THE CRYSTALLISATION OF THE IRAQI STATE: GEOPOLITICAL FUNCTION AND FORM By Zoe Elizabeth Preston A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 2000 ProQuest Number: 10731724 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10731724 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 ABSTRACT In 1921 the State of Iraq was established in the Middle East, under a British-held mandate from the League of Nations. It took until 1926 for the final geographical extent of the new State to be decided. This thesis analyses the geographical and historical factors which shaped the new Iraqi State. Historically, the region that became the Iraqi State lay in the heart of an ethnically, religiously and geographically complex area, a fundamental shatterbelt zone between rival regional and colonial powers. Iraq’s geostrategic location was the key to its political and cultural developments, lying as it did at the frontier of clashing geostrategic powers and political ideologies. Many resultant features were to filter into the State that was created in 1921, and seriously affect Iraq’s geopolitical function and form. This thesis examines the fundamental factors that impacted upon the geopolitical crystallisation of the Iraqi State in the 1920s. The international political climate of the post-First World War era filtered into Iraq. The thesis argues that the complexities and clashes between the various communal identities, themselves a reflection of Iraq’s geopolitical position, presented severe challenges to the new State’s consolidation and geopolitical function. Also fundamental was Iraq’s geostrategic location as this invited the attentions and ambitions of competing world powers. Immediately after the First World War, Wilsonian principles of ethnic self- determination and nationalism came to the forefront of international politics. Iraq was born out of this international political climate, but its mandatory was Britain, an established imperial power. Whilst trying to retain the mandate for Iraq by an outward display of agreement with the idealism of nationalism, Britain was principally trying to secure its interests in the Middle East and, more importantly, India. Thus, the British backed a narrow strand of nationalism within Iraq, which was Sunni and Arab 2 in essence. With such a limited support base, this Arab administration remained militarily, economically and politically dependent upon Britain. Ethnic and religious divisions were deep-rooted within the Iraqi region, as they had been tolerated for centuries under the Ottomans. After the First World War and the establishment of the State of Iraq, many of these social divides remained, or were even strengthened by resentments from many sides, in particular what was seen as the favouring of the Sunni Arab elite and the subsequent neglect of other main ethno­ religious groups. Such unequal access to power was reinforced by the geographic distribution of the major ethnic and religious groups, as they tended to be spatially clustered. 3 CONTENTS Title page 1 Abstract 2 List of Maps 9 Notes on Maps 10 Notes on Transliteration, Spellings and Names 10 Glossary 11 Acknowledgements 14 Dedication 15 Bibliography 281 1. INTRODUCTION 17 1.1. Introduction 17 1.2.Geographical and Historical Characteristics of Mesopotamia: Factors Impacting on the Iraqi State 21 ■ 1.2.1. Defining the Region 21 ■ 1.2.2. ‘Al-Iraq’ and ‘Al-Jazirah’ 21 ■ 1.2.3. Geography of the Region 23 ■ 1.2.4. The Impact on the Iraqi State of the 1920s 24 1.3.Methodology 26 4 2. THE CRYSTALLISATION OF THE IRAQI STATE: THEORETICAL FIELDS 28 2.1. Introduction 28 2.2.The Role of Geography 29 ■ 2.2.1. The Impact of Geographical Location on the Geopolitical Status of a Territory 32 ■ 2.2.2. Mackinder’s Heartland Theory 34 2.3.British Interests in Mesopotamia 44 ■ 2.3.1. Constraints on British Ambitions in Mesopotamia 47 2.4.State and Nation Building Theory 49 ■ 2.4.1. The Absorption of the Nation by the State 55 ■ 2.4.2. The Transformation of Nationalism 57 ■ 2.4.3. Questioning the Modernity of Nations 59 ■ 2.4.4. The Mythical Elements of Nations 60 ■ 2.4.5. The Paradox of the Nation 63 2.5. The Issue of Boundaries 66 2.6. The Problems of Reality 68 2.7. Conclusion 69 3. THE POPULATION, ADMINISTRATION AND HISTORY OF THE REGION 72 3.1. Introduction 72 3.2.The Composition of the Population 73 ■ 3.2.1. Ethno-Religious Communities 74 ■ 3.2.2. Tribal Communities 82 3.3. A Common Citizenship? 86 3.4. The Town and Country Divide 87 3.5. The Divides Existing Between and Within Cities 88 3.6. The Extent of Ottoman Control Over Iraq 93 ■ 3.6.1. An Uncertain Control: 1516-1831 93 * 3.6.2. The Tanzimat Reform Era in Iraq: 1844-1872 98 ■ 3.6.3. Land Tenure Change 101 ■ 3.6.4. Vilayet Law of 1864 105 5 ■ 3.6.5. Educational Reform 106 ■ 3.6.6. 1875 Administration Onwards 106 3.7.Conclusion 107 4. GREAT POWER INTERESTS IN THE MIDDLE EAST BEFORE THE FIRST WORLD WAR 110 4.1. Introduction 110 4.2. Partition or Preservation of the Ottoman Territories? 112 4.3. Great Power Interests in the Region 115 ■ 4.3.1. Great Britain 119 ■ 4.3.2. France 123 ■ 4.3.3. Russia 124 ■ 4.3.4. Germany 126 4.4. The Eastern Question 128 4.5 . Specific Histories of the Great Powers in the Middle East: Before 1915 132 ■ 4.5.1. Anglo-Russian Relations 132 ■ 4.5.2. Anglo-Ottoman Relations 136 4.6 . Moving Towards Partition 139 ■ 4.6.1. The Constantinople Agreement, March 1915 142 ■ 4.6.2. Anglo-French Relations 144 4.7. Conclusion 152 5 . THE POST-WAR SETTLEMENT: CREATING THE STATE OF IRAQ 155 5 .1. Introduction 155 5 .2. The Peace Treaties and Conferences After the First World War 159 ■ 5.2.1. The Armistice of Mudros 159 ■ 5.2.2. American Influence 160 ■ 5.2.3. The Paris Peace Conference, 1919 162 ■ 5.2.4. Sharpening of British Interests in Mesopotamia 163 ■ 5.2.5. The San Remo Conference of 1920, and the Consequences 166 5 .3. The Nature of Boundaries 169 ■ 5.3.1. The Western Boundary 171 6 ■ 5.3.2. The Southern Boundary 174 ■ 5.3.3. The Northern Boundary 179 5.4. Conclusion 186 6. THE POST-WAR SETTLEMENT: CREATING IRAQ’S POLITICAL SYSTEM 194 6.1. Introduction 194 6.2. Constraints on British Plans for Iraq 195 ■ 6.2.1. The Position and Role of the League of Nations 196 ■ 6.2.2. The American Influence 196 ■ 6.2.3. British Concerns Over European Relationships 197 ■ 6.2.4. Local Moves Towards Self-Determination 198 ■ 6.2.5. Divergences of Opinion Within British Policy-Making 199 6.3. British Decisions Regarding the Form of Government for Iraq 201 6.4. The 1920 Revolt and its Repercussions 204 6.5. The Cairo Conference of 1921: Choosing a King for Iraq 206 6.6. The Political Foundations of the New State 209 ■ 6.6.1. The 1922 Anglo-Iraq Treaty 209 ■ 6.6.2. The Limiting of the Government of Iraq’s Sovereignty 212 6.7.The Fragility of Iraqi ‘National Identity’ 214 ■ 6.7.1. The Position of the Kurds 216 ■ 6.7.2. The Position of the Shi’i 219 ■ 6.7.3. The Position of the Jews and Other Minorities 221 ■ 6.7.4. Other Political Obstacles to Iraqi National Solidarity 223 6.8. Conclusion 226 7. THE EFFECTS OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL FORM AND POLITICAL SYSTEM CHOSEN FOR IRAQ: DIFFICULTIES WITH THE DEVELOPMENT OF A NATIONAL IDENTITY 229 7.1. Introduction 229 7.2. The Effects Upon National Consciousness Within Iraq 232 ■ 7.2.1. The Shi’i Within Iraq 235 7 ■ 7.2.2. The Kurds Within Iraq 238 7.3. The Importance of Different Collective Memories 242 7.4. The Role of Education in Spreading a National Identity 244 7.5. Different Visions of ‘Independence’ 245 7.6. Conflicting Models of Statehood 248 7.7. Key Obstacles to Stability 252 7.8. The Regional Issues Facing the New Iraqi State 254 ■ 7.8.1. Issues of Identity 255 ■ 7.8.2. New State Boundaries 257 ■ 7.8.3. Constructing National Economies 258 ■ 7.8.4. Iraq’s Attitude Towards its Neighbours 260 7.9. Conclusion 262 8. CONCLUSION 268 8 LIST OF MAPS Map 1 Present Day Iraq and the Surrounding Countries 1 6 Map 2 Mackinder’s World-1904 35 Map 3 The World of Spykman 40 Map 4 Gates to the Heartland 41 Map 5 The World’s Geostrategic Regions and their Geopolitical Subdivisions 42 Map 6 Mesopotamia, Racial Divisions 76 Map 7 Ethnographical Map of Eastern Turkey in Asia, Syria and Western Persia 77 Map 8 Ethnographical Map to Show Distribution of Races in Northern Iraq 78 Map 9 Religious Map of Iraq 79 Map 10 Sketch of Tribal Leagues and Principalities in Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Century 84 Map 11 The Major Tribes of Iraq 85 Map 12 The Ottoman Empire in 1768 94 Map 13 Ottoman Provinces in 1914 95 Map 14 Lower Mesopotamia 116 Map 15 Overland Route to India, Part I 117 Map 16 Overland Route to India, Part II 118 Map 17 Transportation Lines in Iraq 120 Map 18 Russian Southward Expansion 1774-1812 125 Map 19 Syria and Iraq on the Eve of the First World War 140 Map 20 The Partitioning of Turkey According to the Secret Agreements of 1915-17 153 Map 21 How Turkey was Carved Up by Six Secret Agreements 157 Map 22 Ottoman-Persian Boundary 172 Map 23 The Region Surrounding Kuwait as it Existed in the Nineteenth Century 177 9 Map 24 Approximate Territorial Definition and Extent of Kuwait, and the Neutral Zones after the Border Conferences and Agreements of 1922 and 1923 178 Map 25 Mapping the Extent of Mosul 185 Map 26 Syria and Mesopotamia: Approximate Vilayet, Sancak and Caza Boundaries 192 Map 27 The Near East in 1923 193 Map 28 Distribution of Kurds Across Turkey, Iran and Iraq 217 Notes on Maps The original sources for the maps are given with each map.