File File Non-Arab Ethnic Groups
schizophrenia; while embracing their decision to choose women today. Parental opposition to a marriage that their own partner, whom they wish to love and live with does not enjoy their support is constant and overbearing. in peace for the rest of their life, they still live in a social The continuous intervention of the family against the environment that does not recognize this right. young couple frequently breaks down their romantic expectations, leading, sooner or later, to divorce. In the The Origins Anecdotal evidence of the identity crisis now con- end, deadly indifference surrounds the separated couple. fronting Berber girls and young women can be found in my own extended family. I can give a concrete example When a relationship ends in divorce, it can have very of a cousin of mine, which just occurred two years ago. detrimental consequences for a young woman. She will She was discovered to be in an amorous relationship normally find it almost impossible to return to her fam- of Amazigh Women’s with a young man from the same tribe. The young man ily and continue living there the way she did prior to her was a constant visitor to the family home, and feelings marriage. Her father, who assumed that he was no of love grew between them. The discovery that my longer responsible for her well being, is now her only cousin had acted on her own in this manner greatly source of income, thus adding a new and unexpected angered her father; he tried, and he is still trying to pre- financial burden to his family. Faced with this highly Power in North Africa: vent any legal bonds that might unite the two and thus unpleasant alternative, many recently divorced women legitimize their relationship. His desperate attempts to are drawn to the attractions of life in town. Of late, girls separate my cousin from her freely chosen partner has and young women often do have the opportunity to even led him to attempt to send his disobedient daugh- visit urban centers now and again. Town life promises to ter to Saudi Arabia although she is only 17 years old. provide comfort, cleanliness, and more modern social An Historical Overview Ironically, my uncle is actually aware that what he is values. In recent years, rural women, especially young doing violates both the rules of logic and respect for divorcees, have moved to Sidi Addi, Azrou and Ain legitimate human feelings. However, his male ego has Leuh. Here, they often form collective groups in order to lead him to believe that he has been violated as a father; cover the rent and living expenses and cope with the this prevents him from acquiescing and is blinding his new demands of a life alone in an urban setting. sense of reason. This family crisis will most certainly put Ulbani Aït Frawsen and L’Hocine Ukerdis an end to any similar expectations on the part of his Tragically, many young divorced women have young chil- Ulbani Aït Frawsen, Eindhoven, Netherlands other four daughters. dren to provide for, this compelling them to find income L’Hocine Ukerdis, Biomedical Engineering Institute, University of Montreal, Canada at any cost. Appropriate work at a decent wage can It is important to mention here that a woman’s choice of rarely be found in these towns because their economies a future partner in not longer rejected out of hand. are largely based on agriculture and controlled by men. Background and Definitions ized terms to define their own local linguistic variations, However, the decision of a young couple will not be tol- Consequently, it is not uncommon that young rural The term “Amazigh” denotes the major linguistic minor- such as Tariffit in northern Morocco, Tashilhit in erated without the blessing of the women are forced into prostitution ity of North Africa. However, “Berber” still remains the Morocco’s Sous Valley, Tanfusit in Libya’s Nofusa moun- parents. They are the ones who in order to provide for themselves more widely used ethno-linguistic word for them. In tains, Tashawit in Algeria’s Awras mountains and the like. have the final word; either it is con- and their children. Beginning as a antiquity, the Romans and Byzantines used this term to The original Amazigh alphabetic transcription system is sent or a refusal of the match. In casual pursuit, the demands of day- refer to those who did not speak the region’s “lingua referred to as “Tifinagh.” Variant transcription systems in order to prevent the family crisis When a relationship to-day life turn prostitution into a franca”, Greek. During and after the arrival of Islam in use today include the Latin and Arabic adaptations of described above, the parents of the profession. the seventh century, the Arabs followed this Greco- Tifinagh representations. potential bridegroom often select ends in divorce, it can Roman practice and referred to the indigenous peoples trusted individuals from their tribe In conclusion, this portrayal of the they encountered as “barbar.” The French and English The Tuareg populations in Mali call their ancestral home- to approach the future bride’s have very detrimental transition in the lives of Berber girls speakers adopted the vulgarised term, “Berber”, and land Azouad (in north-western Mali), and the Tuareg of father and beg that he agree to give and young women in the Middle coined the word “Barbary,” with respect to the region of Niger call theirs Air (in the Air mountain massif of north his daughter in marriage. If this consequences for a Atlas Mountains has illustrated that North Africa and its people. central Niger, with its capital at Agadez) and refer to strategy fails, frustrated couples in the key to improving their situation themselves as the Kel Air (i.e., “People of Air”). Other our tribe have been known to young woman. lies in an overall improvement in the The “Berber” people prefer the term “Amazigh”, which groups of Imazighen are also found in Libya, Tunisia and elope. Defying both social norms socio-economic conditions of the they use to describe both themselves and their indige- at Siwa Oasis, Egypt. The word “Amazighité” (i.e., and their parents in this way, these general mountain population. In nous languages. “Amazigh” signifies a “free” or “noble” Berberism) is often used to sum up the qualities that all newly wedded couples are fre- order for them to maintain the person; the plural is “Imazighen”. To define, in the most Amazigh peoples tend to share commonly. These include quently confronted with a major hope that their lives will someday generic way, the language that they speak, Imazighen speaking the Tamazight language, revering the national scandal in the community, which often undermines their be better, emphasis should be placed on the financial use the term “Tamazight.” This term is also used specifi- homeland (Tamazgha) and honouring of the Amazigh relationship and replaces romantic intentions with the resources necessary for development. On its own, broad- cally for the language commonly used by the Imazighen people, residing in the region including Algeria, Morocco, most unpleasant of feelings. The stereotypical romanti- ening the horizons of young girls through the introduction of Kabylia and Shawia in Algeria, the dialects used in the Tunisia, Libya, Mauritania, as well as other areas, includ- cism of the Berber tribes is indeed relegated to folklore, of primary and secondary education in the mountainous Middle Atlas (Rwafa) and Shlowh in Morocco, Zwara and ing Siwa Oasis in Egypt, and parts of Mali, Niger, Burkina tribal celebrations and tales from the distant past that regions will only serve to deepen the social and cultural the Nofusa Mountains in Libya and in parts of Egypt and Faso and the Canary Islands. Practicing various common have no bearing on the reality experienced by young contradictions that young women are faced with today. Tunisia. Regional Tamazight speakers use their own local- customs and traditions, instilling a historical awareness of
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the basic outlines of Amazigh history and honouring Almoravids (al-Murabitun, “People of the Ribat”) and the years. A famous Phoenician queen, Didon Elishat , found- Amazigh tribes fiercely resisted invasion, and decades of famous historical figures are all part of this shared identi- Almohades (al-Muwahhidun, the “Unitarians”), which ed the fabled city of Carthage near modern Tunis, where war resulted. ty. They have all played a role in influencing the struggle dominated much of North Africa and Spain in the 12th she successfully defended it against the forces of her for the improvement of the social and cultural positions and 13th centuries. From the 13th century on, however, brother who sought to unseat her in about 980 B.C. By Very little is known about Kahena’s family, or her early of Amazigh women. Arab Bedouin tribes (the Banu Hilal, Banu Sulaym, and 150 B.C., Carthage was the greatest maritime power in life. Her father’s name was reported to have been Tabat, Banu Ma’qil) began to inundate the low-lying plains of the world. It had successfully disputed with Rome in two or Thabitah. The name Kahena or al-Kahina is a recog- Origins North Africa and began a unfortunate process of of three Punic wars and sent Hannibal over the Alps to nised feminine form of “Cohen”, and it may indicate that Since the dawn of history, Imazighen have been the Arabization that would continue into the 20th century. conquer Spain and invade Italy. But in the third Punic War, her family or tribe were Cohanim. It could also have been indigenous inhabitants of North Africa, their territory Rome ended Carthaginian rule (by 140 B.C.) and reduced a title given to her personally, meaning something like stretching from Egypt to Mauritania and from the Imazighen only retained their native Tamazight tongues Didon’s empire to a Roman province. ‘priestess’ or ‘prophetess’. Her followers, and their ene- Mediterranean to the boundaries of historic sub-Saharan in the Atlas Mountains and remote sections of the mies, credited her with prophesy and magical knowl- Black Africa. Throughout their history, women have Sahara, not penetrated by these Arab groups. As a result, Amazigh women are thought to be the fabled Amazon edge. She married at least once, and had sons. Beyond played a vital role in the development of Amazigh society. Amazigh communal consciousness remained strong in female warriors recorded by Diodorus Siculus, who that, almost nothing is known about her. Various empires and peoples have conquered portions of the High, Middle, and Riff Atlas sections of Morocco; the reported that they had led their men to war, mutilated historic Tamazgha, beginning with the Phoenicians and Kabylia mountain massifs east of Algiers; the Aures their enemies, and hennaed cowardly men. Pre-lslamic The Imazighen of the seventh century AD were not reli- Greeks and continuing through the Romans, Vandals, Mountains of eastern Algeria; the Mzab region of the desert Amazigh society has been described as being giously homogenous. Christian, Jewish and pagan Byzantines, Arabs, Turks, French, British, Spanish, and northern Sahara of Algeria; Algeria’s Tuareg sectors of the almost entirely matriarchal in nature. Amazigh were spread through the region that is now Italians. Imazighen have been subjected to various reli- Ahaggar and Tassili-n-Ajjer; the Nofusa Mountains south Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, and Libya. They shared a com- gious beliefs: their own early pantheistic concepts; the of Tripoli, the Saharan Siwa Oasis complex in western Who was the legendary Kahena? mon language and culture, however, and the invasion of polytheistic dogmas of the Phoenicians, Egyptians, Egypt, the Tuareg Azouad territory of northwestern Mali, By 682 A.D., during the Islamic invasions of North Africa, the Arabs presented them with a common cause, Greeks, and Romans; and monotheistic Judaism, and the Tuareg-occupied Air Mountains massif of north a legendary female leader, queen of Carthage and ruler enabling them to join forces in order to drive out the for- Christianity, and Islam. Since the 13th century, most central Niger. of the Amazighs and Mauritanians, rallied and united her eign invaders. Kahena emerged as a war-leader during Imazighen have professed the Islamic faith and Islam has diverse subject peoples. Her forces challenged the this tense period, and proved amazingly successful at penetrated deeply into their collective psyches. Amazigh Women Arab/Islamic invaders, who were in the process of captur- encouraging the tribes of the region to join together As mentioned above, women played a very important ing and re-building Carthage in 698 when she success- against their common enemy. Her reputation as a strate- Throughout their history, the Imazighen have always had role in Amazigh societies throughout the various phases fully drove them from her city. She was historically know gist and sorceress spread, and she managed to briefly their heroes or heroines who have defended their ances- of Amazigh subjugation. There have been female rulers, by many names including Dhabba Kahena, Dahia-Kahena achieve an historically unique feat, uniting all the tribes of tral homeland, only to succumb to the superior “civiliza- holy women or queens even during the period of the or Dihya al-Kahin. This Amazigh heroic leader decided to Ifrikya, the Amazigh name for North Africa, ruling them tional” might of their foreign conquerors. In 814 B.C., for Islamization of North Africa. A female Amazigh leader leave nothing for successive waves of Arab invaders and and leading them in battle for five years before her final example, Amazigh chief Larbas negotiated a deal to name Kahina put up fierce resistance to the Arab con- therefore laid waste to her own country. Because of this defeat. marry Princess Dido, daughter of the King of Tyre, in querors of her time. Women were also important con- sacrifice she was given credit for successfully preventing return for a small piece of real tributors to the Amazigh economy. Islam’s southward spread into the Another famous female Amazigh estate that eventually became Qart In many cases, weaving provided Sudan. warrior was Barshako who dressed Hadasht (i.e., the New City, or independence for Amazigh as a man and led camel raids on Carthage). King Juba and King Women played a women, especially widows. A com- Kahena was know as the Veiled other tribes. She is said to have Massinissa plotted with the Romans paratively large percentage of Queen by the of Jerawa tribe of the Pre-lslamic desert returned home only to dismiss her against the Carthaginians. Prince very important role Amazigh women were versed in Aures Mountains, from where she husband, saying that she would no Jugurtha mastered Roman fighting their people’s literature and poetry supposedly hailed. She was univer- Amazigh society has longer cook and keep house for a techniques and subsequently led a in Amazigh societies and thus enjoyed exclusive knowl- sally recognised as the most effec- man. formidable rebellion from 106 to edge about the Amazigh’s Tifinagh tive and savage of the feminine been described as 104 B.C., according to the Roman throughout the various tradition. enemies of Islamic expansionism in The Tauregs call Tin Hinan “Mother historian Sallust’s account of the North Africa. According to Ibn being almost entirely matri- of Us All.” Jugurthine War. phases of Amazigh Not only the Amazigh themselves, Khaldun, Kahena was an adherent The tall, noble, proud, fierce and but also the conquering peoples of of the Jewish faith, who claimed archal in nature. nomadic Tuaregs (Imucagh or free In the early stages of the arrival of subjugation. the region were familiar with the that her entire tribe had converted people) live in the Ahaggar and Islam, the Aures tribal chief Kusaila, tradition of strong female leader- to Judaism. She continued her Tassili N’Ajjer Mountains of Algeria and later Kahena, resisted the ship role models. As early as 1200 struggle against the Arab/Islamic and the Air Mountains of Niger. Arabs in the late 7th-early 8th cen- B.C., Phoenician sailors, coming onslaught until her death in battle They are called “The Blue People” turies until they were overwhelmed by the Arab forces, from what is now Lebanon, recorded what they had in 702 AD. She is still gratefully recognised as the because the indigo dye of the robes they wore coloured and forced to submit. Salih (Moroccan Amazigh) from the found in North Africa (then called Libya), namely a race “Ancestral Queen Mother” by the Amazigh people. their skin blue. These historical robes are now reserved Moroccan Berghawata, took Islam as their role model of Caucasians who worshipped the sun and sacrificed to According to legend, she was born into a Jewish for wearing exclusively at fairs and festivals. They trace and translated an “Amazigh” Koran in order to repulse the moon. Soon the Phoenicians became North Africa’s Amazigh tribe in the Aures Mountains some time during their origins as a separate people to an Amazigh desert Arab cultural penetration of Morocco’s Atlas mountains. first known conquerors and settled in what is now the 600s AD. During her lifetime, Arab generals began to matriarch, Queen Tin Hinan, who led them on a desert The Amazigh leaders, Yusuf ibn Tashfin and Ibn Tumart, Tunisia. From there they exercised dominion over North lead armies into North Africa, preparing to conquer the trek to the Ahaggar Mountains. established the great Amazigh medieval empires of the Africa and the Mediterranean for more than a thousand area and introduce Islam to the local peoples. The
18 Volume XX, No. 101-102 Spring/Summer 2003 Volume XX, No. 101-102 Spring/Summer 2003 19
File File Non-Arab Ethnic Groups
the basic outlines of Amazigh history and honouring Almoravids (al-Murabitun, “People of the Ribat”) and the years. A famous Phoenician queen, Didon Elishat , found- Amazigh tribes fiercely resisted invasion, and decades of famous historical figures are all part of this shared identi- Almohades (al-Muwahhidun, the “Unitarians”), which ed the fabled city of Carthage near modern Tunis, where war resulted. ty. They have all played a role in influencing the struggle dominated much of North Africa and Spain in the 12th she successfully defended it against the forces of her for the improvement of the social and cultural positions and 13th centuries. From the 13th century on, however, brother who sought to unseat her in about 980 B.C. By Very little is known about Kahena’s family, or her early of Amazigh women. Arab Bedouin tribes (the Banu Hilal, Banu Sulaym, and 150 B.C., Carthage was the greatest maritime power in life. Her father’s name was reported to have been Tabat, Banu Ma’qil) began to inundate the low-lying plains of the world. It had successfully disputed with Rome in two or Thabitah. The name Kahena or al-Kahina is a recog- Origins North Africa and began a unfortunate process of of three Punic wars and sent Hannibal over the Alps to nised feminine form of “Cohen”, and it may indicate that Since the dawn of history, Imazighen have been the Arabization that would continue into the 20th century. conquer Spain and invade Italy. But in the third Punic War, her family or tribe were Cohanim. It could also have been indigenous inhabitants of North Africa, their territory Rome ended Carthaginian rule (by 140 B.C.) and reduced a title given to her personally, meaning something like stretching from Egypt to Mauritania and from the Imazighen only retained their native Tamazight tongues Didon’s empire to a Roman province. ‘priestess’ or ‘prophetess’. Her followers, and their ene- Mediterranean to the boundaries of historic sub-Saharan in the Atlas Mountains and remote sections of the mies, credited her with prophesy and magical knowl- Black Africa. Throughout their history, women have Sahara, not penetrated by these Arab groups. As a result, Amazigh women are thought to be the fabled Amazon edge. She married at least once, and had sons. Beyond played a vital role in the development of Amazigh society. Amazigh communal consciousness remained strong in female warriors recorded by Diodorus Siculus, who that, almost nothing is known about her. Various empires and peoples have conquered portions of the High, Middle, and Riff Atlas sections of Morocco; the reported that they had led their men to war, mutilated historic Tamazgha, beginning with the Phoenicians and Kabylia mountain massifs east of Algiers; the Aures their enemies, and hennaed cowardly men. Pre-lslamic The Imazighen of the seventh century AD were not reli- Greeks and continuing through the Romans, Vandals, Mountains of eastern Algeria; the Mzab region of the desert Amazigh society has been described as being giously homogenous. Christian, Jewish and pagan Byzantines, Arabs, Turks, French, British, Spanish, and northern Sahara of Algeria; Algeria’s Tuareg sectors of the almost entirely matriarchal in nature. Amazigh were spread through the region that is now Italians. Imazighen have been subjected to various reli- Ahaggar and Tassili-n-Ajjer; the Nofusa Mountains south Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, and Libya. They shared a com- gious beliefs: their own early pantheistic concepts; the of Tripoli, the Saharan Siwa Oasis complex in western Who was the legendary Kahena? mon language and culture, however, and the invasion of polytheistic dogmas of the Phoenicians, Egyptians, Egypt, the Tuareg Azouad territory of northwestern Mali, By 682 A.D., during the Islamic invasions of North Africa, the Arabs presented them with a common cause, Greeks, and Romans; and monotheistic Judaism, and the Tuareg-occupied Air Mountains massif of north a legendary female leader, queen of Carthage and ruler enabling them to join forces in order to drive out the for- Christianity, and Islam. Since the 13th century, most central Niger. of the Amazighs and Mauritanians, rallied and united her eign invaders. Kahena emerged as a war-leader during Imazighen have professed the Islamic faith and Islam has diverse subject peoples. Her forces challenged the this tense period, and proved amazingly successful at penetrated deeply into their collective psyches. Amazigh Women Arab/Islamic invaders, who were in the process of captur- encouraging the tribes of the region to join together As mentioned above, women played a very important ing and re-building Carthage in 698 when she success- against their common enemy. Her reputation as a strate- Throughout their history, the Imazighen have always had role in Amazigh societies throughout the various phases fully drove them from her city. She was historically know gist and sorceress spread, and she managed to briefly their heroes or heroines who have defended their ances- of Amazigh subjugation. There have been female rulers, by many names including Dhabba Kahena, Dahia-Kahena achieve an historically unique feat, uniting all the tribes of tral homeland, only to succumb to the superior “civiliza- holy women or queens even during the period of the or Dihya al-Kahin. This Amazigh heroic leader decided to Ifrikya, the Amazigh name for North Africa, ruling them tional” might of their foreign conquerors. In 814 B.C., for Islamization of North Africa. A female Amazigh leader leave nothing for successive waves of Arab invaders and and leading them in battle for five years before her final example, Amazigh chief Larbas negotiated a deal to name Kahina put up fierce resistance to the Arab con- therefore laid waste to her own country. Because of this defeat. marry Princess Dido, daughter of the King of Tyre, in querors of her time. Women were also important con- sacrifice she was given credit for successfully preventing return for a small piece of real tributors to the Amazigh economy. Islam’s southward spread into the Another famous female Amazigh estate that eventually became Qart In many cases, weaving provided Sudan. warrior was Barshako who dressed Hadasht (i.e., the New City, or independence for Amazigh as a man and led camel raids on Carthage). King Juba and King Women played a women, especially widows. A com- Kahena was know as the Veiled other tribes. She is said to have Massinissa plotted with the Romans paratively large percentage of Queen by the of Jerawa tribe of the Pre-lslamic desert returned home only to dismiss her against the Carthaginians. Prince very important role Amazigh women were versed in Aures Mountains, from where she husband, saying that she would no Jugurtha mastered Roman fighting their people’s literature and poetry supposedly hailed. She was univer- Amazigh society has longer cook and keep house for a techniques and subsequently led a in Amazigh societies and thus enjoyed exclusive knowl- sally recognised as the most effec- man. formidable rebellion from 106 to edge about the Amazigh’s Tifinagh tive and savage of the feminine been described as 104 B.C., according to the Roman throughout the various tradition. enemies of Islamic expansionism in The Tauregs call Tin Hinan “Mother historian Sallust’s account of the North Africa. According to Ibn being almost entirely matri- of Us All.” Jugurthine War. phases of Amazigh Not only the Amazigh themselves, Khaldun, Kahena was an adherent The tall, noble, proud, fierce and but also the conquering peoples of of the Jewish faith, who claimed archal in nature. nomadic Tuaregs (Imucagh or free In the early stages of the arrival of subjugation. the region were familiar with the that her entire tribe had converted people) live in the Ahaggar and Islam, the Aures tribal chief Kusaila, tradition of strong female leader- to Judaism. She continued her Tassili N’Ajjer Mountains of Algeria and later Kahena, resisted the ship role models. As early as 1200 struggle against the Arab/Islamic and the Air Mountains of Niger. Arabs in the late 7th-early 8th cen- B.C., Phoenician sailors, coming onslaught until her death in battle They are called “The Blue People” turies until they were overwhelmed by the Arab forces, from what is now Lebanon, recorded what they had in 702 AD. She is still gratefully recognised as the because the indigo dye of the robes they wore coloured and forced to submit. Salih (Moroccan Amazigh) from the found in North Africa (then called Libya), namely a race “Ancestral Queen Mother” by the Amazigh people. their skin blue. These historical robes are now reserved Moroccan Berghawata, took Islam as their role model of Caucasians who worshipped the sun and sacrificed to According to legend, she was born into a Jewish for wearing exclusively at fairs and festivals. They trace and translated an “Amazigh” Koran in order to repulse the moon. Soon the Phoenicians became North Africa’s Amazigh tribe in the Aures Mountains some time during their origins as a separate people to an Amazigh desert Arab cultural penetration of Morocco’s Atlas mountains. first known conquerors and settled in what is now the 600s AD. During her lifetime, Arab generals began to matriarch, Queen Tin Hinan, who led them on a desert The Amazigh leaders, Yusuf ibn Tashfin and Ibn Tumart, Tunisia. From there they exercised dominion over North lead armies into North Africa, preparing to conquer the trek to the Ahaggar Mountains. established the great Amazigh medieval empires of the Africa and the Mediterranean for more than a thousand area and introduce Islam to the local peoples. The
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The strongest impression of genuine Amazigh culture is women were famed for their beauty as well as for their conveyed by the Tuareg. This people lives in the Sahara energy, strength, and the heavy work they cheerfully per- desert and because of its seclusion was able to preserve formed. In the huge, opulent homes of the Islamic its uniqueness over time. Only in the beginning of the Caliphs of Baghdad, Egypt, Spain and Istanbul, captured 20th century did the French succeeded in subduing this Amazigh women were described as the most beautiful of proud people. The tomb of the legendary Tuareg queen, the beautiful, as well as the most desirable and enter- Tin Hinan, is located in Abalessa, the ancient capital of taining. The mother of the second Abbasid Caliph of the Hoggar region. Baghdad was an Amazigh slave named Sallama. Zineb Nafzawi, one of the most famous Amazigh queens, In Tuareg custom, only the men are veiled, women wear shared power with her husband after the Islamic con- a head-dress. The sight of a veiled Tuareg noble astride quest of Spain, led by Islamicized Amazighs. Together, his prized white camel is as romantic and it is arresting. she and her husband ruled a huge empire extending from However, it was a sight thought to strike terror in the North Africa to Spain, between 1061 and 1107. When hearts of all who beheld them sweeping across the desert the Spanish expelled the Moslems from Spain at the end in raids on caravans of traders and travellers, seeking of the l5th century, many Andalusians, who were of bounty and slaves – a pursuit that gave the Tuareg tribes Amazigh ancestry, settled in North Africa. From there a reputation of being wealthy and powerful beyond their some engaged in piracy, raiding the Mediterranean for borders. Historically they were feared and respected as slaves and treasure. Sayyida Al-Hurra was so successful a daring, deadly warriors. A position they retained for as pirate leader that she became the governor of Tetouan, long as merchants crossed the Sahara by camel. Morocco. She retained the office for many years and was the undisputed leader of pirates of the western Now that the deserts are traversed by truck, automobile Mediterranean, while her ally, the famous Turkish and airplane, and a large portion of the tribesmen’s live- Barbaros of Algiers, led the pirates of the eastern stock has been destroyed by drought, Tuareg nobles no Mediterranean. Sayyida was a key player in the political Picture Credit: longer rule their world. Some still keep livestock, while bargaining between the Mediterranean powers as well. Ayman Mroueh others now lead tours to the ancient, enigmatic rock After the death of her first husband, she married the king paintings at Tassili N’Ajjer, northeast of Morocco (on her terms, requir- of the Ahaggar, and still others ing him to come to her for their work in the cities. Although the wedding). She reined in Morocco freedom loving people understand- According to local from 1510 to 1542. ably dread the perhaps inevitable, anyone who rebuked them, which Warthilani did with Historically, Aures Mountain women shared with the men future transition to a settled, rural custom, a woman As recently as in the 19th century, disastrous results. Their curses seemed to materialize, equally in the hard labour carried out by her family, life style, they continue to be proud an Amazigh prophetess, Fatma n he complained, calling these “playful girls” slaves of including ploughing, sowing, harvesting, grinding and and noble. enjoys the right Soumer or Lalla Fatma (Lalla, Satan. shepherding. In order to establish their equality and inde- “Lady”) took part in the resistance pendence, girls were know to elope in groups with young The Transition in the Role of to marry a new to the French in Kabylia in 1854, a Freedom for some Aures Mountain Amazighs extended men. After this “honeymoon” they returned home with Women woman leading the North African as far as free love and polygamy. In the same Aures the respective husbands that had been chosen by them Although the unveiled Tuareg husband every peoples to war once more , this Mountains that spawned the legendary Kahena, some during this absence. This practice was attacked by the women lost some of their power time against the invading French. It girls of the Azriya tribe enjoyed ample sexual freedom, Algerian Arab nationalist movement in the 1950s, which after their conversion to Islam in the year if need be. took an army of 30,000 to finally their inaccessible location protecting them from offi- established headquarters in the Aures Mountains and 11th Century, they still retained defeat the prophetess. The Kabyles, cials, travellers and the attention of the region’s patriar- effectively curbed these liberties. more economic and social power however, remained unconquered chal prudes, whose intervention embittered their Ouled than most of their urban counter- until 1933. Nail sisters. The Azriyat (plural of Azriya) of two com- In Morocco, Amazighs account for at least one half of the parts. They lived in a completely matrilineal society. munities, the Ouled Abdi and the Ouled Daoud, were total population. Although many Amazighs became citi- Tuareg women regarded themselves as men’s equals, The freedom and independence of Amazigh women is dancers who traveled from mountain village to moun- fied and Islamicized over the centuries, many continued marrying at will, speaking in council and serving as heads well known. An Algerian traveler, Al Warthilani, com- tain village to perform as well as have sexual relations to live in pueblo-like, mud homes in villages of the Atlas of encampments. Wives went where they pleased, plained that the women in some Algerian towns went with their patrons. and Rif Mountains of the Sahara where they honoured owned property, taught and governed the home. Tuareg about unveiled, “exhibiting their ravishing beauty and their ancient heritage. Many remain semi-nomadic even children, in this distinctly hierarchical society, acquired shapely breasts”. During Warthilani’s pilgrimage to If an Azriya dancer became pregnant, she was expected today. Some of these nomads are known to have retained their mother’s rank and regarded maternal uncles as next Mecca, Amazigh women from the Beni Amer tribe to keep her child and was feted by the villagers with their matrilineal traditions. They are famed for their of kin. Matriarchs presided over some the Tuareg tribes joined his caravan and virtually drove the pious man baby showers to insure the child’s good fortune. Most strength, independence, bravery and fighting spirit. and the men who headed others were chosen by mad, displaying their bare-armed, bare-legged charms Azriyat would eventually marry, and/or, if they were Despite some intermarriage with the Arab/Islamic popu- women. and gaily trying to seduce those men whose attention financially successful, perhaps make the pilgrimage to lation, which began a rapid undermining of the tradi- they attracted. Claiming divine powers, whether in jest Mecca to secure Islamic status. But whatever their fate, tional Amazigh freedom accorded to women, many At the height of the Arab/Islamic empire, Amazigh or in all seriousness, these flirtatious pilgrims threatened they were always accepted by their own community. mountain villages merely pay lip-service to this encroach-
20 Volume XX, No. 101-102 Spring/Summer 2003 Volume XX, No. 101-102 Spring/Summer 2003 21
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The strongest impression of genuine Amazigh culture is women were famed for their beauty as well as for their conveyed by the Tuareg. This people lives in the Sahara energy, strength, and the heavy work they cheerfully per- desert and because of its seclusion was able to preserve formed. In the huge, opulent homes of the Islamic its uniqueness over time. Only in the beginning of the Caliphs of Baghdad, Egypt, Spain and Istanbul, captured 20th century did the French succeeded in subduing this Amazigh women were described as the most beautiful of proud people. The tomb of the legendary Tuareg queen, the beautiful, as well as the most desirable and enter- Tin Hinan, is located in Abalessa, the ancient capital of taining. The mother of the second Abbasid Caliph of the Hoggar region. Baghdad was an Amazigh slave named Sallama. Zineb Nafzawi, one of the most famous Amazigh queens, In Tuareg custom, only the men are veiled, women wear shared power with her husband after the Islamic con- a head-dress. The sight of a veiled Tuareg noble astride quest of Spain, led by Islamicized Amazighs. Together, his prized white camel is as romantic and it is arresting. she and her husband ruled a huge empire extending from However, it was a sight thought to strike terror in the North Africa to Spain, between 1061 and 1107. When hearts of all who beheld them sweeping across the desert the Spanish expelled the Moslems from Spain at the end in raids on caravans of traders and travellers, seeking of the l5th century, many Andalusians, who were of bounty and slaves – a pursuit that gave the Tuareg tribes Amazigh ancestry, settled in North Africa. From there a reputation of being wealthy and powerful beyond their some engaged in piracy, raiding the Mediterranean for borders. Historically they were feared and respected as slaves and treasure. Sayyida Al-Hurra was so successful a daring, deadly warriors. A position they retained for as pirate leader that she became the governor of Tetouan, long as merchants crossed the Sahara by camel. Morocco. She retained the office for many years and was the undisputed leader of pirates of the western Now that the deserts are traversed by truck, automobile Mediterranean, while her ally, the famous Turkish and airplane, and a large portion of the tribesmen’s live- Barbaros of Algiers, led the pirates of the eastern stock has been destroyed by drought, Tuareg nobles no Mediterranean. Sayyida was a key player in the political Picture Credit: longer rule their world. Some still keep livestock, while bargaining between the Mediterranean powers as well. Ayman Mroueh others now lead tours to the ancient, enigmatic rock After the death of her first husband, she married the king paintings at Tassili N’Ajjer, northeast of Morocco (on her terms, requir- of the Ahaggar, and still others ing him to come to her for their work in the cities. Although the wedding). She reined in Morocco freedom loving people understand- According to local from 1510 to 1542. ably dread the perhaps inevitable, anyone who rebuked them, which Warthilani did with Historically, Aures Mountain women shared with the men future transition to a settled, rural custom, a woman As recently as in the 19th century, disastrous results. Their curses seemed to materialize, equally in the hard labour carried out by her family, life style, they continue to be proud an Amazigh prophetess, Fatma n he complained, calling these “playful girls” slaves of including ploughing, sowing, harvesting, grinding and and noble. enjoys the right Soumer or Lalla Fatma (Lalla, Satan. shepherding. In order to establish their equality and inde- “Lady”) took part in the resistance pendence, girls were know to elope in groups with young The Transition in the Role of to marry a new to the French in Kabylia in 1854, a Freedom for some Aures Mountain Amazighs extended men. After this “honeymoon” they returned home with Women woman leading the North African as far as free love and polygamy. In the same Aures the respective husbands that had been chosen by them Although the unveiled Tuareg husband every peoples to war once more , this Mountains that spawned the legendary Kahena, some during this absence. This practice was attacked by the women lost some of their power time against the invading French. It girls of the Azriya tribe enjoyed ample sexual freedom, Algerian Arab nationalist movement in the 1950s, which after their conversion to Islam in the year if need be. took an army of 30,000 to finally their inaccessible location protecting them from offi- established headquarters in the Aures Mountains and 11th Century, they still retained defeat the prophetess. The Kabyles, cials, travellers and the attention of the region’s patriar- effectively curbed these liberties. more economic and social power however, remained unconquered chal prudes, whose intervention embittered their Ouled than most of their urban counter- until 1933. Nail sisters. The Azriyat (plural of Azriya) of two com- In Morocco, Amazighs account for at least one half of the parts. They lived in a completely matrilineal society. munities, the Ouled Abdi and the Ouled Daoud, were total population. Although many Amazighs became citi- Tuareg women regarded themselves as men’s equals, The freedom and independence of Amazigh women is dancers who traveled from mountain village to moun- fied and Islamicized over the centuries, many continued marrying at will, speaking in council and serving as heads well known. An Algerian traveler, Al Warthilani, com- tain village to perform as well as have sexual relations to live in pueblo-like, mud homes in villages of the Atlas of encampments. Wives went where they pleased, plained that the women in some Algerian towns went with their patrons. and Rif Mountains of the Sahara where they honoured owned property, taught and governed the home. Tuareg about unveiled, “exhibiting their ravishing beauty and their ancient heritage. Many remain semi-nomadic even children, in this distinctly hierarchical society, acquired shapely breasts”. During Warthilani’s pilgrimage to If an Azriya dancer became pregnant, she was expected today. Some of these nomads are known to have retained their mother’s rank and regarded maternal uncles as next Mecca, Amazigh women from the Beni Amer tribe to keep her child and was feted by the villagers with their matrilineal traditions. They are famed for their of kin. Matriarchs presided over some the Tuareg tribes joined his caravan and virtually drove the pious man baby showers to insure the child’s good fortune. Most strength, independence, bravery and fighting spirit. and the men who headed others were chosen by mad, displaying their bare-armed, bare-legged charms Azriyat would eventually marry, and/or, if they were Despite some intermarriage with the Arab/Islamic popu- women. and gaily trying to seduce those men whose attention financially successful, perhaps make the pilgrimage to lation, which began a rapid undermining of the tradi- they attracted. Claiming divine powers, whether in jest Mecca to secure Islamic status. But whatever their fate, tional Amazigh freedom accorded to women, many At the height of the Arab/Islamic empire, Amazigh or in all seriousness, these flirtatious pilgrims threatened they were always accepted by their own community. mountain villages merely pay lip-service to this encroach-
20 Volume XX, No. 101-102 Spring/Summer 2003 Volume XX, No. 101-102 Spring/Summer 2003 21
File File Non-Arab Ethnic Groups
ing religion, and the women still remain quite indepen- According to tradition, these Atlas Amazighs, like their Amrouche’s books are well worth reading for the wealth into the traditional family dynamics of a polygamous dent. Aures Mountain and Tuareg cousins, are permitted to ini- of information they contain about conditions in late 19th household, and reveal her passionate love for Amazigh tiate a divorce as well as retain their dowries after sepa- century Kabylia as well as for their portrayal of the simple culture. An example of this split relationship with the predomi- ration. It is possible for them to remarry and there is no art of endurance. nant Arab/Islamic culture can be found in the continua- upper limit to the number of men a female divorcee can The Amazigh women’s political struggle would come to tion of the Amazigh tradition of the autumn bridal fair, marry. According to local custom, a woman enjoys the Fadhma Amrouche later became a well known Amazigh an abrupt halt in 1962 following the achievement of which has survived to varying degrees throughout right to marry a new husband every year if need be. The poet and singer in Paris in the 1960’s. She is the mother independence by the National Liberation Front (FLN). A Moroccan Amazigh society. The Amazigh of Ait historically independent female Amazigh leaders remain of the famous writer Marguerite Taos, and the Amazigh single party was established and retained exclusive power Haddidou, who gather on the Imilchil plateau in the Atlas legendary role models for young village women to this singer Jean Amrouche. Her detailed autobiography por- until 1989. After coming to power with the support of Range for the annual September Moussem or festival are very day. trays what it was like to grow up as the illegitimate out- the country’s women, the FLN would fulfil few of the a good example of this ongoing resistance to cultural cast of her village. A bright and strong-spirited girl, she promises made to women with respect to their emanci- encroachment. Combining a local saint’s day with a mar- Amazigh Women in the Present was educated in French in an age when few women pation. Furthermore, the FLN, backed by Egypt, imposed ket, the Moussem also serves as a bridal fair. The stories of the past aided in the mobilisation of mod- enjoyed the privilege of receiving an education. Her Arab-Muslim nationalism as the predominant state ideol- ern day Amazigh women in Algeria. Their struggle dates books describe her constant worries about providing for ogy, thus further undermining the position of Amazigh It is here where one can see how reverence for the back to the beginning of the twentieth century, at a time her eight children. They represent a fascinating insight women. ancient female heroines of Amazigh civilisation encour- when the position of village women had rapidly degen- age the enduring independence of the region’s female erated. The early Amazigh pioneers pressured their elect- References population. During the three days of livestock trading, ed Algerian leaders to appeal to the French Government jewelry, clothes and kitchenware vending, sweet-mint- regarding the need for reforms in favour of Amazigh tea-drinking, respect-paying at the domed, white tomb women (NB: at that time only French women had the - Abercrombie, Thomas. "Algeria: Learning to Live With Independence,” National Geographic (August 1973). of a marabout (saint), and family and friendship reunions, right to vote). These demands were largely unsuccessful. - Berlitz Country Guide. “Algeria,” Switzerland: MacMillan, 1990. - Childress, David H. Lost Cities and Ancient Mysteries of Africa and Arabia. Adventures Unlimited Press, 1993. young Amazigh eyes eagerly scan the lanes between These early attempts at change were, however, later - Englebert, Victor. "I Joined a Sahara Salt Caravan," National Geographic (November 1965), 684-711. tents and stalls for glimpses of prospective brides and rediscovered by the leading Amazigh political parties dur- - ______. "Trek by Mule Among Moroccan Berbers," National Geographic (June 1968) grooms. Swathed in deep blue, striped woolen capes, ing the 1940s. The movement for an improvement of the - ______. "Drought Threatens the Tuareg World,” National Geographic (April 1974). adorned with huge amber, coal, turquoise and silver rights of Amazigh women found support amongst the - Hunt, Carla. “Berber Bride's Fair,” National Geographic (January 1980) [Photos by Nik Wheeler] necklaces, some displaying the ranks of leading literary figures. - Keohane, Alan. The Berbers of Morocco. London: Hamish Hamilton, Ltd., Penguin Books, 1991. emblem of the Carthaginian Great These included the novels of - Kirtley, Michael and Aubine.“The Inadan, Artisans of the Sahara,” National Geographic (August 1979). - LaFay, Howard. "Algeria," National Geographic (June 1960). Godess of the Sky, Tanitt, rouged Djamila Débèche (Leila, An Algerian - Lazreg, Marnia. The Eloquence of Silence, Algerian Women in Question. London, New York: Routledge, 1994. and khol-eyed marriageable If an Azriya dancer Woman, Aziza) and Assia Djébbar - Mernissi, Fatima. The Forgotten Queens of Islam. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993. “daughters of Kahena” gather, (The Innocent Larks). - Salmonson, Jessica Amanda. The Encyclopedia of Amazons. New York: Anchor Doubledy, 1992. gossiping and jesting, to discreetly became pregnant, she was - Walker, Barbara. The Woman's Encyclopedia of Myths and Secrets. San Francisco: Haprer and Row. study prospective grooms who, in The best know literary champion of turn, observing the bulkily-clad girls expected to keep her child Amazigh women’s rights was as best they can. Fadhma Amrouche, a women of and was feted by the Kabyle origin. Born in 1882/1883 in On the last day the traditional selec- a simple Algerian village, her father tion process is carried out. Women villagers with baby never legitimised her birth. Thus, and girls promenade down the cen- she was subjected to endless tral path while their suitors rush to showers to insure the ridicule by the villagers, prompting grab the hands of their favourites. her mother to send her away to a Forthcoming When her hand is seized, the girl child’s good fortune. Christian convent school for her can accept or reject by clasping his own protection. Several years later, hand or pulling hers away until she and the man of her at another convent, she was to meet her future husband. choice find each other and proceed, hand in hand, to They were married, thus necessitating her conversion to stand together before the notary. Later, after the harvest, Christianity. In the pages her novels, Amrouche describes the traditional marriage of a virgin bride will take place. her schooling, her marriage, and her children. Her per- First there is a mock fight between members of the two sonal and family struggles are the clear focus of her liter- families, then comes the bride’s ride on a sheepskin-sad- ary work, while two World Wars, various epidemics and dled donkey to the groom’s house and finally, she is car- the Algerian War of Independence flicker through in the ried over the threshold by her mother-in-law. Unless, of background. Despite her popularity, Amrouche’s life was course, she has already been married and divorced, which not easy. She was never able to feel at home, neither in Arab Women and War seems to not be that uncommon. The majority of brides France and Tunisia, nor in her husband’s house, or her at the Moussem marriage fair wear the peak headdress own village of origin. But when you consider the time of a divorced or widowed woman, while minority virgins period she lived through, how different was her experi- wear flat headdresses. ence, in the end, from those of her compatriots?
22 Volume XX, No. 101-102 Spring/Summer 2003 Volume XX, No. 101-102 Spring/Summer 2003 23
File File Non-Arab Ethnic Groups
ing religion, and the women still remain quite indepen- According to tradition, these Atlas Amazighs, like their Amrouche’s books are well worth reading for the wealth into the traditional family dynamics of a polygamous dent. Aures Mountain and Tuareg cousins, are permitted to ini- of information they contain about conditions in late 19th household, and reveal her passionate love for Amazigh tiate a divorce as well as retain their dowries after sepa- century Kabylia as well as for their portrayal of the simple culture. An example of this split relationship with the predomi- ration. It is possible for them to remarry and there is no art of endurance. nant Arab/Islamic culture can be found in the continua- upper limit to the number of men a female divorcee can The Amazigh women’s political struggle would come to tion of the Amazigh tradition of the autumn bridal fair, marry. According to local custom, a woman enjoys the Fadhma Amrouche later became a well known Amazigh an abrupt halt in 1962 following the achievement of which has survived to varying degrees throughout right to marry a new husband every year if need be. The poet and singer in Paris in the 1960’s. She is the mother independence by the National Liberation Front (FLN). A Moroccan Amazigh society. The Amazigh of Ait historically independent female Amazigh leaders remain of the famous writer Marguerite Taos, and the Amazigh single party was established and retained exclusive power Haddidou, who gather on the Imilchil plateau in the Atlas legendary role models for young village women to this singer Jean Amrouche. Her detailed autobiography por- until 1989. After coming to power with the support of Range for the annual September Moussem or festival are very day. trays what it was like to grow up as the illegitimate out- the country’s women, the FLN would fulfil few of the a good example of this ongoing resistance to cultural cast of her village. A bright and strong-spirited girl, she promises made to women with respect to their emanci- encroachment. Combining a local saint’s day with a mar- Amazigh Women in the Present was educated in French in an age when few women pation. Furthermore, the FLN, backed by Egypt, imposed ket, the Moussem also serves as a bridal fair. The stories of the past aided in the mobilisation of mod- enjoyed the privilege of receiving an education. Her Arab-Muslim nationalism as the predominant state ideol- ern day Amazigh women in Algeria. Their struggle dates books describe her constant worries about providing for ogy, thus further undermining the position of Amazigh It is here where one can see how reverence for the back to the beginning of the twentieth century, at a time her eight children. They represent a fascinating insight women. ancient female heroines of Amazigh civilisation encour- when the position of village women had rapidly degen- age the enduring independence of the region’s female erated. The early Amazigh pioneers pressured their elect- References population. During the three days of livestock trading, ed Algerian leaders to appeal to the French Government jewelry, clothes and kitchenware vending, sweet-mint- regarding the need for reforms in favour of Amazigh tea-drinking, respect-paying at the domed, white tomb women (NB: at that time only French women had the - Abercrombie, Thomas. "Algeria: Learning to Live With Independence,” National Geographic (August 1973). of a marabout (saint), and family and friendship reunions, right to vote). These demands were largely unsuccessful. - Berlitz Country Guide. “Algeria,” Switzerland: MacMillan, 1990. - Childress, David H. Lost Cities and Ancient Mysteries of Africa and Arabia. Adventures Unlimited Press, 1993. young Amazigh eyes eagerly scan the lanes between These early attempts at change were, however, later - Englebert, Victor. "I Joined a Sahara Salt Caravan," National Geographic (November 1965), 684-711. tents and stalls for glimpses of prospective brides and rediscovered by the leading Amazigh political parties dur- - ______. "Trek by Mule Among Moroccan Berbers," National Geographic (June 1968) grooms. Swathed in deep blue, striped woolen capes, ing the 1940s. The movement for an improvement of the - ______. "Drought Threatens the Tuareg World,” National Geographic (April 1974). adorned with huge amber, coal, turquoise and silver rights of Amazigh women found support amongst the - Hunt, Carla. “Berber Bride's Fair,” National Geographic (January 1980) [Photos by Nik Wheeler] necklaces, some displaying the ranks of leading literary figures. - Keohane, Alan. The Berbers of Morocco. London: Hamish Hamilton, Ltd., Penguin Books, 1991. emblem of the Carthaginian Great These included the novels of - Kirtley, Michael and Aubine.“The Inadan, Artisans of the Sahara,” National Geographic (August 1979). - LaFay, Howard. "Algeria," National Geographic (June 1960). Godess of the Sky, Tanitt, rouged Djamila Débèche (Leila, An Algerian - Lazreg, Marnia. The Eloquence of Silence, Algerian Women in Question. London, New York: Routledge, 1994. and khol-eyed marriageable If an Azriya dancer Woman, Aziza) and Assia Djébbar - Mernissi, Fatima. The Forgotten Queens of Islam. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993. “daughters of Kahena” gather, (The Innocent Larks). - Salmonson, Jessica Amanda. The Encyclopedia of Amazons. New York: Anchor Doubledy, 1992. gossiping and jesting, to discreetly became pregnant, she was - Walker, Barbara. The Woman's Encyclopedia of Myths and Secrets. San Francisco: Haprer and Row. study prospective grooms who, in The best know literary champion of turn, observing the bulkily-clad girls expected to keep her child Amazigh women’s rights was as best they can. Fadhma Amrouche, a women of and was feted by the Kabyle origin. Born in 1882/1883 in On the last day the traditional selec- a simple Algerian village, her father tion process is carried out. Women villagers with baby never legitimised her birth. Thus, and girls promenade down the cen- she was subjected to endless tral path while their suitors rush to showers to insure the ridicule by the villagers, prompting grab the hands of their favourites. her mother to send her away to a Forthcoming When her hand is seized, the girl child’s good fortune. Christian convent school for her can accept or reject by clasping his own protection. Several years later, hand or pulling hers away until she and the man of her at another convent, she was to meet her future husband. choice find each other and proceed, hand in hand, to They were married, thus necessitating her conversion to stand together before the notary. Later, after the harvest, Christianity. In the pages her novels, Amrouche describes the traditional marriage of a virgin bride will take place. her schooling, her marriage, and her children. Her per- First there is a mock fight between members of the two sonal and family struggles are the clear focus of her liter- families, then comes the bride’s ride on a sheepskin-sad- ary work, while two World Wars, various epidemics and dled donkey to the groom’s house and finally, she is car- the Algerian War of Independence flicker through in the ried over the threshold by her mother-in-law. Unless, of background. Despite her popularity, Amrouche’s life was course, she has already been married and divorced, which not easy. She was never able to feel at home, neither in Arab Women and War seems to not be that uncommon. The majority of brides France and Tunisia, nor in her husband’s house, or her at the Moussem marriage fair wear the peak headdress own village of origin. But when you consider the time of a divorced or widowed woman, while minority virgins period she lived through, how different was her experi- wear flat headdresses. ence, in the end, from those of her compatriots?
22 Volume XX, No. 101-102 Spring/Summer 2003 Volume XX, No. 101-102 Spring/Summer 2003 23