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Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in

The Influence of Moral Values and Victim Typicality on Victim in Intimate Partner Cases Rebecca Del Toro University of Queensland

ABSTRACT. The aim of this study was to investigate how both, victim typicality and binding moral values, impact an observer’s attributions of blame for a victim in cases of intimate partner violence. A total of 112 participants were included in the final sample; with 33 men and 79 women who had been recruited either online through social media, or through the University of Queensland’s first year psychology student participation scheme. Participants read a vignette depicting a hypothetical case of intimate partner violence between a (perpetrator) and (victim), which involved incidences of psychological and physical . Participants were then asked to respond to a series of questions, which measured their attribution of blame to the victim, levels of binding moral values (Moral Foundations Questionnaire), acceptance of myths (Domestic Violence Myth Acceptance Scale), and demographic information. The results of the study showed no significant effect for victim typicality or binding moral values. There was no significant interaction between victim typicality and binding moral values. Domestic violence myth acceptance was positively correlated with binding moral values, and found to be a significant predictor of victim blame. These findings suggest that the concept of victim typicality may be changing with societal attitudes, and the sample was too homogenous to find significant variance in moral values. These findings also reinforce the considerable influence of domestic violence myth acceptance on attributions of victim blame.

Many researchers have proposed the concept values, may play a key role in determining if, that occurs due to a just world and when, an observer will blame a victim belief; the idea that everything happens for a (Alicke, 1992, 2000, Brewer, 2007; Niemi and reason and people get what they deserve Young, 2016). There is no research to date that (Bègue, Charmoillaux, Cochet, Cory, & De investigates how these two factors combine to Suremain, 2008; Dalbert, 1999; Lerner, 1980). affect victim blame. With compelling evidence However, current scientific literature tells a for both victim typicality and moral values more complex story. Recent research shows being important contributors to judgements of that factors pertaining to both victims and victim blame, it can be suggested that this observers influence the level of blame that decision-making process may be a observers attribute to victims in cases of combination of the two. It is important to intimate partner violence. Some researchers consider these influences in conjunction so the argue that the victim must fit into a scientific community may begin to resolve the (an ideal or typical victim) to warrant current conflict in the literature and develop a sympathy, and if they do not, they will be held better understanding of the multiple factors responsible for some or all the abuse that contributing to instances of victim blame. The occurs (Blackman, 1990; Capezza and current study will investigate how both victim Arriaga, 2008; Christie, 1986). Other research, typicality and moral values impact an however, has focused on the observers observer’s attribution of blame for a victim of attributing the blame. In fact, studies have intimate partner violence. shown differences such as moral

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Intimate Partner Violence and Victim following statement; “She was an alcoholic Blaming and a bad student” (Rannard, 2017). Just one A victim is most commonly defined month earlier, in April 2017, New Jersey as a person who is physically, mentally or police commissioner, William Regan, had all financially harmed by the actions of another domestic violence charges against him person (World Organisation, 2012). dropped. Court Judge, Roy McCready, Victim blaming happens when people hold the determined that Regan’s wife could not have victim responsible for their own been too distressed by his actions as she (Lerner & Goldberg, 1999; Ryan, 2010). continued to live with Regan after the Victim blaming is a common, often automatic, (Attrino, 2017). In Australia, during May process that occurs in court trials, the media 2017, a court heard audio recording of the and even casual discussions. The outcome of violent against Kelly Landry by her this process ultimately shapes society’s husband, Anthony Bell. Even after this perception of what constitutes satisfactory recording, which Magistrate Robert Williams repercussions for criminal offences. This can described as ‘chilling’, the family’s nanny, result in victims of abstaining from Gordana Karoglan, claimed in her witness reporting incidences due to a of backlash testimony that Landry “was complaining every against their character, or lack of trust in the day…, if she really didn’t want to be with him, criminal justice system to provide assistance. she shouldn’t be with him.” (Crawford, 2017). This reluctance to report incidents is The victims in these situations were judged on particularly common amongst victims of the choices they made leading up to, and after, intimate partner violence (NSW Bureau of the assaults rather than the crime itself. Crime Statistics and Research, 2013). Defined These case studies lead to the by the World Health Organisation (2012) as question: Why do so many cases of violence “any behaviour within an result in blame being primarily attributed to that causes psychological, physical or sexual the victim? One popular theory for this harm to those in the relationship”, intimate phenomenon is the just world hypothesis partner violence is often not disclosed to (Lerner & Simmons, 1966); the belief that family, friends or police by the victim, for fear everything happens for a reason and people get of being blamed for the abuse (Patterson, what they deserve. If everything falls into the Greeson, and Campbell 2009). This is with same pattern of cause and effect, then people good reason, as social attitudes often direct should take the necessary steps to prevent blame toward the victim by implying they adverse consequences, and enhance good incited the abuse, or suggesting they should outcomes. This hypothesis has been cited as an have left the abuser sooner (Kristiansen & explanation for victim blaming in many Guilietti, 1990; Pierce & Harris, 1993). The contexts, as the concept of a just world attribution of blame to the victim is commonly protects people from feeling out of control due reinforced within the relationship too. to random life events (Kaplan, 2012; Perpetrators often attribute their violence to Stromwall, Alfredsson, & Landstrom, 2012, external causes, such as the victim provoking 2013; Van Den Bos & Maas, 2009). Similarly, them (Vecina, 2014), and the victim attributes people also tend to blame victims in an effort the abuse to dispositional factors within to reduce their sense of accountability to themselves (Overholser & Moll, 1990). provide victim services, and eliminate adverse Around the world there have been social conditions (Mancini & Pickett, 2015). many instances of intimate partner violence Consequently, people tend to avoid accepting where members of the public have attributed acts of violence as random and begin looking blame to the victim of that violence. This was for reasons as to what the victim may have seen in May 2017, when 22-year-old Lesvy done to warrant the violence. While the belief Berlin Osorio was strangled with a telephone in a just world has been shown to predict cord at a university campus in Mexico City, victim blame in some instances, it does not after a night of drinking with her . In explain the phenomenon completely, as other response to this incident, the Mexico City factors relating to both the victim and the Prosecutor’s office released a post on the observer have also been shown to change this social media platform, . They attributed effect. blame to Ms Osorio when releasing the Factors Relating to the Victim

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Recent studies have found that a that an observer will discount causality submissive or vulnerable victim warrants less attributed to a single cause, if multiple blame than a victim who defends themselves plausible causes are present. It may be from their abuser. (Capezza & Arriaga, 2008; suggested that an aggressive response to Witte, Schroeder, & Lohr, 2006; Yamawaki, violence implies something about the victim’s Ochoa-Shipp, Pulsipher, Harlos, & Swindler, character, and an observer could conclude that 2012). Christie (1986) defined this submissive the victim provoked the incident by being an character as an ideal victim; someone who aggressive person. “generates the most sympathy from society” It is also important to note that the (p. 19). In his original work, Christie (1986) characteristics of a “typical victim” could be described three factors as being necessary for interpreted by some as a stereotype. someone to be considered the ideal, or typical More specifically, as a stereotypically victim. They are firstly, someone who is weak, feminine individual. Women are often secondly, someone who is in a place where considered physically weaker and less they cannot be blamed for being at the time of assertive than men, and are therefore the crime, and lastly, someone who is attacked considered less able to protect themselves by an unknown and evil individual. While (Buzawa & Buzawa, 1993; Peters, 2008). victims of intimate partner violence often fall When women respond to abuse in a more into the categories of being weaker than their aggressive or masculine manner, they are abuser (Devries et al., 2013) and being in the perceived as not behaving in a way that home, which is considered a reasonable society deems appropriate for their gender, and environment (Mouzos and Makkai, 2004), they are then more likely to be blamed for unlike random attacks, these victims know the their actions. offender. This leaves room for observers to A study by Capezza and Arriaga pass judgement since these victims often (2008) investigated the effect of passive or continue to remain in an environment where aggressive responses in a case of intimate revictimization is likely to occur (Meyer, partner abuse, with 118 university students 2015). Although victims of intimate partner from the Midwestern United States. violence may not have the benefit of being Participants were randomly assigned to read a considered perfectly ideal, the victim’s scenario depicting a case of marital conflict, in response to abuse may influence how ideal an which the wife was shown as either traditional observer perceives them to be. The intimate (homemaker), non-traditional (lawyer) or a partner violence version of the ideal, or typical control (no occupation). When the wife was victim, is the battered woman. The term, depicted as traditional, she managed the refers to a household chores alone and her husband was psychological paralysis, or learned entirely responsible for the finances. When the helplessness, in which victims of long term wife was depicted as non-traditional, she abuse become so defeated and depressed that worked in a career that led her to earn more they believe they are incapable of leaving the money than her husband, and the household abusive relationship. When victims respond to chores were shared equally amongst them. In abuse in a way that is incompatible with the the control condition, participants read how weak and passive construct of the battered both the husband and wife keep busy at home woman (i.e. fighting back by pushing, yelling, doing various household chores and tasks, insulting) they are less likely to be perceived with no mention of any occupation. In all as defenceless, and as such, ascribed more cases, the husband engaged in repeated acts of responsibility for the abuse. This can be seen . This was demonstrated in legal cases of intimate partner violence, verbally with yelling and . What where victims of abuse have reacted to the the researchers were primarily interested in abuse with or . Their claims was how participants perceived the victim of battered woman syndrome are often after she responded to the abuse, and whether challenged, and awarded much less of certain females would influence consideration (Blackman, 1988; Schneider, attributions of victim blame. In the traditional 1992). This effect of victim blame may be condition, the wife responded passively and interpreted in terms of Kelley’s (1987) calmly, while in the non-traditional condition, principle of discounting. The principle claims the wife yelled back and became mildly

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aggressive. In line with their hypothesised minimising the seriousness of the abuse effect, participants rated the traditional wife’s (Peters, 2008; Policastro & Payne, 2013; passive response as less blameworthy and less Yamawaki et al., 2012) negative than the control and the non- More recently, researchers have traditional wife’s aggressive response. Given explored how other individual differences, that the manipulation check for gender role such as moral values, affect victim blame. perceptions was significant as well (traditional Moral values may be defined in simple terms women were perceived as warmer, more as the standards of good and bad that direct the positive, less competent and less blameworthy behaviours and choices of a person. Research than non-traditional women), the authors has identified the key role these underlying concluded that a victim who responds to beliefs play in our evaluations of everyday violence in a manner which is not aligned with life, in contexts from work or study to their stereotypical gender roles would be friendships and intimate relationships. Some blamed more and liked less. While past research has even identified the role our moral research has focused on the victim provoking values play in seemingly non-moral features of the abuser, this study has instead investigated people and circumstances, such as causal the effects of victim response to abuse, with responsibility (Alicke, 1992, 2000). For noteworthy results. This is important as it example, who violate moral norms provides evidence that even when the victim are considered more causally responsible for does not show any indication of inciting abuse, negative outcomes than those who adhere to how they respond also plays a vital role in norms for identical acts (Alicke, 1992). In attributions of victim blame. cases of intimate partner violence, observers Factors Relating to the Observer may consider a female victim retaliating to Individual differences of the observer, violence with aggression, as a norm violation such as gender, , endorsement of of their gender stereotype. She is therefore domestic violence myths and moral values, considered more blameworthy than a male have also been shown to mitigate the strength acting in a dominant or controlling manner, of blame attribution. Studies have shown that who may be perceived as more in line with his men are more likely to blame victims than gender norms. women (Bryant & Spencer, 2003; Flood & However, how morally wrong people Pease, 2009), and stronger benevolent sexist perceive an act to be depends greatly on how beliefs also predict more victim blame, even they believe individuals in that context should when the effects of a just world belief are behave. Moral violations in intimate controlled (Pedersen & Stromwall, 2013). relationships vary widely between cultures Several studies have also identified that around the world, therefore research on what participants’ attributions of blame are defines a relationship norm is limited. This influenced by domestic violence myths. Peters, variation makes it difficult to come to a (2008) who developed the now widely used consensus on unethical relationship Domestic Violence Myths Acceptance Scale behaviours. Some research has begun to (DVMAS) defined domestic violence myths generalise the relational behaviours which are as: “stereotypical beliefs about domestic considered ; with the act of adultery violence that are generally false but are widely being generally considered unethical in many and persistently held, and which serve to western societies. However, even adultery is minimize, deny, or justify physical aggression difficult to define as taboo, because what against intimate partner” (p. 17). The content constitutes differs greatly amongst of the DVMAS incorporates questions individuals (Tsapelas, Fisher, & Aron, 2011). pertaining to myths about the perpetrator, the Other relational behaviours are even less victim, and society, along with concepts from clearly defined as morally right or wrong. published literature, including the belief that In the aim to explain and categorise women have an unconscious desire to be the wide variety of moral beliefs people hold, abused (Saul, 1972) and have a desire to be Haidt and Joseph (2007) developed Moral beaten (Walker, 1979). In research Foundations Theory, which is now a widely- investigating victim blame, strong beliefs in used framework for evaluating moral values. domestic violence myths predict more victim According to Moral Foundations Theory, there blame, excusing the perpetrator and are five primary foundations for which people

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are guided. An individual will, to some extent, study by Vecina (2014) found that surveyed hold values of: (a) care/harm, (b) men who had committed and been charged fairness/cheating, (c) loyalty/betrayal, (d) with acts of violence towards their intimate authority/disrespect, and (e) purity/ partners, often viewed values of authority and degradation. Strongly held care values purity as more sacred than others, and viewed enhance concerns about minimising and their victims as having violated those values. suffering in others, and valuing fairness The author concluded that strong values of suggests an individual promotes justice and authority predict violence in men, while strong equality. A strong belief in loyalty often values of purity predict pro-violent beliefs and results in devotion to social groups, and a high probability of future fighting. Another authority values predict an agreement with study, conducted by Selterman and Koleva respecting authority figures and fulfilling (2015), identified that when participants were duties. Lastly, valuing purity often suggests a presented with a series of hypothetical cases of strong endorsement of sanctity, and a potential norm violations in relationships (e.g., sensitivity towards degradation and disgusting keeping romantic memorabilia from past acts. When someone opposes a strongly held relationships, or looking through a partner’s moral value, it may be seen as an attack on belongings), strong values of purity predicted something an individual deems sacred, and harsher moral judgements for most types of this can quickly lead to defensiveness and perceived violations. conflict (Vecina, Marzana & Czachura, 2015). Niemi and Young (2016), aimed to Research using Moral Foundations investigate how individual moral values Theory (Haidt & Joseph, 2007) as a affected attributions of victim blame using the framework has been able to demonstrate moral foundations. Their research was patterns in moral values, with the factors often completed through four studies. In all studies, falling into two groups of values: binding and participants were recruited online for payment. individualising. Binding values include The first study investigated whether binding loyalty, authority and purity, while moral values were linked with victim individualising values are care and fairness. stigmatisation. Participants read a vignette Studies suggest that people who strongly about a victim of sexual (molestation, ) or adhere to binding values are often politically nonsexual (strangling, stabbing) violence. To conservative, patriotic, and have a strong sense measure the participants’ moral values, they of family and community (Franks & Scherr, were presented with the Moral Foundations 2015; Graham & Haidt, 2010; Graham, Haidt Questionnaire (Graham et al, 2008), and to & Nosek, 2009). These beliefs have also been measure stigmatisation the participants rated portrayed negatively however, with research the victim as ‘contaminated’ or ‘wounded’. linking binding values to , out group Results of this study supported the authors’ derogation and even genocide (Brewer, 2007; hypothesis that binding values would Dovidio & Gaertner, 2010; Smith, Aquino, significantly predict victim stigmatisation, Koleva, & Graham, 2014). with high scores on measures of binding In relation to intimate partner values predicting more victim stigmatisation violence, research using Graham, Haidt and rather than sympathy, regardless of the nature Nosek (2008) Moral Foundations of the crime. To investigate whether Questionnaire shows that the binding moral participants scoring high on binding moral values can be strong predictors of blame. A values would not only stigmatize victims, but also assign more significant predictor of victim stigmatisation. blame, the researchers conducted study two. Study two also identified that when Participants in this study completed the Moral participants scored high on binding moral Foundations Questionnaire along with the values, they were more likely to judge the same measures for stigmatisation used in study victims as more responsible for the outcome, one, however study two included an item rather than perpetrators. Study three built upon pertaining to responsibility for the incident these findings to confirm how focus is the along with an opportunity to suggest how the causal factor which leads participants who outcome of the situation could have been score high on binding moral values to blame different. The results showed a replication of the victim more than the perpetrator. study one, in that, binding moral values were a Participants in this study again completed the

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Moral Foundations Questionnaire and the However, no research has investigated how measure for stigmatisation, however to factors relating to the victim’s stereotype and manipulate focus, the researchers reworded the factors relating to the observer’s moral values vignette so that either the victim or the together, influence victim blame. Given the perpetrator would be the subject of the research to date, it is possible that when majority of sentences. Results of this study observers of intimate partner violence cases replicated the findings of both study one and have stronger, compared to weaker, binding study two, however the manipulation of values, they may be more influenced by the vignette only had a small effect. typicality of the victim. It is important to When the language was focused on the scientifically test this theoretical connection perpetrator, less blame was attributed to between victim typicality and moral values victims, however, to a lesser extent for before conclusions can be drawn. The practical participants who scored high on binding implications for such a conclusion may help values. The fourth and final study replicated alleviate current conflict in the scientific the methodology of study one, however also literature on causes of victim blame, while aimed to identify whether a Just World Belief simultaneously supporting further (JWB) and Right-Wing Authoritarianism development of resources for domestic (RWA) were moderating factors between violence victims. binding moral values and victim blame. After The present study running a regression analysis, JWB and RWA This study examined the effect of were no longer significant predictors once victim typicality and the observers’ moral moral values were included. Due to their values on victim blame in a case of intimate findings, the authors concluded that partner violence. Participants read a vignette participants who scored high on binding depicting a case of intimate partner violence, values were more inclined to focus on the between a husband (perpetrator) and wife actions of the victim, and therefore assigned (victim), in which the wife responded to her them more responsibility and blame for the husband’s abuse in a way that was either outcomes of violent incidents. The results of typical (submissive) or atypical (aggressive). this four-part investigation are robust due to The participants then answered a series of repeated testing and add significant insight to questions designed to assess the level of blame the literature. they attributed to the victim, whether they Is victim blaming a result of both victim personally held strong or weak binding moral and observer? values, and their acceptance of domestic The existing literature shows that violence myths. Based on the research of numerous factors, relating to both the victim Capezza and Arriaga (2008), it was predicted and observer, affect victim blame in the that participants would blame the victim more context of intimate partner violence. Studies when they read about a victim who responded have identified that the typicality of the victim to the abuse in an atypical, compared to typical plays a significant role in the level of blame way, after controlling for domestic violence attributed to them for incidences of abuse. myths (Hypothesis 1). In addition to this, and Victims who are atypical (aggressive, consistent with the work of Niemi and Young retaliative or non-conforming to stereotypes) (2016), it was predicted that participants are blamed to a greater extent than victims would blame the victim more when they who are typical (submissive or conforming) scored higher, compared to lower, on (Capezza and Arriaga, 2008). In addition, the measures of binding moral values, after results of research on binding moral values controlling for participants’ endorsement of suggest that people who strongly adhere to this domestic violence myths (Hypothesis 2). value set perceive betrayal, rebellion and/or However, it was predicted that the relationship self-indulgence as to their innate between victim typicality and victim blame beliefs (Vecina, Marzana & Czachura, 2015). would be moderated by participants’ binding They are likely to blame victims more than moral values. Specifically, participants would perpetrators, as they attend more to the blame victims more when they read about a potential morally violating actions of the victim who responded to the abuse in an victim that caused the perpetrator to respond atypical, compared to typical way; however, with violence (Niemi and Young, 2016). this would occur to a greater extent at higher,

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compared to lower, levels of binding moral the abuse began three months into their values after controlling for participants’ . Neil was described as displaying endorsement of domestic violence myths controlling behaviours (e.g., he monitored (Hypothesis 3). Rebecca’s text messages and phone Method conversations, told her who she could or could Participants not see and did not allow her to commute Participants included 66 acquaintances anywhere unless he drove). Neil’s behaviour of the experimenter and 105 first-year then started to become verbally abusive (e.g., psychology students (N = 171). The he yelled at Rebecca, or told her she was experimenter’s acquaintances were offered the useless or had no respect for him). Eventually, opportunity to enter the draw to win a $20 the abuse escalated to physical violence (e.g., voucher for participating, while the first-year Neil hit Rebecca when she moved his car psychology students took part in the study for keys). This , along with the course credit. Participants were excluded from controlling behaviour and , the study for either not answering the continued over a period of six months (where manipulation checks (N =30), failing Neil hit Rebecca on three more occasions). manipulation checks if answered (N =17), or Then, one day the physical abuse escalated; not answering at least 50% of key measures (N Neil pushed Rebecca into the wall with such =1). In addition to this, participants were also force that it punctured the wall, causing her excluded if they took 12 seconds or less to head to bleed and her to fall on the floor. read the vignette (N = 11). The final sample When she tried to stand up, he strangled her consisted of 112 participants, 33 men and 79 until she temporarily lost consciousness. women, aged between 18 and 85 years of age Manipulation of victim typicality. (M = 22.98, SD = 11.00). An a priori power Victim typicality was manipulated by altering analysis was conducted with the program Rebecca’s responses to Neil’s behaviours in G*Power (Erdfelder, Faul, & Buchner, 1996). the vignette (Appendix A, B). When Rebecca The analysis showed that a minimum of 77 responded typically, she was portrayed as people would be needed to detect a medium acting submissively. For instance, she never effect (f2 = .15) with 80% power, using a f test questioned Neil’s decisions when he displayed multiple regression with alpha at .05. controlling behaviours, and she never yelled Design back at him when he became verbally abusive. This study forms part of a larger When Neil hit Rebecca, she never fought back. research project, with six experimental When Rebecca responded atypically, she was conditions (N = 494), which was conducted portrayed as acting dominantly. She always with five other honours students. In this study, protested against Neil’s decisions when he participants were randomly assigned to one of displayed controlling behaviours (e.g., she two victim typicality conditions in a 2-level stated that she would do whatever she between-subjects design: typical (N =66) and wanted). When Neil became verbally abusive atypical (N = 46). The design included a toward Rebecca, she always yelled back and measured moderator, moral values: high retorted with an identical put-down (e.g. binding values or low binding values. telling him he is a worthless husband). After Endorsement of domestic violence myths was each instance of physical abuse, Rebecca included as a control variable, and the fought back (e.g., she pushed Neil). dependant variable was victim blame. Procedure Materials Participants were recruited by the Hypothetical vignette. A short experimenter for a study on public perceptions hypothetical vignette as written for this study, about intimate partner violence. Community depicting a case of ongoing intimate partner members were recruited through social media, violence. The vignette described a number of and first year psychology students were instances of psychological and physical abuse recruited through the University of escalating in severity, which occurred within Queensland’s SONA participation scheme. an Australian married couple’s relationship. Participants were provided with a link to the All instances of abuse were directed at the study, in order to access the study online using wife (Rebecca) by her husband (Neil). The their own computers. Once participants couple had been married for three years, and opened the link online, read the information

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briefing and agreed to participate, they were consistency (.855). For the purpose of this asked for demographic information. This study, participants’ average scores were taken included their enrolment status in first year for each loyalty, authority and sanctity. These psychology courses at the University of averages were then condensed into a single Queensland, their gender, and their age. composite variable for binding moral values, Following this, they were randomly assigned with high scores on these factors representing to one of the two victim typicality conditions strong binding values, and low scores (typical or atypical). At the end of the vignette, representing weak binding values. participants were asked to answer one question Domestic Violence Myths Acceptance Scale. to measure their level of victim blame. The Domestic Violence Myths Acceptance Responses were rated on a 7-point Likert scale Scale (DVMAS) (Peters, 2008) was included ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (completely). in this study to control for participant’s The question asked: “To what extent do you endorsement of domestic violence myths when think the wife should be blamed for the assessing victim blame given the research situation?” After responding to this item, showing that domestic violence myths strongly participants were asked to complete single predict victim blame (Peters 2008; Yamawaki item manipulation checks for victim typicality et al, 2012; Policastro & Payne, 2013). The and gender typicality. Finally, participants scale asked participants to rate their complete two pre-existing measures. The first agreeability with 18 statements about domestic was the full 30 item Moral Foundations violence, with responses ranging from 1 Questionnaire, which aimed to assess their (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) in a level of adherence to binding moral values. Likert style. Items on the scale asked questions The second was the full 18 item Domestic such as, “if a woman doesn’t like it, she can Violence Myth Acceptance Scale, which leave” and “women can avoid physical abuse aimed to measure participant’s acceptance of if they give it occasionally”. The scale was domestic violence myths. At the very end of tested for internal consistency using a the questionnaire, participants were presented Cronbach’s Alpha test, and the result was high with debrief information. (.910). Scores were then averaged to create Moral Foundations Questionnaire. one variable for endorsement of domestic To measure participants’ binding moral violence myths, with high scores representing values, the Moral Foundations Questionnaire strong acceptance of domestic violence myths, (MFQ) developed by Graham, Haidt and and low scores representing weak acceptance Nosek (2008) was used. The complete 30-item of domestic violence myths. questionnaire was included, and was divided Manipulation Checks. Participants into two parts (15 items in each) as per the answered one attention question to check the original format. Part one asked participants, manipulation of victim typicality in the “When you decide whether something is right vignette. Participants were asked to answer, or wrong, to what extent are the following “Which of the following statements is correct considerations relevant to your thinking?” For about the wife?” The three possible responses instance, some of these considerations related included, “she did not verbally or physically to for country (loyalty), conformity to resist the abuse”, “she did verbally and societal traditions (authority) and standards of physically resist the abuse” and “do not decency (sanctity). Part two stated, “Please know”. Participants were also asked to answer read the following sentences and indicate your two perception questions related to the agreement or disagreement”. For instance, vignette. The two items included, “How some statements related to being a team player similar is the wife to a typical woman?” and, (loyalty), adherence to gender roles (authority) “How similar is the wife to a typical victim of and importance of chastity (sanctity). All intimate partner abuse?” These were rated on a participants’ responses to both parts were 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) provided on 6-point Likert scales. In part one, to 7 (completely). These items were analysed the scales ranged from 1 (not at all relevant) to separately, and gender typicality was only 6 (extremely relevant). In part two, the scales included as it has been found to covary with ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 the independent variable of victim typicality. (strongly agree). A Cronbach’s Alpha test was Contributions conducted, and the result showed high internal

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The concept of my study was initially not be influencing the data. The residuals broadly proposed by my , but was scatterplot was then inspected to check for designed jointly by my supervisor and myself, violations of the assumptions of linearity as as a part of a larger research project with five well as homoscedasticity. A visual inspection other psychology honours students. My of the plot found no violation to linearity or supervisor provided direction about theories homoscedasticity. To check for violations of that may be relevant, the full hypothetical the assumption of multicollinearity between vignettes, guidance in statistical analysis and victim typicality and binding moral values, the verbal feedback on the discussion section. The variance inflation factor was inspected. It was information sheet, SONA study description identified that victim typicality and binding and social media advertisement were written moral values were not correlated highly, which by fellow researchers in my group. I means that the assumption of multicollinearity researched the literature for further theories was not violated (VIF = 1.02 for typicality, and empirical studies, wrote the debrief sheet 1.05 for binding moral values). Lastly, to for participants, contributed to recruiting check for independence of errors, the Durbin participants, developing and editing the online Watson statistic was noted. A score of 2.10 survey in Qualtrics and conducted the was obtained, which suggested that the errors statistical analyses for this study. were suitably independent, and no alterations Results to the data were necessary. Overview of Analyses Manipulation Checks The data was first analysed to check Attention manipulation. To check for violations of the assumptions of multiple that participants attended to the manipulation regression. The manipulation checks were then of victim typicality, and whether this attention analysed using a cross-tabulation to ensure differed as a function of typicality condition, a that participants attended to the manipulation chi-squared analysis was conducted. Overall, a of victim typicality, and perceived the high proportion of participants attended to the manipulation of victim typicality in the manipulation. A total of 83% of participants intended manner. After this, preliminary who answered the attention manipulation analyses, including independent groups t tests question correctly identified that the victim did and a Pearson’s product-moment correlation, or did not verbally and physically abuse the were conducted on the independent variable perpetrator. There was, however, a significant (victim typicality), the moderator (binding association between the content of the victim moral values) and the dependant variable typicality manipulation and typicality (victim blame). Lastly, the main analysis was a condition, �2 (2, N = 138) = 78.44, p = <.001, hierarchical multiple regression, in which an Φ .75. Even though in both the typical and alpha level of .05 was used. atypical conditions a greater proportion of Data Checking participants correctly identified, than The data was analysed using SPSS to incorrectly identified, that the victim did or did ensure that the multiple regression not verbally and physically abuse the assumptions were met. Firstly, a normal P-Plot perpetrator, the differences in these was visually inspected for normality. This plot proportions was greater in the typical did not appear normally distributed, and to condition. For participants in the typical reduce the severity of the skew, bootstrapping condition, 88% correctly identified, and 12% with 1000 samples was used during of participants incorrectly identified, that the preliminary and main data analysis. Victim victim did not verbally or physically resist the blame was then inspected for multivariate abuse. For participants in the atypical outliers using Mahalanobis distance and Cooks condition, 76% of participants correctly distance. Then Mahalanobis distance score identified, and 24% of participants incorrectly (7.49) was checked for significance using a identified, that the victim did verbally and Chi-Squared table with an alpha of .05, which physically resist the abuse. In the final identified that multivariate outliers were analyses, only those participants who present. The Cooks distance score (0.21) was answered and passed the attention then inspected to reveal that the outliers manipulation were included. present were not problematic. The outliers Perceptual manipulation. To check were kept in analyses as they were deemed to that the manipulation of typicality affected

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participants’ perceptions in the intended violence myth acceptance and victim blame. manner, two between subjects t-tests were First, the bivariate relationship between the performed. The first t-test checked the variables was analysed. As can be seen in table perception of victim typicality (e.g. the extent 1, binding moral values and domestic violence to which the participant believed the victim myths were weakly positively correlated. The was typical). There was no significant main table also shows that domestic violence myths effect of victim typicality, t(110) = .72, p was moderately positively correlated with =.472, 95% CI [-.26, .56], �2 .14. Participants victim blame. Next, an independent groups t- in the typical condition (M = 6.11, SD =0.96) test with bootstrapping was conducted with did not perceive the victim as more typical victim typicality and victim blame. It was than participants in the atypical condition (M identified that there was no significant = 5.96 SD =1.23). The second t-test checked difference in the extent to which participants whether participants in the typical condition in the typical condition (M =1.30 SD = .84) perceived the victim to be a more typical blamed the victim than the participants in the woman than participants in the atypical atypical condition (M = 1.50, SD =1.03), condition, because it has been found to covary t(110) = 1.07, p = .288, CI [-0.17, 0.56], �2 = with the independent variable of victim .21. After this, an independent groups t-test typicality. There was also no significant main was conducted with victim typicality and effect of gender typicality, t(110) = -1.69, p = binding moral values. The results of this test .095, 95% CI [-1.01, 0.82], �2 = .32. showed no significant difference in Participants in the typical condition (M = 4.17, participants’ levels of binding values for SD =1.47) did not perceive the victim as participants in the typical condition (M =3.79 behaving typically for their gender more so SD = 0.69) and participants in the atypical than participants in the atypical condition (M condition (M = 3.74, SD= 0.78), t(110) = 0.34, = 4.63, SD = 1.37). Overall, this pattern of p = .736, CI [-0.23, 0.33], �2 = .06. Lastly, a means suggests that the manipulations were Pearson’s product-moment correlation was not successful in affecting participants’ used to examine the relationships between perceptions in the intended manner. binding moral values and victim blame. There Preliminary Analyses was no significant correlation between levels Preliminary analyses were conducted of binding moral values and levels of victim to examine the relationship between victim blame typicality, binding moral values, domestic Main Analysis unique variance to the model, with higher A hierarchical multiple regression scores on the Domestic Violence Myths with bootstrapping was conducted, in order to Acceptance Scale associated with higher levels assess whether binding moral values of victim blame. Binding moral values and moderated the relationship between victim victim typical did not significantly explain any typicality and victim blame, while controlling unique variance. for the effects of domestic violence myths. At step 2, the interaction between Victim typicality, binding moral values and typicality and binding moral values did not domestic violence myths were added into step significantly increase the amount of variance 2 1 of the model. In step 2, the interaction term explained in victim blame, R change = .00, Fchange between victim typicality and binding values (1, 107) = 0.03, p = .863. This result does not was also added into the model. Binding moral show statistical support for binding moral values was mean centred to eliminate values moderating the relationship between multicollinearity issues created with the use of victim typicality and victim blame. The the interaction term. inclusion of the interaction term in the model At step 1, the model showed that resulted in the total model still significantly victim typicality, binding moral values and explaining 15% of the variance in victim domestic violence myths explained 15% of the blame, F (4, 107) = 4.72. As can be seen in variance in victim blame (R2 = .15, Adj. R2 = table 2, domestic violence myths still .13). This represents a significant proportion significantly contributed 13% of unique of variance explained, F (3, 108) = 6.39, p = variance to the model, however typicality and <.001. As can be seen in table 2, domestic binding moral values did not explain any more violence myths significantly contributed 13% significant variance.

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Discussion behaviours of the victim being inconsistent This study examined the effect of with Christie’s (1986) definition of an ideal victim typicality and the observers’ moral victim, as a defensive victim portrays a sense values on victim blame in a case of intimate of competence, suggesting they deserve equal partner violence. Participants read a vignette responsibility for the outcome (Meyer, 2016). depicting a case of intimate partner violence, This has also been interpreted in terms of between a husband (perpetrator) and wife gender stereotypes, as women who exhibit (victim), in which the wife responded to her aggressive behaviours do not tend to align husband’s abuse in a way that was either with society’s concept of a typical female typical (submissive) or atypical (aggressive). (Buzawa & Buzawa, 1993; Peters, 2008). Due The participants then answered a series of to the prior research, the first hypothesis from questions designed to assess the level of blame the current study suggested that participants they attributed to the victim, whether they held would blame the victim more when they strong or weak binding moral values, and their exhibited atypical, versus typical, behaviours acceptance of domestic violence myths. Based for a victim. on the research of Capezza and Arriaga After conducting the analyses, it was (2008), it was firstly predicted that participants found that the results did not support would blame the victim more when they read hypothesis 1. The results showed that about a victim who responded to the abuse in participants in the atypical and typical an atypical, compared to typical way, after conditions did not differ significantly on their controlling for domestic violence myths attributions of blame to the hypothetical (Hypothesis 1). In addition to this, it was victim, with both attributing overall low levels predicted that participants would blame the of blame. Interestingly, the perceptual victim more when they scored higher, manipulation check for typicality revealed that compared to lower, on measures of binding participants did not even perceive the victim moral values, after controlling for participants’ differently in the typical and atypical endorsement of domestic violence myths conditions. This result could provide (Hypothesis 2), consistent with the work of explanations for why participants responded in Niemi and Young (2016). However, it was the way they did. Firstly, this could be predicted that the relationship between victim attributed to the language used in the typicality and victim blame would be hypothetical vignette. The vignettes written moderated by participants’ binding moral specifically for this study may have portrayed values. Specifically, participants would blame the victim as too much of a victim in both victims more when they read about a victim conditions. As can be seen in previous studies who responded to the abuse in an atypical, measuring the influence of language emphasis, compared to typical way; however, this would when the focus of the text is primarily directed occur to a greater extent at higher, compared towards the perpetrator’s actions, observers to lower, levels of binding moral values after are less likely to attribute blame to the victim controlling for participants’ endorsement of (Niemi and Young, 2016, Young and Phillips, domestic violence myths (Hypothesis 3). The 2011). The hypothetical vignette used in this results of the current study will be interpreted study was consistent in describing the and discussed according to these hypotheses. perpetrator’s violent behaviours towards the The implications of the findings, strengths, victim, while mention of the victim focused limitations of the study will then be explored. primarily on their response, which was Lastly, recommendations for future research manipulated based on the condition. This will be discussed. focus on the perpetrator could have been Interpretation enough to alter participants’ attributions of Victim Typicality. The published blame, and the victim response may not have literature on victim behaviour shows that a been extreme enough to match the submissive, or vulnerable victim of intimate perpetrator’s in severity. partner violence, often garners less blame than Another explanation for this result a victim that actively defends themselves from could be due to a change in societal attitudes their abuser. (Capezza & Arriaga, 2008; Witte, towards since most of the Schroeder, & Lohr, 2006; Yamawaki et al., research on victim typicality was conducted. 2012). This effect has been attributed to While some depictions of victim (Christie,

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1986) and even gender (Buzawa and Buzawa, may be primarily due to a lack of 1993) typicality were originally published heterogeneity in the sample. The sample of more than twenty years ago, others were more participants recruited for the study heavily recent (Capezza and Arriaga, 2008; Witte et consisted of young first year psychology al., 2006). However, in recent years, domestic students, along with friends and family of the violence campaigns such as White Ribbon researchers. It is possible that due to similar Australia, and the Australian Government’s fields of study, education level, age and ‘’ have grown in geographical location, the moral values of awareness. More people may be changing their participants were also alike. In some of the attitudes towards victim blame. Participants in previous studies on moral values, participants this study could have been more inclined to were primarily recruited from the community, believe the victim was less blameworthy in and paid to engage in the study (Niemi and both conditions as education on domestic Young, 2016; Selterman and Koleva, 2015). violence myths becomes more prevalent, and a This may have provided the researchers with a wider range of victim responses are considered sample consisting of a wider variation in moral acceptable. It is important to note that this values. could also be linked to changing attitudes in While binding moral values were gender stereotypes. As the perceptual unable to predict victim blame in the current manipulation also found that participants did study, it is interesting to note that binding not consider the victims in both conditions moral values and domestic violence myth significantly different in gender typicality, this scores were significantly positively correlated. may suggest that the stereotype of a typical It is not difficult to recognize how the two woman’s behaviour is still changing, and more variables may be positively correlated. Prior participants believe the victim’s response to research has determined that individually, high abuse was considered typical of a woman, scores on both of these variables can predict regardless of how traditionally feminine her more victim blame, excusing the perpetrator behaviour was. and minimising the seriousness of the abuse Binding Moral Values. The existing (Peters, 2008; Policastro & Payne, 2013; literature on moral values has shown that Yamawaki et al., 2012). Although this individuals who identify more with binding correlation was weak, the significance may values (loyalty, authority, sanctity) tend to point to a potentially valuable relationship that blame victims of violence more than those would warrant further research. who do not hold these values as strongly Strengths and Limitations (Brewer, 2007; Capezza and Arriaga, 2008; Strengths. This study has some Selterman and Koleva, 2015). It has been important strengths to note. Firstly, the use of suggested that this effect could be due to domestic violence myths acceptance as a focus. Individuals who value binding morals control variable was valuable. Domestic highly, are more accepting of retributive acts violence myth acceptance was the only towards others who have violated these values significant predictor of victim blame in this (Brewer, 2007; Dovidio & Gaertner, 2010; study, and this reinforces the strong role these Smith, Aquino, Koleva, & Graham, 2014), and myths play when observers attribute blame in focus on the behaviours of the victim that cases of intimate partner violence. Even could have merited retaliation. In line with the though the sample of participants in this study prior research, the second hypothesis for the was not very heterogeneous, domestic current study suggested that participants would violence myths still proved to be a better blame the victim more when they scored high predictor of blame than both victim typicality on measures of binding moral values, and binding moral values. This suggests that compared to when they scored low. domestic violence myth acceptance is a crucial Analysis of the data revealed that the influence to consider when measuring levels results did not support hypothesis 2. The of blame and may be a confounding variable if standard deviation of responses revealed very not controlled for. little variation in scores beyond the mean, Secondly, this study examined the which around the midpoint of the scale, effect of both victim and observer factors, showed no trend of high or low binding moral which are important to investigate, particularly values. This indicates that the obtained result as societal attitudes change. Research over the

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last thirty years has shown that both, factors that could be found due to other reasons, as relating to the victim and factors relating to the well as gender determinants. Due to observer, are key influences in the formulation recognised influences of language use in the of a blame attribution. However, the results of text (Niemi and Young, 2016, Young and this study suggest that what we , Phillips, 2011), the format of the vignette may particularly about the ideal victim, may be have put too much emphasis on the actions of shifting as our society evolves. Since the the perpetrator and directed the focus away perceptual manipulation check from the from the victim. This may have impacted the current study found that participants viewed possible effects of manipulating victim the victim in both conditions as typical, it response. The responses may not have been could be suggested that society’s view of what significant enough to draw attention back to constitutes an ideal victim may be broadening. the victim’s behaviour, and depict the atypical It is important to continue studying victim as relatively equal to the perpetrator in characteristics of a victim that are more or less terms of competence and . If this likely to attract attributions of blame, so that study were to be replicated the vignette would we may further unravel the causal factors need to be restructured to increase the severity involved in intimate partner violence blame. of the victim’s response in the atypical Lastly, this study used pre-existing condition to match that of the perpetrator’s. measures, which have been found to be both Lastly, it is important to note that this highly reliable and valid. Pre-existing scales study may have needed more power to detect were used to measure both binding moral an effect. The recruited sample was only large values, and domestic violence myth enough to detect a medium effect of victim acceptance, which made up a sizeable blame, and any effect that this study may have proportion of items in the questionnaire. This found could have been small. It may be useful prevented many possible errors in designing to reconduct the experiment with a larger the items specifically for the study, which sample in an attempt to identify any smaller could have negatively impacted on the results. effects that may have gone unnoticed. Limitations. While the study design Implications did show some strength, there were also some If this research were to be redone with important limitations. Firstly, the existing the methodology improved to minimise the literature on victim typicality was heavily limiting effects, and the hypothesised effects based in theory and there were only a limited were found, there would be multiple important number of experimental designs aimed to test implications for society. Firstly, finding an the effects of victim typicality on attributions interaction between victim typicality and of blame. Many of the studies on factors moral values would further advance the pertaining to the victim were also closely scientific literature on intimate partner linked with gender stereotypes. Although violence so that we may have a better gender stereotypes can be closely linked to the understanding of the influential factors concept of an ideal victim, it is difficult to contributing to victim blame in these pinpoint the exact cause of the results on circumstances. While a lot of the research on victim blame when the two concepts are victim blame is focused around random sexual studied in conjunction. To overcome this assaults, there is less published work on how limitation, more research needs to focus on blame is attributed in physical and experimentally manipulating the typicality of psychological assault cases of intimate partner the victim, as opposed to their gender violence. Physical and psychological assaults, stereotypes. This would involve creating particularly in the home environment, may be manipulations, which have no gender less clearly defined in terms of victim and determining language. Instead of terms such as perpetrator. When instances of abuse occur in husband or wife, the hypothetical individuals the privacy of a home, judgements of causality may be described with other words, such as a may be left up to an observer’s personal defendant and plaintiff if the study were court or belief in domestic violence myths. By focused, or by using gender neutral names experimentally evaluating the factors involved such as Sam or Alex. in attributions of blame, we may begin to Secondly, the wording of the vignette identify the significant role that personal used in this study may have limited the results beliefs play. This may become particularly

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influential for court cases of intimate partner research has shown that binding moral values violence, as legal professionals may begin to can predict higher levels of blame, there has identify traits of a victim in these cases that not been sufficient investigation into the effect may lead to juror bias. of individualising values on blame. If binding Another important implication for values are significant predictors of blame, then significant findings would be more focus on it would be expected that individualising providing access to domestic violence values would also be significant predictors, but resources. By furthering the literature on predicting less, rather than more, blame. If attributions of blame in these cases, public significant evidence were to be found for both knowledge of blame may increase, with value sets as predictors of blame, then it would changes to be seen at both the corporate and reinforce the existing literature on the effects individual levels. Domestic violence of moral values on blame attributions. While foundations and the Australian government focusing on the influence of moral values, it may use this extended knowledge to promote would also be valuable to further investigate awareness of blame bias, and begin to make the positive correlation found between binding changes towards the discussion of domestic moral values and domestic violence myth abuse. This would in turn, influence the acceptance in the current study. If this positive perceptions of the general population who correlation can be replicated in future research, have the ability to make changes by it may provide further insight into the themselves. People may begin to question mechanisms behind binding moral value other’s judgements on victims, and perhaps adherence and victim blame. Lastly, when even be motivated to extend a helping hand to investigating the influences of victim friends or acquaintances who are involved in typicality and moral values it may also be abusive relationships. interesting to examine the effects among Future Research different cultures around the world. While the While the concept of victim typicality sample in this current study were primarily and moral values in combination is a new and young psychology students residing in interesting way to research attributions of Australia, it may be interesting to replicate the victim blame, there are diverse ways for future design with a different sample from a more research to investigate it, which may provide liberal or alternatively, a more conservative some clearer answers. One important direction culture. Investigating the effects of victim for future research is to disentangle gender typicality and moral values in various cultures from victim typicality. The perceptual may produce significantly different results manipulation results of the current study depending on their level of education on, and reinforced how these variables may be acceptance of, intimate partner violence in interpreted in similar ways. This makes it their societies. Regardless of the study design, important to design research which may it is important to continue studying the factors investigate victim typicality while controlling that influence attributions of victim blame in for the effect of gender stereotypes if we are to cases of intimate partner violence. By doing truly understand the key characteristics that so, the scientific community may begin to our society considers a victim to hold, if they resolve the current conflict in the literature, are to be given the label of a victim. Another and as a society, we may begin to increase the avenue for future research would be to awareness of bias and myths, along with investigate the flip side of binding values; providing more support and resources for individualising moral values. While prior victims to escape abusive environments.

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United States. Aggressive Behavior, 30(3), Saul, L. J. (1972). Personal and Social Psychopathology 206-216. doi:10.1002/ab.20018 and the Primary Prevention of Niemi, L., & Young, L. (2016). When and Why We See Violence. American Journal of Victims as Responsible. Personality and , 128(12), 1578-1581. Social Psychology Bulletin, 42(9), 1227-1242. doi:10.1176/ajp.128.12.1578 NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research. Schneider, E. (1992). Describing and changing: (2013). Reporting Violence to Police: A Women's self-defense work and the problem survey of victims attending domestic violence of expert testimony on battering. Women's services (91). Retrieved from Rights Law Reporter, 14(2), 213. https://www.women.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets Selterman, D., & Koleva, S. (2015). Moral judgment of /pdf_file/0004/280912/Reporting_Violence_t close relationship . Journal of Social o_the_Police_-_BOCSAR_survey.pdf and Personal Relationships, 32(7), 922-945. Overholser, J. C., & Moll, S. H. (1990). Who's to doi:10.1177/0265407514554513 blame: Attributions regarding causality in Smith, I. H., Aquino, K., Koleva, S., & Graham, J. spouse abuse. Behavioral Sciences & the (2014). The Moral Ties That Bind . . . Even to Law, 8(2), 107-120. Out-Groups. Psychological Science, 25(8), doi:10.1002/bsl.2370080203 1554-1562. doi:10.1177/0956797614534450 Patterson, D., Greeson, M., & Campbell, R. (2009). Strömwall, L. A., Alfredsson, H., & Landström, S. Understanding Rape Survivors' Decisions Not (2012). Blame attributions and rape: Effects to Seek Help from Formal Social of belief in a just world and relationship Systems. Health & Social Work, 34(2), 127- level. Legal and Criminological 136. doi:10.1093/hsw/34.2.127 Psychology, 18(2), 254-261. Pedersen, S. H., & Strömwall, L. A. (2013). Victim doi:10.1111/j.2044-8333.2012.02044.x Blame, Sexism and Just-World Beliefs: A Strömwall, L. A., Alfredsson, H., & Landström, S. Cross-Cultural Comparison. Psychiatry, (2013). Rape victim and perpetrator blame Psychology and Law, 20(6), 932-941. and the Just World hypothesis: The influence doi:10.1080/13218719.2013.770715 of victim gender and age. Journal of Sexual Peters, J. (2008). Measuring Myths about Domestic Aggression, 19(2), 207-217. Violence: Development and Initial Validation doi:10.1080/13552600.2012.683455 of the Domestic Violence Myth Acceptance Tsapelas, I., Fisher, H., & Aron, A. (2011). : Scale. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & when, where, why. In The Dark Side of Close Trauma, 16(1), 1-21. Relationships II (pp. 175-196). New York, doi:10.1080/10926770801917780 NY: Routledge. Pierce, M. C., & Harris, R. J. (1993). The Effect of Van den Bos, K., & Maas, M. (2009). On the Provocation, Race, and Injury Description on Psychology of the Belief in a Just World: Men's and Women's Perceptions of a Wife- Exploring Experiential and Rationalistic Paths Battering Incident. Journal of Applied Social to Victim Blaming. Personality and Social Psychology, 23(10), 767-790. Psychology Bulletin, 35(12), 1567-1578. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1993.tb01006.x doi:10.1177/0146167209344628 Policastro, C., & Payne, B. K. (2013). The Vecina, M. L. (2014). The Five Moral Foundations Blameworthy Victim: Domestic Violence Sacredness Scale in men in court-mandated Myths and the Criminalization of treatment for violently abusing their Victimhood. Journal of Aggression, partners. Personality and Individual Maltreatment & Trauma, 22(4), 329-347. Differences, 64, 46-51. doi:10.1080/10926771.2013.775985 doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.02.021 Rannard, G. (2017, May 5). Outrage after prosecutor Vecina, M. L., Marzana, D., & Paruzel-Czachura, M. a woman for her death [BBC News]. (2015). Connections between moral Retrieved from psychology and intimate partner violence: http://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending- Can IPV be read through moral 39817650 psychology? Aggression and Violent Ryan, W. (2010). Blaming the Victim [Knopf Behavior, 22, 120-127. Doubleday Publishing Group] (2nd ed.). doi:10.1016/j.avb.2015.04.013 Walker, L. (1979). The battered victim. New York, NY: World Health Organisation. (2012). Intimate partner Harper & Row. violence (12.36). Retrieved from Witte, T. H., Schroeder, D. A., & Lohr, J. M. (2006). http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/77432 Blame for Intimate Partner Violence: An /1/WHO_RHR_12.36_eng.pdf Attributional Analysis. Journal of Social and Yamawaki, N., Ochoa-Shipp, M., Pulsipher, C., Clinical Psychology, 25(6), 647-667. Harlos, A., & Swindler, S. (2012). doi:10.1521/jscp.2006.25.6.647 Perceptions of Domestic Violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27(16), 3195-3212. Young, L., & Phillips, J. (2011). The paradox of moral doi:10.1177/0886260512441253 focus. Cognition, 119(2), 166-178. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.01.004

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Appendix A. tried to stand up, he put his hands around her Vignette for Typical Condition. throat and tried to strangle her. She eventually Rebecca and Neil are an Australian woman lost consciousness. When she regained and man who are currently living in Australia. consciousness, she walked downstairs to clean They chose to get married, and they got the wound on her head. married on 20th January, 2013. Appendix B. Three months into their marriage, Neil started Vignette for Atypical Condition to display controlling behaviours. He would Rebecca and Neil are an Australian woman read Rebecca’s text messages from her friends, and man who are currently living in Australia. and always ask her who she was talking to on They chose to get married, and they got the phone. He would often listen to her married on 20th January, 2013. telephone conversations. He then told her that Three months into their marriage, Neil started he didn’t want her to spend time with her to display controlling behaviours. He would friends, because he didn’t like them. read Rebecca’s text messages from her friends, Eventually, he told her she wasn’t allowed to and always ask her who she was talking to on talk on the phone with anyone or visit anyone, the phone. He would often listen to her unless they were family. A year into their telephone conversations. He then told her that marriage, Neil told Rebecca she was no longer he didn’t want her to spend time with her allowed to take the bus for transport and that friends, because he didn’t like them. she was only allowed to leave the house if he Eventually, he told her she wasn’t allowed to drove her. Rebecca never questioned Neil’s talk on the phone with anyone or visit anyone, decisions. unless they were family. A year into their From that point on, Neil would get angry with marriage, Neil told Rebecca she was no longer her most days for something she did or didn’t allowed to take the bus for transport and that do. It was always over small things. If she she was only allowed to leave the house if he served his dinner a few minutes late, he would drove her. Rebecca always protested against yell at her, telling her how useless she was as a Neil’s decisions, telling him that she would do wife. If she entered the room when he had whatever she wanted. friends over, he would yell at her for her lack From that point on, Neil would get angry with of manners, telling her she had no respect for her most days for something she did or didn’t him or his friends. Rebecca never yelled back do. It was always over small things. If she at Neil. served his dinner a few minutes late, he would Then one day, Rebecca moved Neil’s car keys, yell at her, telling her how useless she was as a from the table in the lounge room, to hang wife. If she entered the room when he had them on the wall with the house keys. When friends over, he would yell at her for her lack Neil couldn’t find his keys, he got so angry of manners, telling her she had no respect for that he hit Rebecca across the face. Rebecca him or his friends. Rebecca always yelled back did not fight back. at Neil, telling him that he’s a worthless Over the next six months, Neil’s controlling husband. behaviour and verbal abuse continued, and he Then one day, Rebecca moved Neil’s car keys, hit Rebecca another three times. Rebecca from the table in the lounge room, to hang never protested against Neil’s decisions, yelled them on the wall with the house keys. When at him, or fought back. Even though Neil’s Neil couldn’t find his keys, he got so angry abuse continued during this time, it did not that he hit Rebecca across the face. Rebecca escalate. fought back by pushing Neil against a wall. But then one day, at the end of this six-month Over the next six months, Neil’s controlling period, Neil’s abuse intensified. Rebecca was behaviour and verbal abuse continued, and he tidying Neil’s clothes and belongings in the hit Rebecca another three times. Rebecca bedroom. Neil came into the bedroom and saw continued to protest against Neil’s decisions, her touching his belongings. He got so angry yell at him and fight back. Even though Neil’s that he pushed her into the wall so hard that abuse continued during this time, it did not her head punctured the wall. She fell to the escalate. floor and her head was bleeding. When she

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But then one day, at the end of this six-month consciousness, she walked downstairs to clean period, Neil’s abuse intensified. Rebecca was the wound on her head. tidying Neil’s clothes and belongings in the bedroom. Neil came into the bedroom and saw her touching his belongings. He got so angry that he pushed her into the wall so hard that her head punctured the wall. She fell to the floor and her head was bleeding. When she tried to stand up, he put his hands around her throat and tried to strangle her. She eventually lost consciousness. When she regained

Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations and Bivariate Correlations between the independent variable, moderator, control and dependant measure.

Variables Mean (SD) 1 2 3 4

1. Typicality 5.41 (.49) -

2. BMV 3.77 (.73) -.02 -

3. DVM 2.63 (.89) -.14 .22* -

4. Blame 1.42 (.96) -.12 .02 .38** -

Note: DVM = Domestic Violence Myths. BMV = Binding Moral Values. DMV was measured on the Domestic Violence Myths Acceptance Scale with higher scores representing more domestic violence myth acceptance. BMV was measured on the Moral Values

Questionnaire with higher scores on binding measures representing higher binding moral values. Victim typicality was coded as 0 = typical, 1 = atypical. *p <.05, **p <.001.

Table 2

Coefficients for B and β, SE and t, p and sr2, values for victim typicality, domestic violence myths and binding moral values when predicting victim blame.

b SE β t p 95% CI Sr2

Step 1

DVM .46* .10 .39* 4.20 .000 [.22, .61] .13

Typicality .10 .17 .05 .56 .577 [-.25, .44] .00

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BMV .09 .12 .07 .71 .477 [-.15, .32] .00

Step 2

DVM .41* .10 .39* 4.17 .000 [.22, .61] .13

Typicality .10 .17 .05 .56 .577 [-.25, .44] .00

BMV .08 .12 .06 .68 .495 [-.16, .32] .00

Interaction -.04 .23 -.02 -.17 .863 [-.51, .42] -.00

Note. DVM = Domestic Violence Myths. BMV = Binding Moral Values. DMV was measured on the Domestic Violence Myths Acceptance Scale with higher scores representing more domestic violence myth acceptance. BMV was measured on the Moral Values

Questionnaire with higher scores on binding measures representing higher binding moral values. Victim typicality was coded as 0 = typical, 1 = atypical. *p <.001.

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