth in pear production while other districts have positive growth in Maulanaproduction of pear.Azad The overall Library, production Aligarh of the pear in theMuslim Kashmir division University in positive.There is negative growth of apricot production in Srinagar, Budgam, Kulgam, and Shopian, while other districts show positive growth. The overall growth of apricot production in the valley is positive. Peach production shows negative growth in Kashmir division with Budgam and Kupwara on a negative scale. Srinagar and
158 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
Kulgam are the only districts in Kashmir division that show negative growth in production of plums. The cherry production is also decreasing in the Kashmir division with most of the districts having negative production. Srinagar is the only district having negative growth in production of walnut while as all other districts have positive growth. On overall terms, walnut production has a positive growth in this division. Almond production shows a negative growth in this division with the highest negative growth in Anantnag followed by Baramulla.
The overall growth of horticulture production in Kashmir division is stagnant with apple and walnut best performing and cherry least performing fruits. Baramulla is the best performing district, and Budgam is the least performing district in the vale in terms of horticulture production.
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159 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
Fig. 5.6: Bar Charts CAGR of horticulture production in Kashmir Division
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Source: Table 5.13
160 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
5.4.1. CAGR of Horticulture Production in Ladakh
In Ladakh division, Kargil is a better performing district in the overall production of all the fruits. The alarming scene is that apricot production is showing a decreasing trend in Leh district. Production of apple shows an increase both in Leh and Kargil. There is no growth of almonds in both districts.
Table 5.14: CAGR of horticulture production in Ladakh
CAGR Production 0.1 Fruit Leh Kargil 0.08
Apple 0.02 0.09 0.06
Pear 0.02 0.02 0.04 Leh Apricot -0.02 0.07 0.02 Kargil
Peach 0.01 0.01 0
Walnut 0.00 0.01 -0.02
Almond 0.00 0.00 -0.04
Source: Calculated from the tables in Digest of Statistics Govt. of J&K 2017.
As depicted in graph apple and apricot are best performing fruit and Kargil is the best performing district in the production of horticulture in the Ladakh region.
5.4.2. CAGR of Horticulture Production in Jammu Division
In this section, the CAGR of horticulture production of Jammu division is depicted. This division contains ten districts the district level disparity in horticulture production is elaborated in table 5.15
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161 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
Table 5.15: CAGR of horticulture production in Jammu Division
Fresh Fruits Dry Fruits All fruits
District Apple Pear Apricot Peach Plum Mango Walnut Almond Overall Jammu 0 0 0 0.06 0 0.09 0 0 0.02 Kathua 0.02 0 0.01 -0.09 0.01 0.04 0.07 0 0.01 Doda 0.06 0.07 0.09 0 0.02 0 0.12 -1 -0.08 Poonch 0 -0.03 0.19 0.03 0 0 0.06 -1 -0.09 Rajouri 0.17 0.18 0.21 0.12 0.18 0.02 0.15 -1 0.00 Udhampur 0.02 0.06 0.07 0.04 0.02 0.15 0.09 0 0.06 Samba 0 0 0 0.15 0 -0.09 0 0 0.01 Reasi 0.1 0.18 0 0.06 0.12 0.17 0.06 0 0.09 Kishtwar 0.08 -0.01 0.25 0.21 0.32 0 0.13 -1 0.00 Ramban 0.11 -0.13 0.22 -0.11 -0.22 0 0.1 -1 -0.13 Overall 0.056 0.032 0.104 0.047 0.045 0.038 0.078 -0.5 -0.01
Source: Calculated from the tables in Digest of Statistics Govt. of J&K 2017.
The production of apple in Jammu division shows positive growth with none of the district in negative growth. Jammu, Samba and Poonch show stagnant growth in apple production with Rajouri as the highest level of production. Poonch, Kishtwar, and Ramban show negative growth in pear production. Jammu, Kathua, and Samba show a stagnant growth while other districts show positive growth in the production of pears. Apricot production shows positive growth in all the districts except for Jammu, Samba and Reasi where it has a steady state growth. Only Kathua and Ramban show negative growth in peach production while all other districts of Jammu division show positive growth in peach production. Kishtwar leads in the growth of plum production while Ramban retreats negative plum growth. The overall plum production in the division in positive.Reasi shows the highest growth in the production of mango followed by Udhampur and Jammu. All the districts show the positive growth in production of walnut with Jammu and Samba having zero growth. Almond production Maulanashows steep negative Azad growth Library, in the Jammu division. Aligarh Muslim University Jammu division is best performing in apricot and walnut. The best performing district in horticulture production in Jammu division is Reasi, and the least performing district is Ramban.
162 Chapter 5: Status of Jammu and Kashmir: Certain Inter State Comparisons of Horticulture in India
Fig. 5.7: Bar Charts CAGR of horticulture production in Jammu Division
0.2 0.2 0.15 0.15 0.1 0.1 0.05 0.05 Apple Pear 0 0
-0.05
Doda
Reasi
Doda
Reasi
Samba
Jammu Kathua
Poonch Rajouri
Samba -0.1
Kathua
Jammu
Poonch Rajouri
Ramban
Ramban
Kishtiwar
Kishtiwar Udhampur
Udhampur -0.15
0.3 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.1 0.05 Apricot Peach 0 0
-0.1
Doda
Reasi
Doda
Samba
Jammu Kathua
Poonch Rajouri
Samba
Jammu
Rajouri
Ramban
Kishtiwar Kishtiwar -0.2 Udhampur
0.4 0.2 0.3 0.15 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.05 Plum Mango 0 0
-0.1 -0.05
Doda Doda
Reasi
Samba Samba
Kathua
Jammu Jammu
Rajouri Rajouri
-0.2 Poonch -0.1
Ramban
Kishtiwar Kishtiwar -0.3 Udhampur -0.15
0 0.2
-0.2 0.15
Doda
Samba Jammu
-0.4 Rajouri 0.1 Kishtiwar -0.6 Almond 0.05 Walnut -0.8 0
-1 Doda
Samba
Jammu Rajouri
-1.2 Kishtiwar
Source: Table 5.15 Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
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5.4.3. Comparison Based on Productivity
In this section, comparison has been made on the basis of productivity in horticulture crops between Kashmir and Jammu divisions. The disparity is calculated based on CAGR growth rates of productivity from 2010 to 2017. Thus the difference in CAGR shall provide reliable information about the variation and inequality of horticulture products between the two divisions.
Table 5.16: CAGR of productivity of horticulture in Kashmir and Jammu Division
Kashmir Fresh fruits Dry fruits All fruits Division District Apple Pear Apricot Peach Plum Cherry Almond Walnut Overall Srinagar 0.83 1.5 1.86 1.67 1.11 0.83 0.06 0.1 1 Budgam 2.33 8 2 6.25 -2 6.25 0.03 -0.05 2.85 Baramulla 0 10 0 0 0 -5 -0.24 -0.01 0.59 Kupwara 5 4 0.86 -0.5 2.5 -1 0 -0.13 1.34 Anantnag 1 -2 2.5 0.7 0.5 5 0.26 -0.02 0.99 Pulwama 0 0.71 3 2.11 1.14 0.88 0.02 -0.02 0.98 Ganderbal -0.43 -0.31 -0.4 -2.25 -0.64 0 -0.04 -0.06 -0.52 Kulgam -0.13 -0.47 -0.65 -0.56 0 0.53 -0.08 0 -0.17 Bandipora -0.42 -0.29 -2.5 0 0 1.29 0 -0.03 -0.24 Shopian -0.05 -0.12 0.6 1.44 1.2 0.63 0.02 -0.06 0.46 Overall 0.81 -2.1 0.73 0.89 0.38 0.94 0 -0.03 0.73 Jammu Fresh Fruits Dry Fruits All fruits Division District Apple Pear Apricot Peach Plum Mango Walnut Almond Overall Jammu 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0.38 Kathua 0.67 0 0.1 0 0.25 0.5 3.5 0 0.63 Doda -1.5 3.5 -4.5 0 0.67 0 12 -1 1.77 Poonch 0 3 6.33 0 0 0 -6 -20 2.92 Rajouri 17 -6 -5.25 -1.5 -4.5 0 -7.5 -11.11 0.42 Udhampur 0.17 1.2 0.58 0.8 0.4 2.5 4.5 0 1.27 Samba 0 0 0 1.07 0 -9 0 0 -0.99 Reasi -3.33 18 0 -1.5 0 5.67 2 0 3.44 MaulanaKishtwar 1.14 Azad 0.1 1.79Library, 4.2 2.13 Aligarh 0 - 4.33Muslim -1 University1.84 Ramban -2.75 -2.6 2 0 -4.4 0 -1.67 -3.13 0.32 Overall -2.66 -1.72 0.11 0.31 -0.55 0.27 -1.45 -3.62 -1.2
Source: calculated from the data on horticulture productivity in Digest of Statistics J&K Govt. 2017.
164
Chapter
6
Analysis and Maulana Azad Library,Interpretation Aligarh Muslim University Chapter 6: Analysis and Interpretation
CHAPTER 6
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
Analysis and interpretation are essential steps in the research process. The aim of the analysis is to organize, classify, interpret and summarize the collected data. Analysis refers to operations performed with the purpose of summarizing the collected data and organizing it in such a manner for providing answers to the research question. The analysis involves organizing the data that explains facts and figures. Analysis is not fulfilled without interpretation and interpretation cannot proceed without analysis. So, both are interdependent.
This chapter deals with the analysis, interpretations, and results of primary data collected from 360 sample farmers/ households in Jammu and Kashmir State. Hypotheses have been tested based on the findings of the study, and conclusions were drawn accordingly.
6.1. Descriptive Analysis
Percentage analysis is one of the statistical measures used to describe the characteristics of the sample in totality. Detailed analysis of socio-economic and demographic profile of fruit growers of the state is given as under:
Table 6.1: Gender of Growers Fig. 6.1: Pie chart depicting gender of Growers
Gender Frequency Percentage Male Female
Male 350 97.2 3%
Female 10 2.8 97% Total 360 100.0
Source: Compiled Survey data
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University From the above table 6.1, it is seen that 97.2 percent of the growers are male and 2.8 growers are female. It indicates that society is patriarchal in nature where all activities are dominated by male members. Thus the majority of the families are headed by male growers than that of female counterparts.
166 Chapter 6: Analysis and Interpretation
Table 6.2: Age Group of Growers Fig. 6.2: Bar chart showing age group of Growers
Age Frequency Percentage 40.0 37.5 30.0 <25 28 7.8 30.0 24.7 20.0 25-35 108 30.0 7.8 10.0 35-50 135 37.5 0.0 <25 26-40 41-50 >50 >50 89 24.7 <25 26-40 41-50 >50 Total 360 100.0
Source: Compiled Survey data
From table 6.2, 7.8 percent of the growers belong to the age group less than 25 years which is the lowest. 37.5 percent belong to the age group of 35-50 years which is the highest; this age group dominates in the economic activities of horticulture in the state.
Table 6.3: Education of Growers Fig. 6.3: Bar chart showing Education of Growers Education Frequency Percentage 80.0 Level 62.2 60.0 ≤ 10th 224 62.2 40.0 28.3 12th 102 28.3 20.0 9.4 0.0 Graduate or 34 9.4 12th Graduate or Above ≤ 10th Above Total 360 100.0
≤ 10th 12th Graduate or Above
Source: Compiled Survey data
Education enables the farmers directly or indirectly to set up production. If the farmers are educated, they can update themselves about farming, use of technology, irrigation methods by reading and training. Besides they can also exchange their views and knowledge with other growers around them. Education will add to their economies of scale. On the other hand, if farmers are uneducated, they will not be as open as educated farmers in the social setup. They may not be able to use the available schemes and techniques of production. The above table 4.3 shows the level Maulanaof education of horticultureAzad growersLibrary, of J&K state.Aligarh Muslim University
Out of 360 growers, 9.4 percent of the growers are Graduate which is least, and 62.2 percent are educated upto or equal to 10th standard. The highest percentage being under 10th level cannot reap the real and pecuniary benefits of education in growing the horticulture crops in the State.
167 Chapter 6: Analysis and Interpretation
Table 6.4: Occupation of Sample Fig. 6.4: Bars showing Occupation Population of Sample Population
Occupation Frequency Percentage 80.0 72.8 60.0 Growing 262 72.8 40.0 20.0 Trade 26 7.2 20.0 7.2 Services 72 20.0 0.0 Growing Trade Services Total 360 100.0
Growing Trade Services
Source: Compiled Survey data From the above table 6.4, 72.8 percent of the population is engaged in growing of horticulture crops. While 7.2 percent of the population is engaged in the horticulture trade and 20 percent population are doing services and also working with horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir.
Table 6.5: Family Type Fig. 6.5: Bars showing the type of the family Family Type Frequency Percentage 100.0 62.8 Nuclear 108 30.0 50.0 30.0 Intermediate 226 62.8 7.2 0.0 Joint 26 7.2 Nuclear Intermediate Joint Total 360 100.0 Nuclear Intermediate Joint
Source: Compiled Survey data
The above table shows the type of family of sample growers. Out of 360 sample growers, 30 percent are of nuclear family while 62.8 percent belong to the intermediate family which is highest. Only 7.2 percent belong to the joint family.
Table 6.6: Annual Family Income Fig. 6.6: Bars showing the annual income of Growers Annual Family Frequency Percentage 60.0 56.7 Income (in Lakh) ≤1 108 30.0 40.0 30.0
Maulana1 toAzad 5 Library,204 56.7 Aligarh 20.0 Muslim University13.3
≥5 48 13.3 0.0 ≤1 1 to 5 ≥5 Total 360 100.0 ≤1 1 to 5 ≥5
Source: Compiled Survey data
168 Chapter 6: Analysis and Interpretation
Table 4.6 shows the annual income distribution of sample farmers. The majority of the income group ranges from 1 to 5 lakhs with about 56.7 percent of the sample. 13.3 percent of the sample population has income of more than five lakhs.
Table 6.7: Land Area Fig. 6.7: Pie chart showing the land area Land Area Frequency Percentage (in Kanals) Land Area ≤5 46 12.8 ≤5 5 to 10 ≥10 5 to 10 241 66.9 13%
≥10 73 20.3 20% Total 360 100.0
67%
Source: Compiled Survey data
Size of land holding decides the use of economies of scale, technology, better irrigation, high yielding varieties used for the cultivation. Table 6.7 shows the distribution of land holding size under horticulture among the population of the study. Majority of the growers holds between 5 to 10kanals of land. 12.8 percent of the sample population holds less than fivekanals of land. In other words the majority of the population has marginal holdings.
Table 6.8: Soil Type Fig. 6.8: Bar chart showing the different soil types
Soil Type Frequency Percentage 100.0 Sandy/Loamy Soil Sandy/Loamy Soil 41 11.4 Sur zamin (vegetable soil) Sur Zamin Alluvial Soil 60.0 49 13.6 (vegetable soil) Wudur (Kerawa Soil) 50.0 Alluvial Soil 54 15.0 Wudur 216 60.0 13.6 15.0 (Karewas Soil) 11.4 Total 360 100.0 0.0
MaulanaSource: Compiled SurveyAzad data Library, Aligarh Muslim University
Soil type plays an important role in the cultivation of apple, mango, and apricots in the state. Alluvial and Wudur soils are suitable for horticulture cultivation in the state. In all these types of the soil different horticulture crops are grown. The other types of soils such as tand, nambal, etc. are not suitable for horticulture cultivation in the state.
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Table 6.9: Irrigation Source Fig. 6.9: Bar chart showing the sources of irrigation Irrigation Frequency Percentage 70.0 Source 62.8 60.0 Rainfall 226 62.8 50.0 Canals 84 23.3 40.0 30.0 23.3 Streams 42 11.7 20.0 11.7 10.0 2.2 Well/tube well 8 2.2 0.0
Total 360 100.0 Rainfall Canals Streams Well/tubewell
Source: Compiled Survey data
Table 6.9 shows the sources of irrigation available to the sample growers in the study area. As most of the area under horticulture is dependent on rainfall, i.e.,about63 percent, for irrigation, it leads adversity to sample growers in the production and productivity of horticulture crops.
Table 6.10 shows the land use pattern in three regions of the Jammu and Kashmir state; it is seen that the percentage of irrigated land is less than un-irrigated one. Kashmir division has the highest percentage of irrigated land, and about 43.25 percent of the land is irrigated in this division followed by Jammu division with 40.2 percent as irrigated land and Ladakh division has least irrigated land of about 24.7 percent. The highest percentage of un-irrigated land is that of Ladakh division followed by Jammu and then by Kashmir. In Jammu division, about 96.2 percent of the orchard area is un-irrigated followed by Ladakh and Kashmir.
Table 6.10: Land Use Pattern
Jammu Division
Percentage Productivity Q/Kanal Particulars Irrigated Un-irrigated Irrigated Un-irrigated MaulanaOrchard Azadarea Library,3.8 Aligarh96.2 Muslim12.3 University10.3 Field crops 76.6 23.4 5.2 0.9
Fallow land 0 0 0 0
Total 40.2 59.8 8.75 5.6
170 Chapter 6: Analysis and Interpretation
Kashmir Division
Percentage Productivity Q/Kanal Particulars Irrigated Un-irrigated Irrigated Un-irrigated
Orchard area 5.2 92.8 14.3 12.3
Field crops 84.3 15.7 4.6 0.8
Fallow land 0 0 0 0
Total 43.25 56.75 9.45 6.55
Ladakh Division
Percentage Productivity Q/Kanal Particulars Irrigated Un-irrigated Irrigated Un-irrigated
Orchard area 0.2 96.8 8.3 7.3
Field crops 1.3 5.7 4.6 0.8
Fallow land 0 0 0 0
Total 24.7 62.4 6.2 4.6
Source: Compiled Survey data
There is no significant difference in irrigated and un- irrigated orchard productivity in Jammu and Kashmir, but there exists a significant difference in the productivity of irrigated field crops in the three divisions. Kashmir division has the highest productivity of Orchard area followed by Jammu and Ladakh. It implies that the irrigation doesn’thave much impact on the productivity of traditional orchards in Jammu and Kashmir.
Table 6.11 shows the record of horticulture plantation in three divisions of the state. From Jammu division varieties of Mango has been taken and is found that the highest percentage of mango variety grown is Dasheri about 66.2 percent followed by MaulanaLangrah. Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
171 Chapter 6: Analysis and Interpretation
Table 6.11: Record of Horticulture (Mango/Apple/Apricot) Plantation
Jammu Division
Mango variety Particulars Dasheri Langrah Malda Kaser Other
Area (Percentage) 66.2 30.6 4.2 2 0.5
Mean Area (kanals) 4.2 1.8 0.27 0.12 0.03 No. of plants 76.5 14.2 9.86 0 0 (Percentage) Mean No. of Plants 23.5 4.25 2.82 0 0 Mean Year of 1984 1984 1987 1998 1994 Plantation Previous use of land Maize/Wheat Maize/Wheat Maize/Wheat Maize/Wheat Maize/Wheat
Kashmir Division
Apple Variety Particulars Delicious American Maharaji Golden Other
Area (Percentage) 78.25 17.69 1.11 0.32 O.32
Mean Area (kanals) 8.2 1.8 0.27 0.12 0.03 No. of plants 94.5 42.2 0.86 0 0 (Percentage) Mean No. of Plants 203.5 9.25 1.86 0 0 Mean Year of 1987 1987 1987 1990 1991 plantation Previous use of land Rice/Wheat Rice/Wheat Rice/Wheat Rice/Wheat Rice/Wheat
Ladakh Division
Apricot Variety Particulars Apium August Glo Mormon Gold Kist Other Area (kanals) 68.2 19.9 10.52 1.13 0.28 Percentage Mean Area (kanals) 7.2 2.1 1.1 0.12 0.03 No. of plants 50.54 36.8 6.7 4.04 1.8 (Percentage) Mean No. of Plants 34 10 1.86 1.12 0.52 Mean Year of Maulana Azad Library,1982 Aligarh1984 1986 Muslim 1992 University1990 plantation Previous use of land Barren/Maize Barren Barren Barren Barren
Source: Compiled Survey data.
172 Chapter 6: Analysis and Interpretation
On an average 4.2 kanals of land per household is utilized for cultivation of Dasheri mango which is highest followed by Langrah. On an average 23 plants are occupied by Dasheri variety followed by Langrah with about five plants per household in Jammu division.
In Kashmir division, different apple varieties are taken,and it is found that 78 percent of the area is covered under delicious variety followed by American variety per household. On an average 8.2 kanals of land are occupied by delicious variety,and about 1.8 kanals of land are occupied by American variety per household in Kashmir division. On an average per household 203 plants are covered by delicious while ten plants are covered by american variety.
In Ladakh division, the highest percentage per household is covered by apium variety of apricots covering about 68.2 percent of the area followed by august glo, mormon and others. On an average 7.2 kanals of land are covered by apiumfollowed by august gloof about 1.8 kanals. About 34 plants are covered by opium and 10 plants are covered by august glo per household in Ladakh region.
Since the mean year of plantation is changing it indicates that diversification of different varieties of horticulture fruits is taking place in the State. The previous use of the land also shows that the diversification has taken place in the state.
Table 6.12 shows the income pattern of households in Jammu and Kashmir. It is found that the highest income is contributed by employment (salary) followed by horticulture sector Kashmir receives the highest percentage of horticulture income followed by Jammu and Ladakh respectively. In all the division's horticulture occupies the second rank in income earning after the salary component. The percentage of wages is very low which implies either fewer laborers are working in the state or the wage rate is very low. The percentage of horticulture business income is also less which indicates the state has less diversification towards ease of doing business. There is a great potential of increasing the business income by linking the Maulanahorticulture sector Azad to market. Library, Aligarh Muslim University
173 Chapter 6: Analysis and Interpretation
Table 6.12: Income Pattern of Family
Percentage of Total Income Horticultura Agricultura Business Any Source Salary Wages l Income l Income Income other Jammu 34.6 5.4 53.2 2.2 2.5 2.1 Kashmir 37.6 3.4 56.2 1.2 0.5 1.1 Ladakh 18.6 2.4 58.4 4.3 1.4 14.9
Source: Compiled Survey data
Table 6.13 shows the expenditure pattern of households in the state. It is found that the highest share of income goes to consumption followed by house construction in all the divisions of the state. There is a demonstration effect that shows one's expenditure level is determined by the people living around him. A good percentage of income is also spent on the education of children. More than 50 percent of income is spent on consumption indicating that the families living in the state are middle-class families.
Table 6.13: Expenditure Pattern of Family
Percentage of Total Income House Expenditure Consumption Education Saving Any other Construction Jammu 21 53 18 3 5 Kashmir 18 62 15.8 2.2 2 Ladakh 9 68.4 19.2 1.4 2
Source: Compiled Survey data.
Table 6.14 shows the labor used in the preparation of orchard land in Jammu and Kashmir. This is per household holding a mean land as depicted in table 6.10. The value of only hired labor has been taken into consideration. In Jammu division the Maulanahighest numberAzad of Library, labour is used forAligarh the preparation Muslim and maintenance University of land, followed by ward and watch the least number of labours is used in mulching. As the family members are not paid the total leakages in the economy from the Jammu division is about Rs. 12080.2 per year. It is the money income that is not given to
174 Chapter 6: Analysis and Interpretation
laborers as they belong to the family. The work done by the self familymembers are not calculated which makes leakages to the economy.
In Kashmir division, the highest number of labor are used in ward and watch followed by preparation and maintenance and the least number of labourare used for mulching. The family members are not paid to make a loss of Rs. 10071.3 to the economy of the State.
In Ladakh division the highest number of labor are used for preparation and maintenance followed by ward and watch, pruning and the least number used is for pesticides and insecticides. Due to non payability to the family labors, the loss to the economy from Ladakh division is Rs. 10939.6. The lowest loss is from Kashmir division indicating that less discrimination is taking place from Kashmir division and the highest discrimination is from Jammu division. This loss to the economy of the State can be checked only if the family members are paid at par with the hired labors.
Table 6.14: Labour used in Preparation of Orchard Land
Jammu Division Human Labour (no./year) Inputs used Inputs Family Hired Qty. Value (Rs.) Male Female Male Female Preparation and 10 3900 3 2 10 0 Maintenance Manure 8 1235 3 2 5 3 Fertilizer 7 1365 2 1 5 2 Sprays 5 3050 1 0 5 0 Insecticides 3 2240 1 1 3 0 Pesticides 4 2340 2 1 4 0 Watch and Ward 9 2700 5 8 10 0 Mulching 2 430 1 0 2 0 Pruning 3 1200 2 0 3 0 Kashmir Division Maulana Azad Library, AligarhHuman MuslimLabour (Per Hrs) University Inputs used Inputs Family Hired Qty. Value (Rs.) Male Female Male Female Preparation and 14 4400 3 1 13 1 Maintenance Manure 6 1635 3 2 5 0
175 Chapter 6: Analysis and Interpretation
Fertilizer 6 1657 2 1 5 0 Sprays 10 6150 1 0 11 0 Insecticides 6 3340 1 1 0 6 Pesticides 5 3240 2 1 5 0 Watch and Ward 16 4810 5 8 16 0 Mulching 1 120 1 0 0 0 Pruning 12 5200 2 0 12 0 Ladakh Division Human Labour (Per Hrs) Inputs used Inputs Family Hired Qty. Value (Rs.) Male Female Male Female Preparation and 6 1800 3 1 4 2 Maintenance Manure 4 1240 3 2 2 0 Fertilizer 2 570 2 1 1 0 Sprays 3 680 1 0 2 0 Insecticides 1 810 1 0 0 0 Pesticides 1 734 2 0 1 0 Watch and Ward 5 1600 4 8 5 0 Mulching 2 260 1 0 1 0 Pruning 4 2000 1 0 4 0
Source: Compiled Survey data
Table 6.15 shows the wage rates given to laborers in the three divisions of the state. There exists a difference in wage rate between male and female laborers. There is a significant difference in the wage rate of skilled and unskilled labors across the state. The difference in male and female unskilled wage rate is highest in Kashmir division followed by Jammu and least is in Ladakh division. A similar trend is followed by skilled laborers in the state. The difference in wage rate between male and female is lower in skilled labor than in unskilled one.
As an observation social stigma in the Kashmir valley of keeping women away from Maulanathe labor Azad force are hence Library, paid less than Aligarh their male counterpart,w Muslimhile the University same scenario has not been seen in Jammu and Ladakh divisions.
176 Chapter 6: Analysis and Interpretation
Table 6.15: Wage Rate (Rs. /Day)
Jammu Kashmir Ladakh Operation Male Female Difference Male Female Difference Male Female Difference Unskilled 284 135 149 276 120 156 269 127 142 laborer Skilled 347 292 55 336 250 86 324 278 46 laborer Pruning 502 0 502 495 0 490 480 0 480 laborer Sprayer 290 0 290 305 0 305 280 0 280
Gardener 281 174 107 262 120 142 262 174 88
Source: Compiled Survey data
Table 6.16 shows the post-harvest expenditure per household per year in horticulture production.
Table 6.16: Post Harvest Expenditures
Jammu Division Kashmir Division Ladakh Division
Labour Hours Labour Hours Labour Hours Material Cost Material Cost Material Cost Particulars Family Hired Family Hired Family Hired
Q Cost M F M F Q Cost M F M F Q Cost M F M F
Picking 46 13290 3 5 46 0 76 22950 3 1 76 0 38 12328 3 2 38 0
Grading 10 3086 2 1 10 0 10 3286 2 0 10 0 6 1896 2 1 6 0
Packaging 15 4872 2 1 15 0 19 5872 3 0 19 0 13 4756 3 1 12 1
Strapping 3 978 2 1 3 0 6 958 2 0 6 0 4 1021 2 1 3 1
Assembling 6 1885 2 1 5 1 10 3085 1 1 8 2 7 2130 1 1 5 2
Local carriage 8 9791 2 0 8 0 14 14791 2 0 14 0 6 7650 2 0 6 0
Transportation 6 3477 0 0 6 0 5 4977 0 0 6 0 4 3840 0 0 4 0 Loading and 3 2 0 0 3 1 0 0 3 2 0 0 Un loading Commission of Forwarding 1 1445 0 0 1 0 1 1545 0 0 0 0 1 1270 0 0 0 0 Agent Commission 1 1690 0 0 1 0 1 1600 0 0 0 0 1 1770 0 0 0 0 Agent MarketMaulana fee 4 988 Azad 0 0 Library,4 0 3 1008 Aligarh 0 0 0 Muslim0 3 1290 University0 0 0 0
State tax 1 2000 0 0 0 0 1 2000 0 0 0 0 1 2000 0 0 0 0
Total 101 43502 16 11 100 1 146 62072 16 3 144 2 89 39951 16 8 85 4
Source: Compiled Survey data
177 Chapter 6: Analysis and Interpretation
In Kashmir division,the highest number of labor are utilized during post-harvest followed by Jammu division and Ladakh division. The cost spent on apple picking in Kashmir division is almost double that of Jammu and Ladakh divisions. The variation in other types of post-harvest techniques is not higher among the three divisions. Loading and unloading are done solely by family members in all the divisions of the State.
In Jammu division, the highest number of labor are used for picking which conquers the highest cost; the second highest cost is spend on local carriage followed by packaging and the least cost goes to strapping.
In Kashmir division, the highest number of labor for post-harvest expenditure goes to picking followed by packaging and local carriage and the least number of laborers are used for transportation. Picking receives the highest cost followed by local carriage and then by packaging, and the least cost goes to strapping.
In Ladakh division,the highest number of labor are utilized for picking followed by packaging and the least number of labour are used for strapping. The highest cost is conquered by picking followed by local carriage and packaging.
Jammu division has the highest number of family laborers utilized for the post-harvest expenditures followed by Ladakh, and the least number of family laborers are utilized in Kashmir division.
More female family members are used in Jammu division than in Kashmir and Ladakh. The highest proportion of family laborers is used in picking and loading and unloading in all the three divisions. On an average each household saves Rs. 8100 in Jammu division, Rs. 5700 in Kashmir division and Rs. 7200 in Ladakh division per year from post-harvest expenditures as the workforce done is by the family members who are not paid.
Table 6.17 shows the utilization pattern of horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir. In MaulanaJammu divisionAzad, each Library, household a totalAligarh of 38 kg ofMuslim mango are utilized University for self- consumption and 33 kg are gifted. A total of 130 kg are sold in the local market, and a total of 902 kg are sold in distant market. In Kashmir division, each household surveyed kept five boxes of apple for self-consumption and nine boxes of apple are gifted. On an average, a total of 351 apple boxes are sold in the distant market by each
178 Chapter 6: Analysis and Interpretation
household in Kashmir division.In Ladakh division, 23 kg of apricot are kept for self- consumption and 19 kg of apricot are gifted by each household surveyed. 112 kg of apricot are sold in the local market, and 305 kg of apricot are sold in distant market.
Table 6.17: Utilization Pattern of Horticulture (Mangoes/Apple/Apricot)
Jammu Division Mango Variety ( in Kg ) Particulars Dhesari Malda Langra Kesar Other
Household consumption 20 10 8 0 0 Gift etc. 15 12 6 0 0 Local 50 35 30 15 0
Market Price per kg 10 12 8 12 0 Distant 532 230 108 22 10
Price per kg 14 18 16 13 11 Kashmir Division Apple Variety ( No. of boxes ) Particulars Delicious American Maharaji Golden Other
Household consumption 2 2 1 0 0 Gift etc. 5 4 0 0 0 Local 0 0 0 0 0
Market Price per kg 0 0 0 0 0 Distant 160 135 56 0 0
Price per box 485 502 335 0 0 Ladakh Division Variety (in Kg ) Particulars Apium AugustGlo Mormon GoldKist Other
Household consumption 6 8 6 1 2 Gift etc. 8 5 2 1 3 Local 35 25 36 10 6
Market Price per kg 125 122 118 116 119 Distant 120 80 42 38 25
Price per kg 155 128 124 126 121
Source: Compiled Survey data
MaulanaTable 6.18 shows Azad whether peopleLibrary, feel insurance Aligarh is necessary Muslimfor horticulture Universitycrops in Jammu and Kashmir or not. In Jammu division 69 percent of the households favored insurance, 65 percent favoured insurance in Kashmir division, and 56 percent favoured insurance in Ladakh division. In other words,the maximum percentage of household feel insurance is necessary for Jammu and Kashmir.
179 Chapter 6: Analysis and Interpretation
Table 6.18: Do you Feel Insurance of Horticulture Crops Necessary?
Percentage Division Yes No Jammu 69 31 Kashmir 65 45 Ladakh 56 54
If yes, what should be the basis? Rank the mostly preferred first.
Sr. Preference Time of Insurance No Jammu Kashmir Ladakh 1 During Winter 21.7 31.7 34.6 2 During Flowering 34.2 24.2 38.5 3 After Fruit Setting 36.7 26.7 21.2 4 During Plucking 7.5 17.5 6.15
Source: Compiled Survey data
The preference for insurance varies among the divisions. In Jammu division, the highest preference of insurance is given after the stage of fruit setting, while in Kashmir the highest preference of insurance is given during winter and in Ladakh, the highest weight for insurance is given at the stage of flowering stage of apricots. In Kashmir, the heavy snowfall during the winter destroys the apple trees, so the maximum preference of insurance is given during winter while in Jammu division after the setting of mango fruit there are the problems of heavy rains and hailstorm so the highest preference of having insurance is given during this stage. The cold wind during the flowering of apricots destroys the fruit flowers and comprehends among the people the sense of having insurance during this stage.
Table 6.19 shows the benefit received from the government schemes for horticulture Maulanain Jammu Azad and Kashmir. Library, Aligarh Muslim University
180 Chapter 6: Analysis and Interpretation
Table 6.19: Have you Availed Benefits of Government Policies/ Schemes?
Percentage Division Yes No Jammu 32 67 Kashmir 24.8 75.2 Ladakh 18.6 79.4
If No,
Sr. Percentage Reason No Jammu Kashmir Ladakh 1 Lack of Knowledge of Schemes 32.8 27.8 42.2 2 Due to paper formalities 35.5 32.5 38.3 3 Subsidies not paid in time 5.8 15.8 10.5 4 Due to weak financial conditions 14.3 15 5.8 5 No need for such scheme benefits 11.6 8.9 3.2
Source: Compiled Survey data
Sixty-seven percent of the households in Jammu division, 75.2 percent of households in Kashmir division and 79.4 percent of households in Ladakh division have not availed benefit from government schemes. It is due to complicated paper formalities and lack of knowledge about schemes that people are not availing the benefit from the government. The need of the hour is to transform the work culture of the state so that maximum people can be benefitted by the different government schemes related to horticulture.
Table 6.20 shows the participation of women in horticulture activities of Jammu and Kashmir. In Jammu division, the highest percentage of women workforce is utilized for planting and crop watch followed by irrigation and field preparation. The least Maulanawork done is for Azad pit digging Library,and marketing. InAligarh terms of variety Muslim, the maximum Universityshare of women work goes to vegetable production followed by apple and mango in the Jammu division.
In Kashmir division, the maximum women workforce is done in terms of crop watch followed by cleaning of the fields. Pit digging is not done by women in Kashmir, and
181 Chapter 6: Analysis and Interpretation
the least contribution of women is in marketing in Kashmir division. In terms of variety, the highest percentage of women are engaged in the production of vegetables followed by walnut production.
Similar trends are followed in Ladakh division where the highest percentage of women labor is used for the crop watch and cleaning of fields. Maximum women workforce is utilized for the production of vegetables followed by apricot production. Women do prefer gardening in all the three divisions of the State, but the highest percentage of women engaged in gardening is from Ladakh division.
Table 6.20: Participation of women in horticulture activities in Jammu and Kashmir
Jammu Division
S/N Activity Mango Apple Vegetables Flowers Gardens Total Percentage
1 Field Preparation 3 1 13 1 1 19 9.5
2 Leveling of land 2 1 6 1 1 11 5.5
3 Cleaning of fields 1 3 9 2 1 16 8.0
4 Manure Applying 3 2 8 1 0 14 7.0
5 Seed cleaning 2 7 4 0 1 14 7.0
6 Seed Sowing 3 2 5 4 0 14 7.0
7 Pit Digging 0 2 0 0 0 2 1.0
8 Planting 1 1 13 8 3 26 13.1
9 Irrigation 1 0 15 3 2 21 10.6
10 Weeding 0 0 6 4 1 11 5.5
11 Crop Watch 5 8 10 1 2 26 13.1
12 Sorting 2 3 9 0 2 16 8.0
13 Marketing 1 1 7 0 0 9 4.5
Total 24 31 105 25 14 199 100.0
Percentage 12.1 15.6 52.8 12.6 7.0 100.0 Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Kashmir Division
S/N Activity Apple Walnut Vegetables Flowers Gardens Total Percentage
1 Field Preparation 4 2 11 2 1 20 9.9
2 Levelling of land 2 1 8 1 1 13 6.4
182 Chapter 6: Analysis and Interpretation
3 Cleaning of fields 8 1 10 3 1 23 11.4
4 Manure Applying 4 1 4 1 0 10 5.0
5 Seed cleaning 2 11 6 0 1 20 9.9
6 Seed Sowing 2 8 8 2 0 20 9.9
7 Pit Digging 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0
8 Planting 1 0 11 6 2 20 9.9
9 Irrigation 0 0 14 2 2 18 8.9
10 Weeding 0 0 9 2 2 13 6.4
11 Crop Watch 3 8 11 2 2 26 12.9
12 Sorting 1 2 8 0 1 12 5.9
13 Marketing 0 2 5 0 0 7 3.5
Total 27 36 105 21 13 202 100.0
Percentage 13.4 17.8 52.0 10.4 6.4 100.0
Ladakh Division
S/N Activity Apricot Apple Vegetables Flowers Gardens Total Percentage
1 Field Preparation 5 1 8 1 1 16 8.9
2 Levelling of land 1 0 6 2 1 10 5.6
3 Cleaning of fields 9 1 7 3 1 21 11.7
4 Manure Applying 3 2 3 1 1 10 5.6
5 Seed cleaning 12 2 4 1 1 20 11.1
6 Seed Sowing 3 4 2 2 1 12 6.7
7 Pit Digging 1 0 4 2 13 20 11.1
8 Planting 2 0 7 3 2 14 7.8
9 Irrigation 0 0 6 1 1 8 4.4
10 Weeding 1 0 7 3 1 12 6.7
11 Crop Watch 9 5 4 1 2 21 11.7 Maulana12 Sorting Azad5 Library,3 2 Aligarh1 Muslim2 13 University7.2 13 Marketing 1 1 1 0 0 3 1.7
Total 52 19 61 21 27 180 100.0
Percentage 28.9 10.6 33.9 11.7 15.0 100.0
Source: Compiled Survey data
183 Chapter 6: Analysis and Interpretation
Women play a significant and crucial role in the production of various horticultural crops. The participation of women ishigher in various production and post-production activities of vegetables than apple, walnut, and flowers. The research revealed that women’s participation ismaximum in planting, seed cleaning, and seed sowing of horticultural crops. They play a major part in field preparation, manure application, harvesting, cleaning and collection of produce, sorting and grading. In case of pit digging, training and pruning, planting of fruit trees, leveling of field, fertilizer application, plant protection measures their participation is less.
Table 6.21 shows the number of women engaged in horticulture activities based on age, education, and income. The age has been sub-categorized into young middle and old, Education as illiterate, middle and 10th and above and income has been categorized into three slabs below 10,000, 10,000 to 40,000 and Above 40,000. The highest mean work by women in Jammu division is done for vegetable production middle-aged women who are illiterate and whose income is less than 10,000 works more in horticulture activities. Same is the case for Kashmir division. For Ladakh division young, middle pass and the women with less than 10,000 income contribute significantly in horticulture production
Table 6.21: Number of women engaged in horticulture based on Age/Education/Income
(Per household)
Jammu Division
Age Education Income (Rs)
Item Middle 10th and Below 10,000 to 40,000 Young Middle Old Illiterate Mean pass Above 10,000 40,000 Above
Mango 1 1 1 2 1 0 1 0 0 0.8
Apple 0 2 1 3 2 0 2 0 0 1.1 MaulanaVegetable Azad1 2Library, 1 3 Aligarh2 1 Muslim2 1 University0 1.4 Flowers 2 1 0 0 1 2 1 1 1 1.0
Gardens 2 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0.9
Mean 1.2 1.4 0.6 1.6 1.4 0.8 1.4 0.6 0.4
184 Chapter 6: Analysis and Interpretation
Kashmir Division
Apple 0 2 0 1 1 0 2 1 0.8
Walnut 0 2 2 3 1 0 3 0 0 1.2
Vegetable 2 3 1 3 2 2 1 1 0 1.7
Flowers 3 2 1 0 1 2 0 1 1 1.2
Gardens 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0.4
Mean 1.4 1.8 0.8 1.4 1 1 1.2 0.8 0.2
Ladakh Division
Apricot 2 2 3 2 3 0 3 0 0 1.7
Apple 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0.6
Vegetable 0 1 1 2 1 0 2 1* 0 0.8
Flowers 2 1 0 0 0 2 0 1 1 0.8
Gardens 2 1 0 0 0 1 0 1* 1* 0.4
Mean 1.4 1.2 0.8 1 1 0.6 1.2 0.2 0.2
Source: Compiled Survey data
It is found that young, educated and more income earning women prefer to work with flowers and to do gardening than other horticulture activities. Old aged, illiterate and less income areearning womenmostly work with walnut cleaning and breaking contrary to this, in Ladakh division the same age group work with apricots.
Table 6.22: Mean and Standard Deviation (SD) of reasons for horticulture (Apple/ Mango/Apricot) production
Reasons for Horticulture (Apple/ Mango/Apricot) Produce Mean SD Guarantee of minimum cost 2.871 0.620 Guarantee of assured market 2.942 0.569 MaulanaMore value per Azad acre when comparedLibrary, with other Aligarh crops Muslim3.214 University0.603 More value than irrigated lands 3.435 0.731 Suitability of land for horticulture (apple/apricot/mango) cultivation 3.542 0.592 Favorable climate for horticulture 3.561 0.682
Source: Compiled Survey data
185 Chapter 6: Analysis and Interpretation
Based on the mean score it is found that favorable climate (3.561) and suitability of land for horticulture (3.542) are the most important factors of reasons of horticulture production followed by more value than irrigated lands (3.435) in the state. The least important factors are guarantee of minimum cost and assured markets among the reasons of horticulture produce.
Table 6.23: Mean and Standard Deviation (SD) of problems in growing horticulture products
Problems in Growing Horticulture Products Mean SD Lack of irrigation 4.430 0.821 Lack of improved seeds 4.490 0.772 Lack of fertilizers/pesticides 4.360 0.782 Lack of capital 4.160 0.856 Lack of labor 4.406 0.817 Market problem 4.471 0.706 Proper price problem 4.513 0.593
Source: Compiled Survey data
Based on the mean score, no proper price in the market (4.513) is the most important problem in horticulture cultivation, followed by lack of improved seeds (4.490). The other major problems are poor market (4.471) and lack of irrigation (4.430). Growers are cheated by intermediate with low price for the produce as the procurement by the government is delayed, and non availability of improved seeds at subsidized price is another major problem faced by the growers of the study area.
Table 6.24: Mean and Standard Deviation (SD) of growers Awareness of various Schemes/facilities for horticulture cultivation
Growers Awareness onHorticulture Cultivation Mean SD Personal experience 4.323 0.706 Social media 4.340 0.682 Education 4.621 0.592 MaulanaCooperative Azad societies Library, Aligarh Muslim4.131 University0.895 Learned neighbor 4.012 0.773 NGO's 4.064 0.603 Extension services 4.121 0.569 Demonstration effect 4.541 0.733
Source: Compiled Survey data
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Based on the mean score education (4.621) is the most important awareness for horticulture cultivation by growers in the study area, followed by demonstration effect (4.541), social media (4.340) and the least is by a learned neighbor (4.012). The horticulture cultivating growers were of the view that due to lack of officials from agriculture division office and research centers (extension offices) the growers get less benefit.
Table 6.25: Mean and Standard Deviation (SD) of growers satisfaction on Government subsidies in the study area
Satisfaction on Government Subsidies Mean SD Availability of loans for equipment and tools at subsidized rates 4.383 0.558 Availability of loans for local seeds/plants/fertilizers at subsidized 4.360 0.839 rates Availability of cold stores at subsidized rates 4.496 0.613 Availability of loans for HYV varieties at subsidized rates 3.956 0.653 Availability of loans for modern irrigation 4.142 0.868
Source: Compiled Survey data
Based on mean score availability of cold stores at subsidized rates is the most important factor of satisfaction is government subsidy, followed by availability of loan for equipment and tools, availability of local seeds, and loans for HYV varieties. Growers are not truly satisfied the HYV seeds and modern irrigation facilities. Government has to come forward to introduce the HYV seeds to be issued as a subsidy to farmers through institutions which will enhance their production in the study area.
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Table 6.26: Mean and Standard Deviation (SD) of information on marketing of Apple/Mango/Apricot
Information on Marketing ofApple/Mango/Apricot Mean SD (Received from) Wholesale merchant 4.275 0.822 Commission agent 4.253 0.688 Mandi websites 3.812 0.734 Radio/ TV/ Newspaper 4.102 0.918 From locality 3.948 0.947
Source: Compiled Survey data
Based on the mean score, whole sale merchant is more effective than other modes of information on the marketing of horticulture produce, followed by commission agent and radio/TV. So it is found that the full information principle of market knowledge is not known to growers of horticulture products in the State. As prices are fixed by wholesale merchants in the Mandi the market forces, i.e., supply and demand are indeterminist of the price in the Mandi market. So the basic law of economics of market structure of price determination fails in case of horticulture products of the study area.
6.2. Inferential Analysis
Differences between the two groups in the mean scores of variables are studied using Student t test are discussed in this section. Also, ANOVA followed by Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT), Chi-square test, Friedman test, Correlation analysis, Multiple Regression analysis and Structural Equation Model (SEM) is used to verify the hypothesis stated in the fourth chapter of this thesis.
6.2.1. Hypothesis 1
There is no significant difference among socio-economic status concerning problems Maulanaof horticult Azadure in the Library, study area. Aligarh Muslim University
1.1. Null Hypothesis
There is no significant difference between levels of education with respect to problems of horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir.
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Table 6.27: ANOVA for significant difference among the level of education with respect toProblems of horticulture production in Jammu and Kashmir
Education Level F p Problems of horticulture 10th 12th Graduate value value 29.95 30.89 31.65 Lack of Awareness 9.478 0.0010 (3.26) (2.86) (2.96) 20.94 21.61 22.58 Lack of Fertilizers/Pesticides 10.992 0.0010 (2.52) (2.56) (2.29) 26.05 26.62 27.63 Marketing issues 6.851 0.0030 (3.11) (2.94) (2.59) 21.19 21.73 22.21 Irrigation 3.699 0.0200 (4.90) (3.92) (2.88) 36.85 37.31 39.06 Lack of Technology 3.539 0.0010 (6.71) (2.69) (3.93) 33.4 34.07 35.09 Environmental problems 7.575 0.0014 (4.58) (4.45) (4.55) 41.23 42.19 43.12 Lack of Insurance 1.972 0.0050 (2.95) (4.45) (3.30) 27.38 28.26 30.06 Infrastructural problems 8.234 0.0060 (6.16) (5.57) (4.46) 17.02 17.74 18.01 Location problems 3.780 0.0220 (3.32) (5.5) (4.61) 42.02 42.52 42.82 Post Harvest problems 6.484 0.0070 (3.21) (3.43) (3.54) 31.07 31.54 31.84 Transportation problem 7.782 0.0040 (4.21) (4.46) (4.82) 40.04 41.23 42.10 Financing problems 6.612 0.0050 (5.36) (5.62) (6.02) Source: Primary Survey (Value in brackets represents SD)
Since p-value less than 0.05, for all the factors responsible for the problems of horticulture, so the null hypothesis is not acceptable and is rejected in favor of an alternative one. In other words the level of education has a significant impact on endorsing the problems of horticulture. As is depicted from the table the mean values are higher in case of higher levels of education. Thus, educated ones have more Maulanainformation about Azad the problems Library, of higher Aligarh the level of educationMuslim, higher University is the information about the problems and the redressal thereof accordingly.
1.2.Null Hypothesis
There is no significant difference between income levels with respect to problems of horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir.
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Table 6.28: ANOVA for significant difference among the income level respect to Problems of horticulture production in Jammu and Kashmir
Family Income (in Lakhs) F p Problems of horticulture Below 1 1 to 5 Above 5 value value 19.95 20.89 21.65 Lack of Awareness 6.428 0.0300 (3.25) (2.86) (2.90) 30.94 31.61 32.58 Lack of Fertilizers/Pesticides 9.642 0.0061 (2.48) (2.54) (2.63) 25.05 25.62 26.63 Marketing issues 4.821 0.0042 (3.12) (2.90) (2.91) 31.19 31.73 32.21 Irrigation 3.089 0.0430 (5.62) (5.22) (6.15) 26.85 27.31 29.06 Lack of Technology 4.139 0.0054 (2.90) (2.60) (3.22) 23.4 24.07 25.09 Environmental problems 7.215 0.0024 (4.87) (3.83) (4.34) 42.13 43.19 44.12 Lack of Insurance 2.372 0.0015 (6.73) (5.95) (6.10) 17.38 18.26 20.06 Infrastructural problems 4.134 0.0360 (4.60) (4.34) (4.96) 12.02 13.74 14.01 Location problems 5.780 0.0420 (2.95) (2.81) (3.44) 32.02 32.52 32.82 Post Harvest problems 6.024 0.0270 (3.21) (5.22) (7.12) 21.07 21.54 21.84 Transportation problem 5.782 0.0010 (4.78) (5.95) (6.86) 41.04 42.23 43.10 Financing problems 5.412 0.0050 (2.84) (2.54) (2.34) Source: Primary Survey (Value in brackets represents SD)
Since p-value is less than 0.05 the null hypothesis is rejected at a 5 percent level of significance for all the factors of problems of horticulture in the study area. Based on Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT), annual family incomes below 1 lakh to 1-5 lakh are significantly different with annual income above 5 lakh at 5 percent level.
On the basis of statistics, it is found that income level has a significant impact on Maulanaproblems. Azad Higher the Library, income lesser theAligarh problems, with Muslim income growers University can redress their problems.
1.3. Null Hypothesis
There is no significant difference between age groups with respect to problems of horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir.
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Table 6.29: ANOVA for significant difference among the age group respect to Problems of horticulture production in Jammu and Kashmir
Age Group in Years F p- Problems of horticulture Up to 25 t0 35 to Above value value 25 35 50 50 20.05 20.86 21.65 22.65 Lack of Awareness 5.421 0.0100 (3.55) (2.98) (3.10) (2.47) Lack of 31.05 31.61 32.58 33.02 7.712 0.0011 Fertilizers/Pesticides (2.65) (2.44) (2.55) (2.58) 25.05 25.62 26.63 27.14 Marketing issues 3.841 0.0012 (3.84) (2.44) (2.55) (2.58) 31.19 31.73 32.21 32.01 Irrigation 4.099 0.0130 (3.84) (2.68) (3.07) (2.82) 26.85 27.31 29.06 29.52 Lack of Technology 5.129 0.0014 (7.09) (5.113) (5.14) (5.17) 23.4 24.07 25.09 25.82 Environmental problems 6.325 0.0014 (3.36) (2.53) (2.91) (2.68) 42.13 43.19 44.12 44.24 Lack of Insurance 3.342 0.0015 (5.53) (3.95) (4.81) (3.94) 17.38 18.26 19.06 20.04 Infrastructural problems 3.124 0.0160 (4.61) (3.42) (3.18) (3.04) 12.02 13.74 14.01 14.86 Location problems 6.608 0.0120 (8.41) (6.46) (5.20) (5.17) 32.02 32.52 32.82 33.01 Post Harvest problems 3.254 0.0170 (5.47) (4.24) (4.04) (4.75) 21.07 21.54 21.84 22.04 Transportation problem 6.432 0.0010 (3.57) (2.86) (2.73) (2.79) 41.04 42.23 43.10 43.65 Financing Problems 4.232 0.0010 (5.51) (5.62) (6.67) (6.29)
Source: Primary Survey (Value in brackets represents SD)
The null hypothesis is rejected at a 5 percent level of significance for all the parameters of problems of horticulture. The Duncan Range Multiple Test (DMRT) suggested that different age groups have different attitude towards tackling the problems of horticulture. The highest age group has the highest mean values which Maulanaimply that with Azad age experience Library, is gained, and Aligarh problems are Muslimlowered accordingly. University It verifies the principle of learning by doing. Thus age as a component has an impact on the horticulture problems; higher age groups lower the problems.
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1.4. Null Hypothesis
There is no significant difference between nuclear and joint family with respect to problems of horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir.
Table 6.30: t-test for significant difference between family type respect to Problems of horticulture production in Jammu and Kashmir
Type of family t p Nuclear Intermediate/Joint Problems of horticulture value value Mean SD Mean SD Lack of Awareness 29.64 3.44 30.76 2.79 3.687 0.0010 Lack of Fertilizers/Pesticides 20.64 2.61 21.61 2.49 3.918 0.0050 Marketing issues 25.81 3.42 26.62 2.84 2.531 0.0130 Irrigation 36.23 6.4 37.61 5.16 2.548 0.0120 Lack of Technology 25.82 3.42 26.62 2.84 2.541 0.0021 Environmental problems 15.63 3.33 16.35 2.78 2.491 0.0062 Lack of Insurance 18.27 4.4 18.26 4.52 2.543 0.0078 Infrastructural problems 40.43 7.28 42.12 5.54 2.87 0.0053 Location problems 24.7 3.08 25.31 3.09 4.323 0.0070 Post Harvest problems 32.98 5.07 34.33 4.27 3.059 0.0040 Transportation problem 21.04 2.72 23.21 2.98 4.075 0.0426 Financing Problems 38.02 5.02 39.12 5.61 3.021 0.0492
Source: Primary Survey
From table 6.29, we see that the p-value is less than 5 percent for all the parameters of problems of horticulture. So, we conclude that the null hypothesis is rejected meaning that there exists a significant difference between nuclear and joint family in tackling the horticulture problems. Joint family has less impact than a nuclear one. The highest weight goes to infrastructure problems which are well tackled by joint family than Maulananuclear oneAzad as the mean Library, score of the jointAligarh family is more Muslim than a nuclear University family.
6.2.2. Hypothesis
There is no association between factors and level of satisfaction of horticulture production by the growers.
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2.1. Null hypothesis
There is no association between educational qualification and level of satisfaction on horticulture cultivation.
Table 6.31: Chi-square test for education and level of satisfaction on horticulture production
Level of Satisfaction Chi-square Education level Total p-value Low Moderate High value 35 70 82 187 Upto 10th (18.7) (37.4) (43.8) (100.0) [49.2] [51.1] [53.9] [51.9] 24 36 42 102 12th (23.5) (35.2) (41.1) (100.0) [33.8] [26.2] [27.6] [28.3] 9.94 0.0462 12 31 28 71 Graduate (16.9) (43.6) (39.4) (100.0) [16.9] [22.6] [18.4] [19.7] 71 137 152 360 Total (19.7) (38.1) (42.2) (100.0) [100.0] [100.0] [100.0] [100.0]
Note:
1. The value within ( ) refers to Row Percentage.
2. The value within [ ] refers to Column Percentage.
Since p-value is less than 0.05, the null hypothesis is rejected. It is concluded that there is an association between educational qualification and level of satisfaction on horticulture production. Based on the row percentage, in the group upto 10th, 18.7 percent growers are with a low level of satisfaction, 37.4 percent are moderately satisfied, and 43.8 percent are highly satisfied. Among the graduates, 16.9 percent are with a low level of satisfaction, 43.6 percent are moderate, and 39.4 percent are highly satisfied. Hence graduate growers are having a low level of satisfaction than 10th standard growers. Selected sample growers with less education upto 10th standard use Maulanalocal varieties which Azad are cost Library,-effective but less Aligarh productive. Muslim University
2.2. Null hypothesis
There is no association between income level and level of satisfaction on horticulture cultivation.
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Table 6.32: Chi-square test for association between income and level of satisfaction on horticulture production
Annual Family Level of Satisfaction Chi-square p Total Income (in Lakhs) Low Moderate High value value 48 86 53 187
(53.3) (49.4) (55.2) (51.9) Below 1 [25.7] [46.0] [28.3] [100.0] 28 52 22 102
(31.1) (29.9) (22.9) (28.3) 1 to 5 [27.5] [51.0] [21.6] [100.0] 14 36 21 71
(15.6) (20.7) (21.9) (19.7) Above 5 [19.7] [50.7] [29.6] [100.0] 14.04 0.007 90 174 96 360
(100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) Total [25.0] [48.3] [26.7] [100.0] Note: 1. The value within ( ) refers to Row Percentage. 2. The value within [ ] refers to Column Percentage.
Since p-value is less than 0.05 the null hypothesis is rejected. Thus there is an association between family income and level of satisfaction on horticulture cultivation. Sample growers with more than five lakhs of income are having low satisfaction than the income group below 1 lakh and 1 to 5 lakh.
2.3. Null hypothesis
There is no association between soil variety and level of satisfaction on horticulture cultivation.
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Table 6.33: Chi-square test for association between soil type and level of satisfaction on horticulture production
Level of Satisfaction Chi-square Soil Type Total p-value Low Moderate High value 34 42 32 108
(29.8) (26.9) (35.6) (30.8) Sandy/Loamy [31.5] [38.9] [29.6] [100.0] 64 82 46 192
(56.1) (52.6) (51.1) (53.3) Wudur/Karewas [33.3] [42.7] [24.0] [100.0] 16 32 12 60
(14.0) (20.5) (13.3) (16.7) Alluvial [26.7] [53.3] [20.0] [100.0] 13.362 0.159 114 156 90 360
(100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) Total [31.7] [43.3] [25.0] [100.0] Note: 1. The value within ( ) refers to Row Percentage. 2. The value within [ ] refers to Column Percentage.
Since p-value is greater than 0.05, the null hypothesis is not rejected at a 5 percent level of significance. Hence it is concluded that there is no association between the soil type and level of satisfaction on horticulture. Growers select the land for planting horticulture plants randomly without knowing the suitability of soil type for different varieties of horticulture products. So, wrong selection of land is one of the major problems in productivity of horticulture in the selected area.
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6.2.3. Hypothesis
3.1. Null Hypothesis
There is no significant difference among mean ranks towards problems of horticulture growers.
Table 6.34: Friedman test for the significance different among mean ranks towards problems of horticulture production
Chi-Square Problems of horticulture Mean Rank p-value value Lack of Fertilizers/Pesticides 4.89 Marketing issues 5.62 Lack of Irrigation 3.41 Lack of Technology 4.67
Environmental problems 3.63
Lack of Insurance 3.67
Infrastructural problems 5.54 160.26 0.001 Location problems 3.21 Post Harvest problems 5.35 Transportation problem 4.36 Financing problems 5.02
Since p-value less than 0.01, the null hypothesis is rejected at a 1 percent level of significance. Hence it is concluded that there is a significant difference among mean ranks towards problems of horticulture production. Based on the mean scores marketing issues (5.62) is the most serious problems of horticulture production, followed by infrastructural problems (5.54), post-harvest problems (5.35) and least to lack of irrigation. The growers are not able to get the favourableprice of the product because of lack of information and commission and money lenders. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
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6.3. Correlation Analysis
Table 6.35: Correlation matrix
Land Factors Awareness Subsidies Climate Size/Nature Awareness 1.00 0.13* 0.34** 0.26* Land Size/Nature - 1.00 0.21* 0.32* Subsidies - - 1.00 0.16** Climate - - - 1.00
Note: * 1 percent ** 5 percent level of significance
The correlation between factors on grower’s awareness and size of the land is 0.13 which denotes the weak relationship. It indicates that 13 percent of the growers are aware of the nature and size of land necessary for the plantation. The growers are not aware of the subsidies and climatic conditions as the correlation coefficient of both factors are weak. Growers also not fully informed about the subsidies available on nature and size of land. There is also a weak positive relation between how nature and size of land affect the climate and vice versa. Only 16 percent of the growers are aware of subsidies provided on adverse climatic conditions.
Table 6.36: Correlation matrix
Factors Horticulture Production Awareness 0.648* Fertilizers/Pesticides 0.510** Irrigation 0.653* Technology 0.682* Insurance 0.593** Land Size and Nature 0.712* Favorable Climate 0.438*
Note: * 1 percent ** 5 percent level of significance
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University The correlation coefficient between grower’s awareness and horticulture production is 0.648, which indicates higher the level of awareness higher is the production. Fifty- one percent of horticulture is affected by fertilizers and pesticides. The highest affecting factor is nature and size of land; about 71.2 percent of production is affected
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by the selection of land. Irrigation, technology, insurance, and climate have a strong effect on horticulture production in the selected area.
6.4. Multiple Regression Model
∑
Where,
Y = Satisfaction on Horticulture Cultivation
X1 = Growers Awareness/ Knowledge
X2 = Nature and Size of Land
X3 = Role of Technology
X4 = Climate
X5 = Role of New Varieties
X6 = Role of Irrigation
X7 = Production of Horticulture (Apple/Mango/Apricot)
X8 = Marketing Information
X9 = Growers Experience
= Error term
Multiple R Value = 0.872
R Square = 0.742 F Value = 136.26
Table 6.37: Multiple Regression Analysis Results
Un-standardized Standardized t p Variable SE of Coefficients Coefficients value value 0.742 0.421 - 1.762 0.4310
X1 0.528 0.101 0.126 5.228 0.0010
X2 0.128 0.070 0.030 2.133 0.0070
X3 0.661 0.042 0.157 15.738 0.0018
MaulanaX4 Azad Library,0.267 Aligarh0.040 0.064Muslim 6.675 University 0.0010
X5 0.413 0.028 0.098 14.750 0.0016
X6 0.306 0.052 0.073 5.885 0.0010
X7 0.934 0.071 0.222 13.155 0.0016
X8 0.782 0.062 0.186 12.613 0.0015
X9 0.208 0.079 0.050 2.633 0.0010
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Estimated Regression Equation is
Standardized Regression Model is
The multiple correlation coefficient valuesis 0.872 that measures the degree of relationship between actual values and the predicted values of satisfaction on horticulture cultivation. The coefficient of determination R square measures the goodness of fit of the estimated regression plane (SRP) in the proportion of the variation in dependent variables explained b fitted regression equation. The value of R square is 0.742 which simply means that about 74.2 percent of the variation in satisfaction on horticulture cultivation is explained by the estimated model.
Based on standardized regression model, a unit increase in awareness of grower will increase the growers’ satisfaction in horticulture cultivation by 0.126 units. Similarly, a unit increase in nature and size of the land will have a 0.03 unit increase in grower’s cultivation satisfaction. A unit change in technology will have a 0.157 unit increase in grower’s satisfaction. 0.064 unit increase in growers’ satisfaction occurs due to a unit change in a favourable climate. One unit increase in new varieties increases the grower’s satisfaction by 0.98 units. A unit increase in irrigation has 0.73 unit positive impacts on grower’s cultivation satisfaction level. 0.222 unit impact is found when a unit change occurs in horticulture production. Marketing satisfaction causes an impact of 0.186 units on grower’s satisfaction and the unit change in experience impacts growers’ satisfaction of horticulture cultivation by 0.05 units.
Based on the standardized coefficients horticulture production is the most important factor to extract satisfaction on growers’ horticulture cultivation, followed by Maulanamarketing information, Azad technology Library,,and growers’ Aligarh awareness. Muslim It implies thatUniversity the production of horticulture in the study area is highly dependent on marketing information, technology and grower’s awareness.
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6.5. Structural Equation Model (SEM)
It is based on the level of satisfaction received on the horticulture production by growers’ in the study area.
The variables used in the Structural Equation Model (SEM) are as under:
1. Observed, Endogenous Variables 1.1. Mitigation of Problems
1.2. Reaping the Prospects
1.3. Horticulture Production
1.4. Growers’ Satisfaction
2. Observed, Exogenous Variables 2.1. Growers’ Awareness
2.2. Nature and Size of Land
2.3. Finance/ Insurance
2.4. Favorable Climate
2.5. Technology
3. Unobserved, Exogenous Variables
3.1. e1 error term for mitigating problems
3.2. e2 error term for reaping the prospects
3.3.e3 error term for production
3.4. e4 error term for growers’ satisfaction
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Fig. 6.10: Path Diagram of Structural Equation Model Based on Standardized Coefficients of Growers Satisfaction
Number of Variables in SEM
No. of variables in the model 13 Observed variables 9 Unobserved variables 4 Exogenous variables 9 Endogenous variables 4
Table 6.38: Structural Equation Model Analysis
Coefficient SE of t p Variables value value
Mitigating Problems Growers' Awareness 0.087 0.025 3.48 0.001
Mitigating Problems Nature and Size of Land 0.092 0.039 2.36 0.002
Mitigating Problems Finance/Insurance 0.102 0.045 2.27 0.004
Mitigating Problems Favourable Climate 0.139 0.073 1.96 0.043
MaulanaMitigating Problems AzadTechnology Library, Aligarh0.242 Muslim 0.042 5.76 University 0.001
Reaping the Prospects Growers' Awareness 0.302 0.063 4.79 0.001
Reaping the Prospects Nature and Size of Land 0.312 0.073 4.27 0.001
Reaping the Prospects Finance/Insurance 0.216 0.030 7.20 0.001
Reaping the Prospects Favourable Climate 0.267 0.064 4.17 0.001
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Coefficient SE of t p Variables value value
Reaping the Prospects Technology 0.465 0.043 10.81 0.001
Horticulture Production Mitigating problems 1.512 0.076 19.89 0.001
Horticulture Production Reaping the prospects 1.509 0.114 13.24 0.001
Growers' Satisfaction Horticulture production 1.612 0.132 12.21 0.001
Based on the coefficients, horticulture production on growers’ satisfaction (1.612) is a most influencing path in this SEM model, followed by mitigating problems (1.512), reaping prospects (1.509), technology (0.465) and the least is growers’ awareness (0.087).
To test the model fit, the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis is framed.
Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis
Interrelationship among factors of horticulture cultivation has a good fit.
Alternative Hypothesis
Interrelationship among factors of horticulture cultivation does not have a good fit.
Table 6.39: Model Fit Summary of Structural Equation Model
Indices Value Suggested value Chi-Square 31.04 - Degrees of Freedom (DF) 10.00 - Chi- Square value/ DF 3.104 < 5.00 (Hair et. al.,1998) Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) 0.982 > 0.90 (Hu and Bentler, 1999) Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI) 0.963 > 0.90 (Hair et al., 2006) Normal Fit Index (NFI) 0.947 > 0.90 (Hu and Bentler, 1999) Comparative Fit Index (CFI) 0.979 > 0.90 (Daire et. al., 2008) Root Mean Square Residuals (RMR) 0.071 < 0.08 (Hair et al., 2006) Root Mean Square Error of Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh0.054 Muslim< 0.08 (Hair et.University al., 2006) Approximation (RMSEA)
Source: Compiled Survey data.
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From the above table, it is found that the calculated value of Chi-Square/DF is less than 5.0 at 5 percent level of significance which indicates that the model is a perfect fit. All the values of different indexes indicate that the model is perfectly fit.
6.6. Factor influencing Land Possession by Horticultural Farmers
The horticulture farmers of the study area have also reported and recorded that, the land they possessed for horticulture cultivation has shown some relationship with other factors to increase the farm size and planting of more horticultural crops. The horticulture land possessed taken as the dependent variable in relation to other factors, i.e. independent variables are age, gender, no. of family members, educational level and income of the farmers are discussed with the help of linear regression analysis.
Where,
Ahd= Horticulture area expansion/diversification by households in kanals A = Age of the respondent in years G = Gender of the respondent as dummy 1, male 0 otherwise
Fn = Number of family members in a household
El = Education level of respondent I = Income of the respondent
Error term
R2 = 0.54 Adj. R2 = 0.48 F = 34.62
Table 6.40: Linear Regression Model
Coefficients t -values
12.5 1.41 A -0.07 -3.14* Maulana AzadG Library,0.54 Aligarh2.61 Muslim University Fn 0.42 3.81
El 0.78 2.82** I 2.12 1.96*
*1% level of significance, **5% level of significance
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It is evident from the analysis that except age all the explanatory variables like level of education, total family members, gender and annual household income positively influence the horticultural land increase/diversification. But in the present study, only age, education and income were statistically significant at 0.05 and 0.01 level. The educational qualification of the respondents was positively influencing the expansion of horticultural land, and it was significant at 0.05 level. This shows that the more educated people were more conscious about the importance of horticultural land as an asset and hence result in more possession. The annual income of the households positively influence the expansion of horticultural land, and it was statistically significant at 0.01 levels. This means that the higher the income level farmers were economically sound to expand more horticultural land in terms of financing the investment. Further, the age of the respondents was negatively influencing the horticultural land possession, and it was statistically significant at 0.01 levels. Such inverse relations may be due to the fact that the more aged people are not inclining to have more horticultural land. The R-square and adjusted R-square for the estimation was found to be 54 percent and 48 percent which was quite high for primary data. The F-statistic for overall goodness of fit of the model was found to be 34.62 which were significant at 0.01 levels.
In this chapter first the descriptive analysis of the growers gender, age, education, occupation, family type, income, land area, and irrigation source has been formulated. Secondly, the land use pattern, fruit production, labour used, post harvest expenditures, and role of insurance in horticulture in the three divisions i.e Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh has been analysed through percentage and mean values. Thirdly, the participation of women in horticulture activities has been acknowledged. Fourthly, the inferential analysis has been carried out to find the significance of various hypothesis. Fifthly, the correlation analysis of various factors of horticulture production has been determined. Sixthly, structural equation model has been put forward to understand the relationship between problems and prospects of horticulture Maulanain the State.Azad Lastly Library, the linear and Aligarh multiple regression Muslim models determinedUniversity the relationship between various problems and production of horticulture crops. This chapter give detailed analysis and interpretation of the primary data collected. The next chapter provides the important findings, suggestions and conlusion of the study.
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Findings, Suggestions, Maulana Azad Library,and Aligarh Conclusion Muslim University Chapter 7: Conclusion, Findings, and Suggestions
CHAPTER 7
FINDINGS, SUGGESTIONS, AND CONCLUSION,
The findings of the research are categorized into following subheads:
A. Problems of horticulture, B. Prospects of horticulture, These catagories are explained in detail below.
A. Problems of Horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir Horticulture, the fascinating avocations of the farming profession is highly sensitive to the climatic conditions. All fruits, flowers, and vegetables cannot grow successfully in all types of climate and soil. Different varieties show differences in their tolerance of adaptability. The poor cropping in the orchard, which horticulturists face very often,is associated with various factors both external and internal. Among the external factor's environment, insects, pests, and diseases, as well as nutrition, are very important. The chief internal factors which influence in the fruitlessness or poor quality of flowering are sex distribution, heterostyled, dichogamy, aborted organs, nonviable pollen, genetic incompatibility and nutritive conditions (Singh et al., 1964).
7.1. Problems of Grower
Table 7.1: Major Issues in Growing
Major Issues Jammu Kashmir Ladakh Jammu and Kashmir in Growing Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Vagaries of 19 15.8 17 14.2 20 16.7 56 15.5 climate Pest control 26 21.7 21 17.5 19 15.8 66 18.3 Creating and monitoring of 35 29.2 40 33.3 39 32.5 114 31.6 controlled production Cost of 18 15.0 20 16.7 15 12.5 53 14.7 production MaulanaAvailability Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University andapplicability 14 11.7 13 10.8 21 17.5 48 13.3 oftechnology No major issue 8 6.7 9 7.5 6 5.0 23 6.3
Total 120 100.0 120 100.0 120 100.0 360 100.0
Source: Compiled Survey data.
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The primary issue in the growing of fruits in Jammu and Kashmir is creating and monitoring of controlled production, followed by pest control and then my vagaries of climate. In all the three divisions the trend is the same. Growers do not have techniques and knowledge to control and monitor the production process. Climate is not posing as much threat as the pests are causing to the production. A small percentage of growers’ opinion was that there is no major issue in growing of fruits.
Table 7.2: Marketing Issues of Grower
Issues in Jammu Kashmir Ladakh Jammu and Kashmir Marketing Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Distribution/sale 17 14.2 16 13.3 14 11.7 47 13.0 Export 23 19.2 20 16.7 21 17.5 64 17.8 Quality produce 26 21.7 25 20.8 28 23.3 79 21.9 Packing and 21 17.5 23 19.2 20 16.7 64 17.8 packaging Shelf life 20 16.7 16 13.3 24 20.0 60 16.7 Market intelligence and 8 6.7 9 7.5 9 7.5 26 7.2 communication No major issues 5 4.2 11 9.2 4 3.3 20 5.6 Total 120 100.0 120 100 120 100.0 360 100.0
Source: Compiled Survey data.
The primary issue in marketing is the quality of production; the quality of the fruits is not so good to compete with the products from other regions in the market which fetches fewer prices to the growers. The next problem faced by marketing is the export of the product and packing and packaging. The shelf life of the fruit is also creating a problem in marketing.
Table 7.3: Source of Financing for Growers
Source of Jammu Kashmir Ladakh Jammu and Kashmir Financing Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Own 26 21.7 28 23.3 30 25.0 84 23.3 Subsidy 22 18.3 24 20 19 15.8 65 18.1 Borrowing Maulanafrom public 39 Azad 32.5 Library,35 29.2 Aligarh 37 Muslim30.8 111 University30.8 sector banks Cooperatives 15 12.5 20 16.7 22 18.3 57 15.8 Other 18 15.0 13 10.8 12 10.0 43 11.9 sources Total 120 100.0 120 100 120 100.0 360 100.0
Source: Compiled Survey data.
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The most significant source of finance for the growers is borrowings from public sector banks followed by own sources, subsidy, and cooperatives.
Table 7.4: Local/ Foreign Sources for Growers
Source Jammu Kashmir Ladakh Jammu and Kashmir of Finance Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Local 108 90.0 112 93.3 118 98.3 338 93.9 source Foreign 12 10.0 8 6.7 2 1.7 22 6.1 source Total 120 100.0 120 100 120 100.0 360 100.0
Source: Compiled Survey data.
93.9 percent of the sources of finance for growers are local while the rest percentage is from foreign sources.
7.2. Problems of Agent/Intermediary/Businessman
Shelf life is the biggest issue of marketing of fruits for agents in Jammu and Kashmir, followed by the quality of the produce. A similar trend isobserved in all three divisions of the state.
Table 7.5: Marketing Issues of Agent
Jammu and Jammu Kashmir Ladakh Issues in Kashmir Marketing Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Distribution/sale 21 17.5 20 16.7 18 15.0 59 16.4 Export 12 10.0 14 11.7 16 13.3 42 11.7 Quality of 23 19.2 20 16.7 25 20.8 68 18.9 produce Packaging 18 15.0 16 13.3 19 15.8 53 14.7 Shelf life 24 20.0 21 17.5 27 22.5 72 20.0 Marketing 10 8.3 11 9.2 7 5.8 28 7.8 intelligence No major issues 12 10.0 18 15 8 6.7 38 10.6 Total 120 100.0 120 100 120 100.0 360 100.0 MaulanaSource: Compiled Azad Survey Library, data. Aligarh Muslim University Table 7.6 depicts the sources of finance of agents in Jammu and Kashmir. Public sector banks are the highest source of funding for agents in Jammu and Kashmir, followed by their own resources. The lowest source of finance for agents is the subsidy a very less percentage of subsidies are provided to agents to establish their
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fruit business. Cooperatives are also playing their part in delivering the horticulture business in the state. Sources of finance are similar in all the three regions of the state.
Table 7.6: Sources of Finance for Agent
Source of Jammu Kashmir Ladakh Jammu and Kashmir Finance Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Own 29 24.2 31 25.8 33 27.5 93 25.8
Subsidy 8 6.7 11 9.1 7 5.8 26 7.2 Borrowing from public 48 40.0 45 37.5 44 36.7 137 38.1 sector banks Cooperatives 16 13.3 18 15 19 15.8 53 14.7 Other sources of 19 15.8 15 12.5 17 14.2 51 14.2 borrowing Total 120 100.0 120 100 120 100.0 360 100.0
Source: Compiled Survey data.
7.3. Adverse Selection Problem MaulanaJammu and Kashmir Azad has a Library,rough topography Aligarh people select aMuslim wrong land that University is not feasible for the plantation, and they plant wrong varieties resulting in insignificant production that creates problem to growers which in turn has an adverse market or market failure takes place. Due to market failure usually, losses occur, so the household engaged in horticulture face the real problem. The overall welfare of the
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society is decreased. Inspite of the enormous losses in the horticulture business growers and agents in Jammu and Kashmir do not commit suicide as the trend prevailing in the rest of the country because of the selling of their available opportunity cost to borne the losses.
7.4. Signal Screening Problem
Production reaches the market mostly by the intermediary, i.e., agent, but it can also reach directly by the grower. If the grower interacts directly with the market being less information about the market will create a bad signal, and the screening will be fewer prices fetched by produce in the market resulting in a loss. Thus, taking away the intermediary doesn’t solve the problem. Therefore providing full information to the grower about the market will redress the price problem and the aspects of demand and supply. If grower acts with the complete information principle, then no loss will occur in the market. Instead of taking out the intermediaries government should educate the growers about the market structure and the information principle. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
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Production
Market A 3.Search Market B and Match Problem
Market D Market C
7.5. Search and Match Problem
As oligopoly exists in the fruit markets and mandies, the agents are indifferent in the selling of the fruit among the markets. Agents randomly select the markets for selling of the produce without knowing the first-hand information of the markets. The cross- hauling among the markets and the less information principle results in the selection of adverse market that provides less price and profits or even losses to the agent and in turn to growers of the produce.
Secondly, the agents take advance from a particular market, and the agent in return cannot sell the produce in another market, so a kind of bilateral monopoly exists in the market. It is because of this bilateral monopoly that the production is sold at fewer prices, and the agent receives either fewer profits or even losses. Thus there is a Maulanamismatch between Azad agents and Library, market selection. Aligarh Muslim University
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7.6.Environmental Problems
7.6.1. Light
Light intensity influence plant growth and development. The respective length of light and dark periods influences photosynthesis and respiration, the formation of carbohydrates in fruit crops, the creation of flower buds and the development of storage organs. In general, within any given 24 hour period, most of the long day - short night plant s require 8 to 10 hours of continuous dark and most of the short day - long night plants require l0-14 hours of constant darkness for the formation of their flower buds. (Edmong etal., 1979). Horticulturists’ have to select varieties which are adapted to the relative length of light and dark periods in a given location. Jammu and Kashmir receive a suitable light of 4.81 KWh/m2/day which is more than sufficient for fruit cultivation.
7.6.2. Heat and Temperature
Each crop needs a specific range of temperature. If they are grown below or above the range of optimum temperature, the production is bound to suffer. Unreasonably high temperatures during late winter and early spring are frequently detrimental to many fruits and flowers; as the buds lose their hardiness or resistance to low temperatures. Harmful effects of winter temperatures are classified as follows: (1) injuries due to immaturity of the tissues, (2) injuries due to unreasonably high temperatures followed by low temperatures, (3) injuries associated with winter drought and (4) injuries due to insufficient cold. High temperatures may promote sugar content, but low temperatures can cause late blossoming and also inhibit insect activity.
7.6.3. Rainfall
Excessive and deficient rainfall are vital problems for horticulture. Heavy rain leads to waterlogging conditions resulting in poor blossoms and fruiting. On the contrary, low rainfall needs irrigation which means a rise in the cost of production but losses Maulanadue to pestsAzad and diseases Library, are minimized. Aligarh Jammu and Muslim Kashmir, being University blessed with almost all types of major Agro-climatic zones of India face related troubles also. Natural calamities, either in the form of flood or drought simultaneously or sometimes together in the State threatens Horticulturists. Of all the climatic parameters, rainfall appears to be a single dominant variable that has prevented sustained agricultural
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production. Jammu and Kashmir receive an average rainfall of 200 cm per year, 80 p.c. of which is concentrated in June to October. When there is an excessive and continuous rainfall occurs, river beds are silted to carry the excess volume of water, cover flooding the banks and causing a flood. On the contrary, excess of evaporation over precipitation with hot spells, scanty vegetation due to poor and unproductive soil, results in drought. According to Indian Meteorological Department, the area is declared to drought-prone where rainfall is less than 75% of the regular fall excluding the areas having 30% of their land under the irrigated scheme.
Flood prone districts of Jammu and Kashmir are the districts of Anantnag,Pulwama, Baramulla, and Shopian. Almost every year some of them have to face grave situations due to sudden low pressure and continuous rain or chocked drainage systems.
7.6.4. Humidity
Atmospheric humidity is very much important to concern. Its effect on plant growth and development may be; (1) favorable, (2) deficit and (3) excess. Both the deficit and excess conditions are taken to be carefully off. The immediate effect of the deficit of humidity is a reduction in the size of the cells in the region. Mild deficiencies produce stems with short internodes and leaks. Flowers and fruits are also small with a dull finish. The effect of deficit explains why marketable yields are low after a dry spell and the plants become susceptible to winter injury. Water deficit during summer produce crops of poorly filled fruits. The extreme effect is witting. Withcontinued witting, plants continue to starve and finally die. The excess condition produces leggy seedlings and the growth cracks. Some tropical fruits, like jackfruit, banana requires high humidity but in other fruits high atmospheric humidity effects adversely in color and keeping quality. Humid conditions also promote bacterial growth and fungus.
7.6.5. Wind
MaulanaHigh and hot windsAzad and cyclonesLibrary, cause severeAligarh damage toMuslim these highly sensitiveUniversity products. Strong dust storms restrict the growth of fruits, cause breakage of the branches of fruit trees and shedding of flowers, vegetables, and fruits. Only the area where hail storm does not occur is suitable for horticulture. In such areas, rising of dense windbreak belts and selection of protected sites are necessary for successful crop production.
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7.6.6. Altitude and Slope
The elevation of the land, meant for orchard, refer to the altitude of the surface of the land above or below sea level (with an elevation of 1,220 meters a decrease of about 7.8°C is obtained). These differences in elevation, within any particular region, are chiefly responsible for differences in the length of the frost-free growing period and the maximum temperatures that occur. Mountain slopes, facing the direction of the prevailing wind or windward slopes have more rain and a lesser amount of sunshine, and unless the soils are well-derived, excess of water become a serious problem. Similarly, leeward slope (the opposite one) has relatively dry air and a greater amount of sunshine, need irrigation during the period of water deficit. Horticultural crops are grown on the level and slightly sloped sites. Most flowers and vegetables require cultivation and pest control and harvesting operations can be performed more efficiently on such lands.
7.6.7. Soils
The cereal crops cannot judge the soil fitness for horticultural crops. The physical and chemical composition of the soil playsa critical role in the success of orchard. Ideal soil should be porous, aerated, at least 2 m deep, having uniform texture to the depth, possessing perfect drainage and water table about 3 m. Fluctuating water table damages the root zone and struggles for moisture and nutrients. Low water table zone reduces the vigor and longevity of the trees. Soil-improving crops reduce erosion, checks the flow of water, spread and filter it from its load of silt, increasing the fertility of the soil. The selection of soil-improving crop depends on many factors like - (i) kind of crop (legume or nonlegume); (2) adaptation to soil and climate; and (3) types of horticultural enterprise.
7.6.8. Insect, Pests, and Diseases
Insect pests and diseases are also serious problems in horticultural crops. The common diseases which affect herbaceous, annuals, biennials, and other ornamental Maulanaplants are Azad ; (a) "Dampin Library,g off", due Aligarh to overwatering Muslim (b) stem rot (found University in Dahlia, Pansy, Carnation et.) ; (c) leafspot and blight (chrysanthemum and Jasmine); (d) foot rot (aster and other annuals); (e) powdery mildew (roses, zinnia, floxes, sweet peas etc.) which produce white powdery coating on the foliage, are all due to various types of fungi. Various diseases are also found in annuals like marigold, hollyhock, etc. Apart from fungi, insect pests like 'Aphids', 'Beatles', 'thaips', 'cut-worms',
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'caterpillars', and 'scale insects' are also headache of the Agriculturists, Mango hoppers; if infest mango blossoms may be last all the flowers on a tree or even in the whole orchard. The control of such pests and diseases and suitable preventive measures are very much important (Roy Chowdhury, S.P. et al., 1968, 1970).
7.7. Practice to Induce Fruiting
To induce proper fruiting and flowering, certain treatments like (a) cultivation, spraying, pruning of the leafy growth are exercised on a limited scale and (b) root exposure, bounding, ringing, notching, smudging are practiced on desired portions of the trees.
7.7.1. Pollination Problem
Pollination problem occurs in dioecious trees like papaya. To ensure a good set of fruits, one male tree for every ten female trees should be planted. Thinning of blossoms is practiced when the tree tends to bear too many flower buds, flowers, and fruits in the 'on' year. 'Blossom thinning' is done in deciduous fruit trees. A few young fruits from heavily bearing clusters provide greater advantage of space, light, water, good to others so that they can be expected to be larger in size, better in quality and brighter in color.
7.7.2. Mulching of Soil
From an orchard, maximum production is possible only when the soil is managed carefully, and nature is devoid of calamities. 'Mulching' of soil (covering the interspaces with hay, straw, cut grasses, etc.) Conserve moisture and also facilitate hibernation of rodents. Growing of permanent cover crops on undulating or sloping land is needed to prevent soil erosion. In the cases of intensively cultivated fruits like citrus, irrigation channels are kept clear so that intercrops thrive well. Raising of vegetables, pulses, and short duration fruit crops in the orchards of permanent fruit crops can relieve the farmer economically till the net return comes from the orchard. Short duration fruit crops like papaya, Banana, and Pineapples are very commonly Maulanaused as fillers. TheAzad choice ofLibrary, intercrops depend Aligarhs on the fruit Muslimtrees grown, location University of the orchards, nature of the soil and the amount of rainfall received by the area. Orchards, nearby towns and cities, profitable grow vegetables like cauliflower, cabbages, carrots, beets, radish, lettuce, spinach, tomato, etc. whereas far away orchards can benefit from crops like onion, potato, garlic, chili, pulses, and gram.
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7.7.3. Manuring and Fertilization
Adequate fertilizer is necessary to feed them all. Decomposition of cover crops, leaf litters, twigs, etc. form excellent green manure by the help of soil micro-organisms. Other organic manures are farmyard manures, oil-cakes, etc. "Farmyard Manure" is prepared by adding 1.5 percent nitrogen, 0.5 percent phosphoric acid and 1.3 percent of potash. Among the concentrated fertilizers Nitrates of Ammonia, Sodium, and Potassium, Phosphates of Calcium, Sodium, and Potassium fertilizers are used to enrich the orchard soil.
7.7.4. Root Pruning
To force flowering in fruit trees like mosambi, mandarin orange, which flowers three times in a year, results in erratic setting and maturing in small, inferior quality crops at different times of the year. About two months before the flowering period, the soil around the trees is removed, and the main roots are exposed to the Sun and the tertiary roots are removed. During this period 'root exposure' the tree is forced to take rest. The method is most suitable in retentive soils (remain moist for a long time). Root Pruning is practiced for the culture of dwarf: fruit trees. Every year, a trench is dug a few cms further away from previous year's trench, and the roots are pruned to within 3-5cms of the stumps of the former year. After pruning the trench is filled with manures liberally (Singh, Krishnamurthy, etal., 1983).
7.7.5. Bending System
Bending of branches is widely practiced for increasing fruit production in guava, especially in the erect growing varieties. Large branches are bent and tied in arch fashion with other similar branches increasing fruiting area. Ringing or girdling is made on a small branch just below a flower or flower cluster. Due to the downward movement of carbohydrates collected above the ring develop the fruits into a bigger size. Ringing is practiced on trees which are vigorous in vegetative growth. Maulana"Notching" Azad is partial Library, ringing in which Aligarh strip of bark, just Muslim above or close University to the dormant bud is removed to encourage more seasonal growth. Sometimes "Smudging” or smoking of the trees is done to direct the smoke to all parts of the trees which ensures swelling of terminal buds. This practice is usually done on mango trees.
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7.8. Post Harvest Problems
Harvesting of horticultural crops, which is a fragile and highly perishable product and are very profitable only when they are handled with care. There remains a risk of tearing of flesh or rind of fruits white packing. Although ladder is used for plucking from high trees by hand is always the best. Stages of picking depend on the distance of the market. Some fruits tend to deteriorate when allowed to ripen on the tree and hence should pluck in a little immature stage. Picking under heavy dew or wet weather can bruise the fruit surface causing spots and hence fetch a low price. Summarizing, loss in horticulture have been found mainly due to:
a) Injuries due to unscientific plucking
b) Conventional grading at the assembling center
c) Highly unsuitable and damaging system of transportation in moving the fruits
d) The stage of maturity of the fruits plucked for export.
7.9. Problems in Marketing
The market price is reduced if the fruits are not sent to the market just after plucking even in the high season as they lose their quality, so any problem with transport facility can damage the fruit trade heavily. The marketing of horticultural crops is a complex process. It consists of all those functions and processes involved in the movement of the product from the place of production to that of consumption. The marketing activities involve not only the functions of buying and selling but also the preparation of produce for marketing, assembling, packing, transportation, grading, storage, processing, retailing, etc. The number of functions and its type varies from product to product, from time to time and from place to place.In the coming years, a major shift in consumption patterns in favor of fresh and processed fruits and vegetables is expected; hence, there is an urgent need to solve the common problems in marketing of horticultural crops. They are explained below: Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University There is an absence of grading and sorting either at the field level or at the market place. The reasons for this are lack of a proper standard for different horticultural crops and grading facilities. There is fear about the disposal of low-grade produce and non-availability of mechanical graders.
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Lack of innovative packing technology is responsible fora massive amount of losses. An overview of the status of packing in our country shows that about 30 percent of the marketable fruits and vegetables perish. The available methods of packing lead to spoilage in transit. It is complicated to protect the produce against mechanical hazards involved in long road journey through wooden cartons. The available cold storage facilities are insufficient. Moreover, most of them are under private control who charges higher rent. The available space is inadequate. Non-availability of proper warehouse facilities for horticultural crops storage is another problem. Now fruits and vegetables are stored under open conditions or on trenches and pits resulting in huge amount of losses due to rotting and drying. Movement of the produce from the place of origin to the place of consumption is another problem of the horticultural crop growers in Jammu and Kashmir. Horticultural produce is mostly transported by road or bullock carts, tractors, and trucks. In most of the growing areas, the roads are not properly maintained, and in certain backward regions, there is no road facility at all. The absence of all-weather roads and the quickest means of transportlead to delay in transportation, resulting in spoilage of the produce. Market intelligence plays a vital role in the marketing of fruits and vegetables. The prices of produce are dependent mainly on the market situation. A grower not having proper information regarding the market cannot take advantage of high prices whenever those are prevalent. Sometimes horticultural crop growers get very little out of their sal, and this may be because of low prices on the market, high marketing cost, malpractices by commission agents and other market functionaries, etc. Most of the fruits and vegetables are sold based on baskets or through number Maulanaand Azad not by weighing. Library, As such, Aligarh neither the buyer Muslim nor the seller knowsUniversity the exact quantity and exact price. Absence of an organized marketing system for horticultural crops is yet another major problem faced by the growers in Jammu and Kashmir.
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Low-cost technologies for post-harvest handling have not been adequately developed. Carelessness and non-application of the existing technology made way for a huge amount of loss. Insufficient knowledge of curing is a significant problem. Improper curing leads to a huge loss especially in vegetables like potatoes and onion. The Non-functioning of the co-operative system of marketing except at a few places is another problem of marketing of horticultural crops. Non-availability of adequate facilities for processing of fresh fruits and vegetables pose another problem. Poor export performance over the year is a threat to the horticulture sector in Jammu and Kashmir. There are no organized efforts to produce fruits and vegetables exclusively for exports.
The following are some of the issues that governments, both at the center and the states, need to sort out to encourage further investment and generate more significant employment opportunities in the horticulture and floriculture sector
A large part of agricultural land in Jammu and Kashmir is still dependent on monsoons. Developing irrigation facility must be a priority area for the government.
The back-up infrastructure facilities like cold-storages, roads and distribution and management of horticulture products must also be given due attention.
Farmers in Jammu and Kashmir need to be provided the right technical inputs so that the yield is optimum and of high quality. Organic farming must be encouraged, so those Jammu and Kashmir horticulture products can compete with those arriving from other countries in the international market.
Research and development are critical and must be promoted in the sector in areas like development of a high-yielding variety of seeds and soil testing. Maulana Packaging Azad and marketing Library, of horticulture Aligarh products is another Muslim area that leaves University a lot to be desired. Those engaged in the sector should be made aware of the importance of the above two factors in their efforts to increase their reach and marketshare.
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The farmers involved in the horticulture sector should have easy access to financial instruments like micro-credits and loans.
Practices like cooperative farming need to be promoted among farmers.
Tax structures on horticulture products need to be rationalized so that the cost of the end products can be kept within reasonable limits.
The above measures, if implemented, will lead to a huge influx of investment in the horticulture sector. And once the sector acquires stability, it will allow the companies engaged in the production and processing of horticulture products, even to get listed in the futures market to meet their financial needs.
"At the production level, the major challenge is low productivity, while at the post- production stage, the wastage rate is very high." The study noted that the average productivity of most fruit and vegetables is low when compared to global orchards.
There is a wide gap between current and potential yields. It can be lessened by improved technology and variety. Water utilization, seed quality, pest, and diseases management and technology suitability for small and marginal landholdings are the areas of concern.
According to the study, estimated wastage in Jammu and Kashmir ranges from 11 percent in mangoes to as high as 90 percent in tomatoes, 70 percent in pear and 8 percent in apple. This has resulted in less marketable surplus and small trade in the sector. Some other contributors are the slow development of post-harvest technologies and their dissemination.
7.10. Horticulture and Emerging Challenges
The organized glut of a wide range of rationally priced horticultural crops in developed nations has led to a marked indulgence about the need for ongoing R&D programmes in horticulture. Consequently, many governments worldwide have scaled back funding for Maulanafood production Azad (at leastLibrary, in the applied Aligarhareas of R&D) andMuslim unfortunately, University most research- driven universities have now disbanded horticultural science departments and amalgamated them into plant science departments with anextreme focus on the molecular sciences. On the contrary, the vitalrequirement for research on horticultural fruits has not reduced, slightly the challenges have enhanced in difficulty given the current consumer
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demands for affordability, safety, and continuity of supply. The increasing demandsto accomplish sustainable goals; and the conditions to deal with challenges originating from uneven climate, the failure of productive soils through urbanization, and the loss of low- cost labor. Hence, precisepriorities, need to be recognized for horticultural research to meet such challenges.
With ever-increasing public awareness, the support of healthy habit benefits throughout the eating of a variety of fresh and dried fruits and vegetables and their juices, dried products and extracts—many of which have extensive on-label claims are on the augment. Nonetheless, many such claims have not been clinically confirmed, and regulators increasingly require label claims to either be substantiated or removed. To properlydecide the presumed health benefits in many fruits and vegetables would be a motivating area of endeavor where there is a blending of horticultural science with the dietary and medical study. Further, due to improvedcustomer interest towards the eating of fresh relatively than a frozen one, an additional challenge for horticultural science is to advance methods for short- term storage so that superior quality is retained quite than to focus on longer-term storage for extended marketing.
The concept of sustainability of horticultural crops narratesequally to the utilization of resources, such as water and nutrients, in a such a way that cater the future needs, and the responsible use of obnoxious compounds such as pesticides which will not conciliation the worth of the environment. Accessibility of water is the most relevant issue that is facing horticultural production in almost all areas of the world. Hence, research is desirable to decide matters such as the development of drought-resistant crops, pertaining with increased alkalinity, the management of plants under managed water deficits, use of low quality/ wastewater and the exercise of additionalcompetent application methods, such as easy greenhouses. Integrated crop production systems have been discovered to be helpful on various crops for decreasing the pesticide applications and for transferring to new control compounds that have meagerinsistence in the environment and which are of lower toxicity. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University The regular supply of safe, healthy fruit and vegetables and cutflowers to consumers has, over the past 50 years, primarily been through a permutation of locally-produced and imported plants that have been handled duringnumeroustransportation and storage systems. The options like high costs of energy for transport and storage, changes in
220 Chapter 7: Conclusion, Findings, and Suggestions
consumer use preferences and consumer concerns, may no longer be viable for some markets. Collectively these issues pose a significant threat and would need to be addressed through inter-organizations.
The demand for valuable and appropriate information is growing as horticulture activities become more complicated and frequentlyancillary stressed on the export of their products. With the beginning of new technologies, such as remote sensing, environmental monitoring, image analysis, and others, there is a growing spread of the various kinds of information sets. There is a need for transmitting specific information and relevant knowledge about horticulture to reduce the problems. Hence explicit databases and websites provide useful experience about horticulture would need to be put in the public domain throughthe web.
Lastly, the preservation of plant germplasm for future generations is essential, and the creation of Svalbard Global Seed Vault1 is one such famous instances. However, since most fruit crops are of vegetatively propagated and not propagated through seeds,confines the options for their protection other than through comparativelydear live plant assemblage, hence such problems also need to be focused.
The process of globalization of the horticultural industry will transfer knowledge and ideas. This will encompass the shuffle of leadingbusinesses from developed to developing nations. Eventually, this process would require the involvement of governments too if and when incidences of food scarcity increase.
7.11. Human Issues in Horticulture
Lewis (1988) stated:
“It is evident that an industry which solelydepends on the buying of plants should realize the meanings plants may grasp and the kinds of needs they assure in the people who bought it.”
Unfortunately, innate arguments in support of plants often make lessintuition on Maulanamonetarily Azad pressed localLibrary, or state governments, Aligarh or de Muslimvelopers apprehensive University with the baseline. The lack of research on plant profitsintended to decreaseexpenses for plants in other necessary settings, such as workplaces, health-care facilities, and outdoor areas of apartment complexes.
1 The Svalbard Global Seed Vault is a secure seed bank on the Norwegian island of Spitsbergen.
221 Chapter 7: Conclusion, Findings, and Suggestions
Public awareness with the increased research in this area significantly increase the appreciation and use of plants, demand for horticulture products, job increase and increase in demand for horticulture research and education.
Similarly,it is essential to increase the desire for horticulture among the young people, if the human influence is addressed well through research in horticulture that may result in increased life expectancy of plants as social and emotional factors play a significant role in the survival of plants. This research will have a direct effect on the progress of human health and environmentally sound landscape.
Gardens and landscapes have an important interrelationship with humans and their surroundings. Each social identity must increase the efforts to safeguard the plants and the environment particularly the horticulture plants to ensure food security of the world.
7.12. Horticulture and Health Problems
Table 7.7 shows the various diseases of horticulture crops their symptoms and treatment. Scab is very common in the apple about 30 percent of the production of apple each year is destroyed by scab.
Table 7.7: Horticulture Diseases
Crop Common Diseases Symptom Management/Treatment Captafol 200gm or Captan 300gm or Scab (VenturiaInaequalis) See appendix Mancozeb 400 gm per 100 lit. Powdery Mildew Dinocap 0.05% or See appendix (Podosphaeraleucotricha) Chinomethionate 0.1% Apple Fire Blight See appendix Streptomycin 500 ppm. (Erwiniaamyloovora) Bitter rot Pink masses of spores are found Mancozeb 0.25% (glomerellacingulata) Alternaria See appendix
Apricot Leaf Curl See appendix
Scab Captafol 200gm or Captan 300gm or See appendix (VenturiaInaequalis) Mancozed 400 gm per 100 lit. Walnut blight Walnut leaves are susceptible Fungicides (Xanthomonasjuglandis) MaulanaAlmond Ceratocystis Azad canker Library,fruits are damaged AligarhFungicides Muslim University Anthracnose See appendix Mancozeb 0.5% Mango Dinocap 0.05% or Powdery mildew See appendix Chinomethionate 0.1% Gardens Rust and Leaf Spots See appendix Fungicides
Source: Secondary data
222 Chapter 7: Conclusion, Findings, and Suggestions
7.13. Problem of Interaction
The interaction denotes individual to an individual communication or individual to group communication in various forums such as officials visit district horticulture office, workshop, trade fair, seminar, KisanMela exhibitions, etc. It is observed that some of the sample growers are not attending any programs initiated by the district, State, and Central Government. Farmer’s interaction will help them to acquire knowledge and skills as well as share their ideas and experiences on their horticultural practices. Therefore, the growers can solve some of their issues or problems on horticulture farming through interaction with Govt. officials, training and visit to other successful/progressive farmer’s farm for better understanding and motivation. Besides, these some other minor issues act as an obstacle in the performing of horticulture production which are road connectivity, market research, transportation and communication, family members support, etc. Therefore, Government developmental agencies and public should extend their co-operation and coordination to overcome these entire problems.
7.14. Problem of Education
Education plays a vital role in every walk of life for an individual. Lack of knowledge among the sample beneficiaries is one of the problems of studied districts. Due to this, the growers are not in a position to know more about the horticulture sector in Jammu and Kashmir. Thus, as a result, the growers are not approaching the horticulture department about any support and help for their horticulture farm. So, in addition to this, the lack of education makes the growers less respond to modern technologies and another advancement which are required for proper development of the horticulture sector. Therefore, to equip the growers with all these modern techniques and technology, proper training and motivational campaigns should be provided from the side of the State and Central Government.
7.15. Problem of Maintenance Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University The growers of horticulture crops in the studied area find it hard to maintain their farms such as boundary fence, medicine to the plants, cleaning up of unwanted plants and grasses, etc. The proper and systematic look-after to the horticulture crops will yield a considerable return in term of production, productivity, and income of farmers
223 Chapter 7: Conclusion, Findings, and Suggestions
of the Jammu and Kashmir. Therefore, the Government should provide aid to growers for the maintenance of the orchards.
7.16. Problem of Know-how
Know-how means the process and procedure of cultivation of horticulture crops. It is almost found that some of the growers do not have the idea and knowledge of planting the plants or nurseries systematically, medication of plants, etc., which as a result hamper in the productivity of horticultural crops. Sometimes, due to lack of knowledge of farming the plant get spoiled or die up for the cause of not planting as per the required method. Therefore, it’s a severe problem on the part of the grower to take adequate care to have the knowledge of first-hand information on the method and techniques for the planting of horticultural crops.
7.17. Problem of Technology
In today’s modern world, technology plays a major role in the growth and development of all sectors of a nation. The growers of the study area are facing these problems because they are unaware or not in a situation to use the latest and modern technology. It was found that the majority of farmers are using the traditional way of cultivation in their orchards which as a result create obstacle in the progress of growth and development. To compete or increase the scale of the area, production and productivity the growers of horticulture products should start to introduce modern methods and technology.
7.18. Problem of Labor
Another main constraint in the cultivation of horticulture orchard is non-availability of labor in the study area during peak hours of work. As the response by the respondents that due to the shortage of labor in the area, it’s very hard to take care of horticulture crops during the period of pre and post-harvesting. The area, production, and productivity of horticultural crops are depending on the workforce of the growers. The majority of growers are not in a position to employ labor in their field due to non- availability of labor. Therefore, the growers of horticulture crops employ their family Maulanamembers in the Azadfield for maintenance Library, and other Aligarh purposes. The Muslim study shows thatUniversity 18% of sample respondents faced the problem of labor shortage in the study area.
7.19. Marketing Problems of Apple in Jammu and Kashmir
The present marketing system for apple produce in Jammu and Kashmir State failed to give sufficient returns to the growers.The analysis of the marketing problem is
224 Chapter 7: Conclusion, Findings, and Suggestions
complex. This is so because the concept and meaning of marketing widely differ. However, horticulture marketing consists of all the activities concerned in the flow of horticulture produce from the farming to assembling, processing and distributing and secondary services like storage, transportation, grading and standardization, financing, risk bearing, and market information. Against this background, one cannot help but conclude that State of Jammu and Kashmir has yet to wait a lotin making the horticulture to act on the modem lines of scientific knowledge. Recounting the benefits of modem marketing techniques and tools, Mr. Francis in his book Modern Marketing Management - An Introduction has aptly said, “The productivity can come only through making use of the marketing concept and using its techniques to reach the zenith of productivity.”2
Keeping an eye on the above fact, one of the constant criticalhindrance to the improvement of the marketing system and procedures of horticulture produce in Jammu and Kashmir State is the production pattern itself. The modern and scientific method of marketing is complicated unless it is accompanied by modem and quality production.
The problems of the apple industry in terms of production techniques are as under:
Layout
Maximum productivity from the orchard is as a result of better layout. Orchard layout is the allocation of space and the arrangement of trees within the farm in such a style to achieve the maximum output of high-quality fruit with the lowest possible effort, so far layout of orchards is concerned; it is observed that 75.60 percent is properly laid out and remaining 26.40 percent are irregular. Hence maximum productivity from the irregular portion of orchards is not possible.
Diseases and, Pests
The main problem of the apple industry is that its maximum portion of production is affected by scab disease. The scab is one of the most severe conditions which have a Maulanaterrible effectAzad on appleLibrary, production. Aligarh Before 1973, itMuslim was only limited University to certain varieties of apple, viz. Ameri, DoodaAmeri, Irayal including JungaIrayal. But during the last few years, scab disease has extended to other types of apple which also
2 Francis, K. “Modern Marketing Management - An introduction”, p. 241, S. Chand and Company, Ltd. New Delhi, 1980.
225 Chapter 7: Conclusion, Findings, and Suggestions
includes Delicious, Hazratbali, Sharanpuri, Maharaja, and American. As such scab disease has influenced almost full fruit production of the State as is also evident from Table 7.8 given below:
Table 7.8: Type of disease attack
Percentage of Degree of attack fruit orchard Severe attack 10.52 Moderate attack 31.58 Low attack 57.9 Source: Compiled from the published data entitled “Report a pre-falling of apple in J&K,” p.6 Directorate of Horticulture (Statistics Wing), J&K Govt., 2015
From Table 7.1 it is evident that almost full fruit production, in theState is profoundlydamaged by diseases.The quality of fruitvariety is reduced and also production possibility ofa tree and thereby leaving it of noeconomic value.
To control such a problem and minimize the incidence of disease, the Government authorities took, various measures which include:
i. Issue of literature, the holding of exhibitions and demonstration shows,
ii. Conduct of multiple classes in apple growing areas whereby growers are informed about the results of pests and diseases and their proper control
iii. Introduction of plant diseases and pests Act 1973.
Despite these measures,the Government doesn’t succeed in eradicating the scab disease.
Traditional Technology
In Jammu and Kashmir State, fruit cultivation is carried through poor equipment, Maulanainadequate and Azad obsolete tools.Library, This method Aligarh is primari lyMuslim responsible forUniversity low productivity. Over the years the age-old techniques have been refined and sharpened out, even these are not up to the mark. Hence there is proper scope for improvement in the method of cultivation and adoption of improved horticultural practices. Reasons for no adoption of modem technology are many and are classified as under:
226 Chapter 7: Conclusion, Findings, and Suggestions
i. Lack of knowledge
This is the major obstacle in the way of adoption of new horticultural technology. Most growers are ignorant and generally uninformed of the latest methods and techniques of production.
ii. Financial deficiencies
The prices of new implements and equipment are high enough, hence beyond the reach of the majority of below marginal and marginal growers. The successful adoption of costly improved horticultural practices is conditioned to a great extent on the financial position of the grower.
B. Prospects of Horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir
7.1. Comparative Advantage
The climate in hills and mountains differ from the terrain. During summer, the temperature in the hills and mountains is low. Usual season vegetables in hills considered as off-season in the ground and neighboring countries. Off-season vegetables fetch a higher price in the market as well. Because of diverse agro- ecological situations in the hills and mountains, different fruits, spices, flowers have niche value as well as it has comparative advantages like production season of fruits is differed from India and Bangladesh.
7.2. Employment Opportunity
The drain of the workforce overseas is due to unemployment problems in the country. Production, processing, and marketing of horticultural crops create employment opportunity to the rural and urban youths. Commercialization of horticulture crops and their value addition generate income to the people. The following are the identified categories of jobs that require varying degrees of familiarity with horticulture;
MaulanaNursery Azadoperation Library, Aligarh Muslim University
(a) Nursery manager (coordinates the entire nursery operations)
(b) Propagator (develops quality planting material)
(c) Field supervisor (supervises and plans fieldwork)
227 Chapter 7: Conclusion, Findings, and Suggestions
(d) Plant technician (advises and guides plant care)
(e) The salesperson (works on the promotion and sale of plant material)
Turfgrass operation
(a) Landscape technician (establishes and maintains landscape)
(b) Golf course architect (designs a golf course)
(c) Golf course superintendent (supervises the construction and maintenance of the golf course)
Crop production
(a) Farm manager (manages the horticulture farm)
(b) Crop grower (produces vegetables, fruits, and flowers)
Florist operation
(a) Floral designer (creatively arranges flowers)
(b) The store manager (manages and supervises the store of the farm)
(c) Plant rental supervisor (manages plants and pots, and makes floral arrangements on rent)
Education
(a) Teacher/trainer (teaches horticulture in the formal or informal system)
(b) Researcher (conducts research to develop new products and varieties)
(c) Extension person (disperses innovative techniques and methods among people)
Industrial operation
The horticultural industry has spawned several supporting or service industries, Maulanaincluding the following Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Developer or producer of Agro-chemicals
The horticulture industry depends on a variety of chemicals, including fertilizers, pesticides and growth hormones. These chemicals are called agro-chemicals.
228 Chapter 7: Conclusion, Findings, and Suggestions
Farm machinery
Machinery, tools, and implements are required for preparing the land, planting, cultivation, spray, harvest, store and packaging. Engineers design and construct the tools and machinery required for extensive and intensive production of horticultural plants. Home garden versions of some of these machinery and equipment are also available.
Distributors
Horticultural products need to be transported from the areas of production to nearby and distant markets, and ultimately, to consumers. Because of their highly perishable nature and to retain their quality for a long duration, horticultural products require special care and handling in transportation. It requires a special person to look after this aspect.
7.3. National and International Market
Kashmir has been under the process of rapid urbanization. It is assumed that by 2030 about 50% of the population will live in the town and cities. This will create a high demand for agricultural commodities in the markets. At the present context, the import of fruits, vegetables, and other high-value commodities is increasing every year.
In some commodities where import is increasing it can be substituted by producing such commodities within the country such as; apple, pear, onion, potato, and other vegetables. On the other hand, by utilizing diverse agro-ecology of hills and mountains, various high-value commodities can be produced in niche areas and export to other nations.
7.4. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
EIA of constructing terrace floriculture or mountain gardens in Jammu and Kashmir is Maulanasummarized Azad in the table Library, below. Aligarh Muslim University
229 Chapter 7: Conclusion, Findings, and Suggestions
Table 7.9: EIA andits impact on horticulture
Environmental Environmental Mitigation Phase of Project Impact Measurement Component Measures Plan Small dust Construction pollutants while forming Terraces
Terrace Garden
shall improve the Regular quality of Air. maintenance of Increased tourist Increased tourist Operation terrace gardens Air Environment inflow harmsthe inflow can reduce quality of the and Air quality environment
Construction Muddy Water Positive impact on Reduces Run-off the community Water Water and used Proper usage of around the terrace Operation Environment for irrigation of runoff water and mountain terrace gardens gardening Soil erosion at Construction Reduces Soil initial level erosion after Reduction of Land Reduces soil Land Environment terrace gardens degradation Operation erosion after are formed plantation Some level of Tourist influx Construction Overall increase in Noise noise shall enhance the noise Environment Operation Increase in noise noise Change in socio- Construction economic Development of Overall relations Community Development of Socio-Economic The positive around the society will Environment development of formation of Operation increase both socially and terrace gardens economically Jammu and Kashmir hasexcellent potential for horticulture tourism. Coase theorem shows that additional benefit comes to society when more mountain land is taken under horticulture tourism. The environmental impact assessment shows that eradication of environmental pollution by increasing fresh air, reduction of soil erosion and proper management of water runoff. In other words in-spite of overall environmental development there is also an enhancement in the socio-economic development of the society by planting horticulture trees and promoting tourism of Maulanathese destinations. Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University By making terrace gardens and planting fruit trees on barren and mountainous land following changes shall happen in the economy:
Land degradation can be reduced. Labour employment will increase.
230 Chapter 7: Conclusion, Findings, and Suggestions
Proper allocation of natural resources will happen. More recreation and tourist destinations will appear. Discretionary demand will increase because of increased money income in the economy.
Leisure-labor trade-off shall increase which has a positive effect on the economy.
7.5. Horticulture and Human Health
The meta-analysis has provided evidence for the positive effects of gardening on human health. With a rising demand for the reduction of health care costs worldwide, the findings have important policy implications. The results presented here suggest that landscaping can improve physical, psychological, and social health, which can, from a long-term perspective, alleviate and prevent various health issues facing today's society. Therefore, it is suggested that government and health organizations should consider gardening as a beneficial health intervention and encourage people to participate in regular exercise in gardens. For the same, policymakers need to increase people's opportunity and motivation to engage with gardening activities. The former requires enough space where people can enjoy gardening, and the latter lacks the various advantages of gardening to be made apparent to a broad audience. Because gardens are accessible spaces for all kinds of people, including children, elderly people, and those with a disability, and relatively easily and quickly implemented in urban areas as a “land-sharing” strategy (Soga et al., 2015; Stott et al., 2015), we believe that such actions and policies would at the same time contribute significantly to redressing health inequalities.
To our knowledge, this meta-analysis is the first to provide a quantitative synthesis of the evidence that gardening is beneficial for human health. Overall, the results suggest Maulanathat participating Azad in Library, gardening activities Aligarh has a significant Muslim positive impact University on health. Indeed, the positive relationship with gardening has been seen for a diverse range of health benefits, such as reductions in depression and anxiety symptoms, stress, mood disturbance, and BMI, as well as increases in quality of life, sense of community, physical activity levels, and cognitive function.
231 Chapter 7: Conclusion, Findings, and Suggestions
C. Suggestions
After analyzing the various problems and prospects of the horticulture in the state following suggestions have been made which may be fruitful in increasing the welfare of the people through threshold horticulture.
1. Micro-propagation should be widely applied aspect of plant biotechnology. A provision for Up-scaling of micro-propagation activities in target horticultural crops at different centers in public and private sector is also recorded. The existing centers should be given financial support to create a facility for large scale multiplication and hardening facilities.
2. Establishment of National Centre for Plant Disease Diagnosis (NCPDD).
3. High-density planting (HDP) is one of the methods to enhance productivity per unit area for horticultural crops.
4. Precision farming for horticulture crops.
5. The protected farming of horticultural crops of high-quality products for international and local markets. The different types of protected structures being adopted by the growers are based on the agro-climatic region and the availability of different inputs.
6. Use of Plastic Mulching. It is the covering of soil around the root zone of the plant with a plastic film. It restricts weed growth, conserve moisture and reduce the effect of soil-borne diseases.
7. Inorganic fertilizersare one of the most costly inputs in horticulture production. But their excessive use results in several environmental problems. Appropriate use of these chemicals will result in sufficient productivity.
8. Tissue Nutrient Labs should be strengthened. These labs shall develop the capability for analysis, diagnosis, and recommendations on INM practices.
Maulana9. IPM can effectively Azad be Library,used to avert and Aligarh minimize the riskMuslim of pesticide residuesUniversity in fresh and processed produce.
10. A due impetus should be given to horticulture tourism. The orchards shall be used as a source of recreation for the tourists.
232 Chapter 7: Conclusion, Findings, and Suggestions
11. Non-availability of labor both skilled and unskilled during peak season is the primary concern for the horticulture sector. This condition ensures the role of machines and automation to bring about the required development in the field.
12. More stress should be given on organic farming. J&K like other states should take steps to bring about the changes in farming pattern and should adopt organic farming.
13. Post-harvest losses occur at every step of the value chain. The injuries occur due to improper harvesting methods, handling techniques and aggregation of the produce and then in transportation. At the wholesale level,significantdamages arise due to buggy handling and improper storage. Losses are estimated at approximately 20 percent in developed countries and about 10 percent in developing countries. Mechanical injury is a significant cause of failures. Many of these injuries cannot be seen at the time of packaging and shipping of the product.
14. Basic infrastructure facilities for sorting, grading and packing as well as post-harvest treatment as required should be created at all the major markets of the valley.
15. Creating a separate road and railway track for the transportation of fruits from J&K to other parts of the country so that the transportation charges can be reduced.
16. R&D centers should be imparted to the actual tillers of the land. Such a center will also give training to the traders, semi-skilled workers, and supervisor about their marketing problems.
17. For capacity building, by the institutes in Jammu and Kashmir should offer specialized post-harvest management and technology courses (diploma/degree) and short-term classes for operatives of the cool-chain.
18. The state AMPC act should be amended to harness the benefits of market competition. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 19. The state has to facilitate various models of ownership of markets to enhance investment in the area and encourage private investment in owning, establishing and operating demandsan alternative.
233 Chapter 7: Conclusion, Findings, and Suggestions
20. Direct marketing by growersshould be supported as a diversified channel. Some Government should create marketing channels likeApniMandi, HadapsarMandi, Rythu Bazars; and UzhavarSandiesthe in Jammu and Kashmir also.
21. A single levy of the commodity should be made at different levels of marketing.
22. Unique licensing system of marketing in each zone should be made instead of multiple licensing systems. The companies should end the use for the product under Contract Farming for processing, retailing or for export.
23. Properinformation is the pivot to marketing. There should be reliable information of markets available to the growers and no information gap between rural and urban markets. Similarly, there is a need to better rural connectivity with new roads and links.
24. To promote retail chains for fruits and vegetables and the promotion of entrepreneurship among the educated youths of the state. These retail chains will provide better and hygienic food.
25. To create cold stores for the perishable goods, priority should be given for reefer vans, terminal markets, and market information principle.
26. Proper restriction on fruit imports such as tariffs and quotas, to safeguard the domestic fruit industry and the growers.
27. Low horticultural information dissemination index is themain factorcreating exploitation of the benefits of advanced technologies.
28. Women should be adequately trained for contributing to horticulture activities.
29. The need of the hour is the rejuvenation of policy interventions and their emphatic translation to boost up the production and trade of horticultural produce. On-farm research should be used to address the problems adequately.
30. The setting up of an intensive network of proper horticulture data establishments Maulanacalled Horticulture Azad Information Library, Systems Aligarh (HIS) units in Muslim all the districts University and at State level, preferably under the purview of State Horticulture Departments
31. Developing an efficient supply chain for perishable horticulture crop is a pre- condition for the growth of this sector. Creation of quick transport system for remote destinations by road or rail is essential for the efficient supply chain management.
234 Chapter 7: Conclusion, Findings, and Suggestions
32. Creation of infrastructure will offer an excellent opportunity for investment through Public Private Partnership.
33. Government (State/Centre) may consider developing Horticulture Parks jointly with Corporate Houses. These Horticulture Parks, like Industrial Parks/Food Parks, may provide entire requisite infrastructure, for production, processing and
34. There is urgent need to amend forest laws regarding cutting of trees as these are hampering the task of rejuvenation of horticultural plantation.
35. There is a need to create a separate corpus fund for horticulture to meet any emergency requirements on project base to protect the farmers in distress.
36. Efforts need to be made to screen out the places linked with a particular fruit/vegetable and after that attempt for registration for geographical identity.
37. New high yielding varieties of plants such as Bulgaria, Italian, etc. should be planted instead of the existing ones.
38. The funds received for ease of doing business in horticulture should be utilized for the same purpose, instead of spending them on the other day to day activities.
39. The programmes related to horticulture are at present handled by multiple Ministries including Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Commerce, Ministry of Food Processing Industries and Ministry of Rural Development which often overlap with each other. To bring synergy among the various programmes and meaning to the enormous expenditure being made by these ministries on similar programmes, there is an urgent need to bring all the programmes under an umbrella,i.e., Ministry of Agriculture.
Conclusion
The present study titled as Horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir: Problems and Prospects reached the following conclusions after analysis and interpretation of data.
Maulana Jammu Azad and KashmirLibrary, is lagging Aligarh behind other Muslim states in fruit University production and productivity. There is technology and knowledge gap among the growers of the J&K and other States that leads to low productivity in J&K.
235 Chapter 7: Conclusion, Findings, and Suggestions
J&K is shows a great potential in vegetable production but that are not grown extensively at large scale there because of some socio economic and infrastructural problems.
There exists disparity in area, production, and productivity of fruits with the State also. Kashmir division is better performing in fruits particularly in apple, Jammu division in mango, and Ladakh in apricot production.
At district level Baramulla is better performing in apple production in Kashmir division, Jammu district in mango production in Jammu division, and Kargil in apricot production in Ladakh division.
As per surveyed data 97% of male population is engaged in horticulture activities. The age group 35-50 years is mainly occupied in horticulture activities. Majority of about 62 percent growers are educated upto 10th standard. Most of the households belong intermediate family i.e in between nuclear and joint family who are engaged in horticulture activities in the State.
There is no significant difference in irrigated and unirrigated orchard productivity in the State. But if new varieties like Italian, Bulgarian etc. are introduced then irrigation shall contribute significantly.
Women of J&K significantly contribute in horticulture production. As most of the women engaged in horticulture are household wives hence are not paid, they create value without receiving the benefits. The hired women are paid less to their male counterpart which indicates that there exists a social bias in the society of Jammu and Kashmir.
Insurance is necessary for mitigating the environmental problems. Besides the complex paper formilities to get benefit of government schemes should be abolished.
The funds received for the purpose of horticulture growth should be spend on Maulanathe same Azad purpose. Library, Aligarh Muslim University
Redressal of the problems is the important path of the satisfaction of the grower.
236 Chapter 7: Conclusion, Findings, and Suggestions
Mitigating the problems discussed in this chapter will increase the horticulture contribution of the economy from 5000 crore to 30,000 crore i.e about 6 times more than the present receipts. Orchards as a source of landscape gardenig will double the income of growers in the State. Lessening the burden of pesticides will have a positive impact on environment. The further scope of research in this area in stressing the horticulture sustainability of the State.
Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
237
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