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Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-05527-8 - The Punic Mediterranean: Identities and Identification from Phoenician Settlement to Roman Rule Edited by Josephine Crawley Quinn and Nicholas C. Vella Index More information

Index

Abdera, 235–8, 242 Arados, 285–6 Abela, G. F., 26–7 archaeological evidence, 181, 199, 207, 213, access pits, 158–9, 166 257, 264, 268, 276, 279 acculturation, 97, 104, 165, 288, 296 Archaic period, 60, 116–17, 260, 289 afterlife, 74, 163 architecture, 60, 150, 154, 168 Agathocles, 176, 223, 292 houses, 124, 129, 145, 215–16, 248, 252–3, Agenor, 295–6 271, 303 Agnelli, Gianni, 25 courtyard houses, 248 agriculture, 71, 205, 251–3, 263, 269–75, 279 see also funerary architecture Alboran Sea, 217 Argos, 286, 295, 299 Albufereta, 250 Arharbi, R., 206, 213 Alcúdia d’Elx, 250 Aristotle, 16, 46 Alexander, 283–9, 291, 295, 302 armies, 16, 169, 176, 283 conquests, 284–7, 297 Arrian, 285–8, 291 as liberator, 284, 286 Arsa, 225–31 Alexandropoulos, J., 197–8, 235, 238 art historians, 25, 29–30, 32 Alfaro Asins, C., 217, 225, 228, 235–40 ashlars, 123, 126, 128 Algeria, 48–9, 72, 183, 196, 200, 203, 205, 238 Asido, 221, 225–30, 233, 237, 240 Alicante, 191, 245, 247 assimilation, 55, 97, 101, 233 alliances, 63–4, 157, 181 Assyrians, 31–2, 282 Almería, 225, 247–9 Astarte, 29, 131, 207 Alonai, 247 Athenians, 17, 284 alphabet, 37, 45, 219, 221, 225–7, 236, 283, 288, Atlantis, 57 295 Automalax, 173 altars, 171–2, 176–7, 233 Avienus, 222 of the Philaeni, 169–79 Azemmour, 204 Althiburos, 161, 183 Amathus, 32–4 Baal Hammon, 130, 218, 229–31, 233 ambassadors, 179 Babylon, 286 amber, 205, 209 Bailo, 221, 225–33, 237 amphorae, 86, 90, 141–98, 206–8, 212 Balearic Islands, 180, 183, 189–90, 195–6, 200, Carthaginian, 183, 196–8 205, 228, 236 see also individual names Dressel 1, 189, 195 Balleia, 235 Ibizan, 188–90, 196, 256 Banasa, 212–13, 217–18 Maña, 184–8, 192–3, 196 barbarians, 17–20, 263, 288, 292 Punic, 184, 268, 274 Barreca, F., 259 Rhodian, 194, 198 bathtubs, 124–5 table, 142 BʿBʿL, 225, 230, 233, 237 transport, 84, 133 see also ceramics Beirut, Hellenistic, 296 amulets, 37, 61, 73 Belgium, 3, 120 Andalusia, 2, 24, 87, 192, 197, 209, 217, 236, 241 beliefs, 48, 74, 156–7, 162–4, 266–7, 281, 296 animal bones, 117 benches, 125, 152–3, 158, 162, 248 antiquarians, 25–30, 39 Bes, 38–9, 99–101 364

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-05527-8 - The Punic Mediterranean: Identities and Identification from Phoenician Settlement to Roman Rule Edited by Josephine Crawley Quinn and Nicholas C. Vella Index More information

Index 365

bilingual inscriptions/legends, 228, 236–7, 241 Canadian excavations, 110, 119 Bir El Knissia, 107, 110 Cap Achakar, 208–9 Bir Ftouha, 110 Cap Bon, 126, 159, 162 Bir Massouda, 76, 82, 106, 110, 117, 120–31 Carissa, 232 Bisi, A. M., 39, 141 Carmo, 232, 235, 239 Blanco, J. M., 225 Cartagena, 197, 207, 228 Blasto-Phoenicians, 223 Carteia, 205, 238, 240 Blázquez, C, 237 Carthage, 1–7, 61–8, 76–130, 180–4, 195–202, Bondì, S. F., 4–8 255–63, 289–93, 299–304 bones, 26, 72, 153–61 circular harbour, 106–7, 110, 123, 126 cremated, 153 coinage, 88–90, 196–8, 217, 231, 234 Bourdieu, P., 244, 255, 280 destruction, 14, 36, 172, 176, 196, 202 bowls, 30–4, 36–41, 164–6, 195 foundation, 142, 148 black-glaze, 135 foundation myth, 85, 117, 146, 178 carinated, 164 hegemony, 6, 11–12, 59, 67–8, 166–8, 182, cone-shaped, 164 257, 260, 301–2 handmade, 164 Magon quarter, 127–9 metal, 30–41 as special city, 142–6 see also ceramics. topography British excavations, 119 of early Punic city, 118–22 British Museum, 30–4, 107 urban expansion of middle Punic city, British School at Rome, 3, 7, 24, 42, 69, 299 122–6 see also coinage. Bronze Age, 40, 60, 209, 251, 275, 277–9 Carthageland theme park, 50 Bulla Regia, 184–7, 195, 198 Carthaginian colonies, 203, 210, 224, 245 bulls, 229–33, 240–2, 249 Carthaginian conquests, 65, 259–61, 264, 276 man-headed, 84, 96 Carthaginian homeland, 80, 84, 98 Bunnens, G., 13, 21, 69 Carthaginian influences,180,182,200,246,262 burial, 71, 74, 87, 152, 159–61, 209, 250 Carthaginian necropoleis, 133, 140 chambers, 150–4, 261 Carthaginians, 12–22, 80–2, 96–7, 127–9, children, 72, 140, 160 169–79, 223, 290–3 goods, see grave goods. Carthago Nova, 197, 222, 246 inhumation, 6, 72, 115, 150–3, 159–60, casemate walls, 120, 126 209–11, 261 Castillo de Doña Blanca, 143–4, 252 lateral extended position, 152–3 Catalonia, 180, 191 lateral flexed position, 160, 166 Cato, 20, 178 methods, 150, 160 cauldrons, 30 practices, see funerary practices Celts, 37, 223 Byblos, 24, 29, 284–6 cemeteries; see necropoleis. Byrsa, 71, 106–7, 110, 120–3, 126, 145, 156 ceramics, 76, 88, 164–5, 197, 206, 209, 212–13, Byzacium, 148–9, 153, 156–7, 161 217, 241, 268, 281 necropoleis, 148, 153, 161 askos, 135–41 Attic pottery, 183, 212 Cabezo Lucero, 250, 253 black-figure, 136 Cabiria,1–2, 300 black-glazed, 86, 133, 135–67, 183, 190, 195 Cádiz, 66, 70–1, 143–4, 210–11, 217–19, 222, Carthaginian, 137, 140 225, 234 casseroles, 139 caduceus, 94, 229, 242 Castulo (stemless) cups, 134 Cagliari, 51, 70, 130 closed-form vessels, 73, 164 Campania, 84–7, 207 Euboean skyphos, 132–3 Campanians, 77, 242 geometric vessels, 132 Campidano, 65, 275, 277 Greek, 64, 135, 289 Camps, G., 159–61, 164, 215 handmade, 163–6, 208–9 Canaanites, 7, 60 bowls, 164

366 Index

ceramics (cont.) coinage, 76–90, 92–107, 196–8, 219–21, gutti, 135, 183 224–41, 303 jugs, 165 bronze, 82, 87, 90, 97, 100, 103, 226, 230–2, plates, 164–5 234 Iberian, 190–2, 254 Carthaginian, 88–90, 196–8, 217, 231, Ibizan, 190 234 imitative, 166, 205, 213 Ebusitan, 99–101, 237 imported, 184, 274–6 electrum, 82 jugs, 165, 189 of Gades, 229, 237 single-handled, 190 gold, 81, 97, 235 kalathoi, 191, 196 Greek, 77, 228 kotylai, 131–7 hoards, 105, 107, 182, 235 kraters, 135–6 imitative, 84, 99–101, 166, 205, 213, 231 lekanides, 135 of Lascuta, 228, 240 lekythoi, 135–6, 166 legends, 76, 81, 103–5, 221, 224–9, 236–7, Megarian bowls, 195 240–2 oenochoai, 150, 183, 189–91 bilingual, 228, 236, 241 red-and-black painted ware, 137–8 Greek, 26–8 skyphoi, 131–7 neo-Punic, 224–8, 234–41 stemless cups, 134 Punic, 225, 236, 240 tablewares, 196, 301 Libyphoenician, 219–21, 224–8, 233–6, unguentaria, 73, 211 239–41 urns, 26, 141, 153–4, 161, 189, 248 litrai,84–7 two-handled, 189 Numidian, 182 vases, 30, 156, 189, 209–10, 217 overstrikes, 77, 82, 303 vessels, 32, 156, 163–4, 189, 194, 196, prancing horse, 82–8, 96–8, 104 255 Punic, 76–95, 99, 103–4, 108–10, 238, 241, closed-form, 73, 164 303 wheel-turned, 166 bronze, 79–95, 108–10 see also amphorae, Punic ceramic repertoire. in non-Punic environments, 99–102 cereals, 65, 251, 262, 269 regional types, 85–8, 92, 96–7, 103–4 Cerro de S. Lorenzo, 206 Roman, 101, 231, 235 Cerveteri, 31–2 of Sicily, 80, 97, 105 Ceuta, 217 silver, 77–81, 84, 96–7, 234 Charon of Lampsakos, 174 supra-regional types, 4, 80, 86–90, 96–8, 103 Chaves, F., 226, 235–8 tetradrachms, 80–2, 87, 97, 103, 303 Chemtou, 160–1, 164, 199 use in non-economic contexts, 98–102 Cherchell, 183, 197 weight standards, Attic, 80–1 children, 72, 209–10, 285, 291–3, 302 Collo, 166, 198 burials, 72, 140, 160 colonialism, modern, 202, 264, 300 child sacriﬁces, 1, 43, 46 see also infants colonies, 143, 148, 211–12, 218, 221, 245, 247, Choay, F., 26 289, 291–3 Ciasca, A., 63 Carthaginian, 203, 210, 224, 245 Cicero, 13, 23 Greek, 198, 245, 282 Cintas, P., 144, 192, 204 Phoenician, 61, 145–6, 149–50, 159, 211, cippus, 233 225, 247 Círculo de l’Estrecho, 204–7 Portuguese, 217–18 Cirta, 158, 161, 194, 198, 238 colonists, 61, 98, 205, 224, 233, 259, 293 cities, 118–27, 142–3, 174–9, 210–11, 214–17, commercial routes, 62, 199 286–9, 291–5, 302–4 common language, 29, 68, 296 citizenship, 173, 241 communities, 16, 44, 47–8, 162–3, 224, 239–42, civic ethnics, 15–16, 241 250, 275–7, 279–81 Classicism, 45–6, 56, 299 Greek, 97, 132, 291

Index 367

local, 56–7, 241, 254, 257, 280–1 decontextualization, 24–5, 32, 39 Punic, 98, 104, 220 decoration, 30, 129, 190 conflicts, 21, 81–2, 97, 104, 176, 181, 183, 296, geometric, 191–2 300 decumanus maximus, 106, 110, 119–30 conquests, 103, 108, 264–7, 288, 291, 297 Delos, 130, 198, 295 by Alexander, 283–5 Delphi, 294 Carthaginian, 65, 259–61, 264, 276 Demeter, 65, 234, 277, 281 Roman, 65, 87, 108–9, 221, 241, 247, 257, 304 destruction, 81, 108–9, 146, 204, 261, 271, 279 Constantine; see also Cirta, 158, 195, 198 diadems, 229–31 Contenau, G., 35 diaspora, 61, 290 continuity, 60, 86–7, 98–9, 104, 209–11, 217, African, 240 271, 279, 283–90 Punic, 219 of settlement, 208, 276 dictionaries, 2, 69 cooking pots, 73, 138–9, 164 differentiation, 59–61, 242 corn ears, 97, 229–34, 240–2 cultural, 267 cornucopia, 229, 233 social, 213 crabs, 84–6, 96, 98, 102 Diodorus, 17, 45, 64, 174, 178, 223, 262–3, 285, cremation, 6, 72–4, 115, 150–3, 210–11, 288, 292–3 248–50, 253 Dionysios I of Syracuse, 97–8, 104 crescent moon, 229–31 Diotimos of Sidon, 294–6 crescents, 229–33, 240 disenfranchisement, 265–6 Crete, 53 distribution networks, 198–200 Crimisus, 17 diversification, 62 crowns, 97, 229 diversity, 30, 280 Cuccureddus di Villasimius, 261 cultural, 267, 275 cults, 66, 205, 218, 281, 290, 296–9 local, 161, 281 of Demeter, 65, 234, 277, 281 dolphins, 229, 233 of Melqart, 68, 172 Domínguez Monedero, A., 223 cultural bilingualism, 242 drinking vessels, 131–4, 136 cultural change, 6, 118 dromos, 158, 210 cultural diversity, 267, 275 cultural hegemony, 202 eagles, 235, 242 cultural homogeneity, 4, 25, 35–6, 103, 267 earrings, 97 cultural identities, 70, 75, 255–7, 264–7, Ebro river, 246–7 279–81, 283, 287, 291, 294 Ebusus, 96, 100–3, 235–8 cultural identity formation, 259, 265, 279–80 amphorae, 188–90, 196, 256 cultural influences, 6, 146, 181–2, 200 coins of, 99–101, 237 cultural interactions, 7, 282–4, 286–8, 294, 297 imports, 190 cultural life, 157, 163 Edeta, 252 cultural practices, 67, 168, 249 egersis, 233, 287 cultural traditions, 43, 133, 220–1, 242 Egypt, 28–31, 101, 176 culture, 1, 35, 39–40, 156–7, 173–5, 205, 263–7, elephants, 1, 222, 233–5, 240 280, 297–8 elites, 50, 213, 218, 249, 295–6 cups, Castulo (stemless), 134 Libyan, 205, 218 Curtius Rufus, Quintus, 285, 291 El Molar, 247–9, 253 customs, 22, 156, 249, 267 Elymians, 63–4 Cyprus, 32, 36, 61, 286 empires, 101, 114, 202, 241 Cyrenaica, 169, 173, 176–7 Carthaginian, 113, 202, 302 Cyrene, 19, 169–79 Macedonian, 285, 292 Cyreneans, 172–3, 177–9 Roman, 103, 202, 220, 224, 300 Emporia, 176–7 Danish excavations, 110, 119 Emporion, 235, 245 death, 55, 69–75, 149–50, 164, 174, 179, 233 Emsa, 208, 213

368 Index

engravings, 26, 32 García-Bellido, M.P., 225–35, 228, 230, 234, Entella, Rocca di, 76, 88, 105, 108–9 240 epicracy, Punic, 64, 77–81, 88, 98–9, 104 Gauckler, P., 188–90, 194 epigraphy, see inscriptions Gela, 81, 97 Eryx (Erice), 64, 86, 108–9 Gelon, 17 ethnic groups, 30, 62, 220, 224, 250, 302 genealogy, 213–16, 290 ethnic identity, 70, 164, 175 Genna Maria, 275, 277–9, 281 ethnic labels, 11, 20, 22, 175, 240 geometric decoration, 191–2 ethnic origin, 5, 165–8 geometric style, 34 ethnics, civic, 15–16, 241 German excavations, 106, 110, 117–30, 137–9 ethnography, 47, 57, 172, 174 Getty Villa Museum, 24 Etruria, 24, 30, 36, 40, 73 Ghaki, M., 182, 223 Etruscans, 1, 156 Ghar Cahal, 208 Euphrantas tower, 173 Gharb, 212–13 Europa, 295, 299 giants, 26, 28 excavations, 35–7, 80, 106, 120–6, 144, 188–90, Gibraltar, Straits of, 5, 67, 181, 196–7, 217, 224, 207–8, 268–71, 276 234, 239, 241 expansion, 60, 202–4, 216, 276, 279, 297 Gigthis, 137, 162 Extremadura, 225, 235–6 Girgenti, 28–9 glass, 26, 37, 41 farming activities, see agriculture. glass-paste beads, 168 Figueras Pacheco, F., 245 goddesses; see also individual names, 76, 131, figurines, 61, 65, 115, 253–4, 261 234 First Punic War, 77, 82, 88, 259 gods, 40, 60, 85, 157, 229, 285, 287–9, 292 fish sauce, 196 see also individual names folklore, 173 Greek, 96 Font de Tarradell, M., 189 gold, 81–2, 104, 209, 217 Fonteta, 247–8 coins, 81, 97, 235 Forbes, H., 47 Goodchild, R. G., 169, 173 foreigners, 174, 204, 207–10, 212–13, 243, 249, Gouraya, 166 255, 287 Gozo, 28 fortifications, 64, 126, 215, 251 grain, 198, 209 foundation myths 85, 117, 146, 178 Grand Tour, 50 France, 3, 33, 202, 247 grapes, 234, 242, 274 Franko, G., 17 Gras, M., 156, 262–3 fraus punica, 179 grave goods, 72–5, 159, 163–6, 209–11, 213, Frederiksen, M., 24 250, 253, 261, 271 French excavations, 106, 110, 119, 123 Greco-Roman sources, 224, 240, 288, 290–1, frescoes, 102 301 Frugifer, 218 Greece, 28, 45–7, 73, 273, 284–5, 288, 295, 300 funerary architecture, 150–2, 160, 163 Greek amphorae, 133, 137 dolmen tombs, 162 Greek cities, 63, 80, 304 chamber tombs, 115, 150, 154, 211 Greek coins, 77, 228 hypogea, 71–3 Greek colonies, 198, 245, 282 funerary assemblages, 73, 115, 156, 164 Greek communities, 97, 132, 291 funerary beds, 150–1 Greek imports, 131, 136 funerary beliefs, 98, 168 Greek tradition, 12–15, 17–19, 21, 179, 295 funerary chambers, 150, 158–62, 215 Greek world, 64, 127, 132, 134, 171, 196–8, 292, funerary practices, 148–50, 154–7, 165–6 295, 303 Grifi, L., 31–2 Gades/Gadir/Cádiz, 13, 19, 142–4, 219–21, Gsell, S., 1, 188–90, 202, 223 225–9, 232–9, 242 Guadán, A., 238 coins of, 229, 237 Gunter, A. C., 34

Index 369

Gunugu, 183, 188–94, 197, 200 Iaitas, 99, 105, 108–9 Gurza, 153–4 Iberia; see also Hispania, 191, 196, 199, 205–7, 212, 217, 222–8, 235–49 habitus, 244, 255, 280, 297 contexts, 6, 256 Hadrumetum, 149–54, 159–62 eastern, 198, 200 Halieis, 273 southeastern, 5, 227, 243–56 Hamilcar Barca, 42 southern, 5, 219–21, 224–9, 233–9, 241, 255 Hammamet, 50 southwestern, 74, 205 Hampsicoras, 54–6, 65 Iberians, 191, 205, 208, 217, 222–3, 235–6, Hannibal, 16, 178, 222, 244 255, 302 Hannibalic War, see Punic War, Second and Punics, 244–7 Hanno, 181, 210–12 Iberian imports, 190 Hannover, 3 Ibiza, see Ebusus haouanet, 158, 162 Ibizan imports, 188 Haouaria, El, 123–6 iconography, 96–104, 229, 233, 237, 240–2 harbour facilities, 144, 250, 255 Punic, 80, 97, 239 Hasdrubal, 197, 222, 260 identiﬁcation, 5, 7, 100, 106, 193, 205–6, 208, Hellenistic period, 5, 43, 101, 176, 219 212, 231 hellenization, 23, 64, 87, 282, 285, 287–8, 295–7 identities, 42–6, 56–60, 68–70, 75–80, 157, Hellespont, 174, 299 265–7, 283–4, 294–7, 301–3 Hera, 85 construction of, 44–6, 50, 56 Herakles, 67, 85, 172, 176, 232–3, 286–7, 292–5 ethnic, 70, 164, 175 Argive, 286–7 formation, 14, 265, 280 Melqart-Herakles, 229–33, 287 local, 53, 148, 200, 266 Herodotus, 11, 157, 173, 286, 299–301 modern implications and complications, heroes, 18, 40, 85, 96, 169–72, 216, 287 46–55 Herzfeld, M., 47, 53, 56 regional, 44, 239 Hiempsal, 172 Igilgili, 188–90, 200 herarchies, 179, 253 Ikalensken, 232, 234 Himera, 63, 81, 85, 262–3 Ilipa, 235 Hippana, 77, 86, 105, 108–9 Illeta dels Banyets, 247, 251–2, 255 Hippo Regius, 183–7, 191–4, 198 imperialism, Roman, 202, 260, 300, 304 Hispania; see Iberia, 219, 229, 237, 240 imports, 131, 136, 183–99, 203–5, 208–9, 213 Hispania Ulterior, 220, 226, 232–3, 236–7, incense burners, 253 239–40 independence, 53, 210, 284 mints, 232, 240 Sardinia, 53, 55 historiography, 21, 202, 283, 296 indigenous people, 64, 179, 202, 213, 243–4, Hkayma, El, 150, 153–6 250, 254, 263, 271 homeland, 60, 80–1, 98, 104, 290 indigenous settlements, 203, 208, 211, 213, 261, Carthaginian, 80, 84, 98 268, 276, 279 Homer, 28 industrial areas, 120, 250–2 homogeneity, 4–5, 35, 41, 60, 149, 264–6, 274, infants; see also children, 72, 160–1, 209 279, 284 inﬂuences cultural, 4, 25, 35–6, 103, 267 Carthaginian, 180, 182, 200, 246, 262 horned heads, 84, 96 cultural, 6, 146, 181–2, 200 horses, 76, 85, 87–8, 94–7, 103, 217, 225, 240, Punic, 166, 182, 200, 235 294 innovation, 5, 220, 294 heads, 85, 88–92, 99 inscriptions, 29–31, 55, 179, 182, 216, 219, 228, prancing, 82–8, 96–8, 104 256, 294 protome, 85 bilingual, 228, 236–7, 241 horticulture, 127 epigraphic evidence, 16, 231, 233, 241 Hurst, Henry, 3 epigraphy, neo-Punic, 182, 219, 225–8, 236, Huss, W., 224 240–1, 247, 304

370 Index

inscriptions (cont.) La Picola, 247 Latin, 21, 236, 240 labels, 12, 19–20, 23, 36–7, 116–17, 204, 219, Libyan, 148 224, 259 neo-Punic, 213–15, 218, 228 cultural, 20, 118, 146 oﬃcial, 148, 182 ethnic, 11, 20, 22, 175, 240 Phoenician, 32, 293 Lafuente Vidal, J., 245 public, 205, 241 lagoons, 210, 250, 273 Punic, 74, 211, 215, 241, 293 lamps, 73, 154–5, 163–4, 211, 277 institutions, 35, 48, 55, 60, 68, 267 Lancel, S., 114, 144 intensive crops, 273–5 land, 146, 175–9, 181, 260, 272, 300 interactions, cultural, 7, 282–4, 286–8, language, 7, 13–14, 18–20, 22–4, 178, 182, 294, 297 240–1, 297–9 intermarriage, 223 common, 29, 68, 296 invention, 7, 24–5, 30, 130, 176, 213, oﬃcial, 182, 241 282, 298 Larache, 210 of tradition, 213, 290 Lascuta, 221, 225–30, 233, 237 Iptuci, 225, 227–33, 237–8 coins of, 228, 240 Iron Age, 261, 276–9 Latin, 13–15, 18–21, 26, 219, 221, 227–8, Isis, 101–2 236–7, 240–2 Islamic period, 206, 215 alphabet, 24, 235–6 Isocrates, 284 coin legends, 234, 236–7 Italian excavations, 107 inscriptions, 21, 236, 240 Italian imports, 183, 199 literature, 14, 18–22 Italy, 2–3, 30–2, 40, 76, 87, 101–2, 196, 222 Latium, 101, 260 central, 99, 102, 104, 238 latrines, 128 Ituci, 225, 231–6 Layard, Austen Henry, 30–2 ivories, 3, 37, 41, 61, 98 Leptiminus, 150–3 Les Andalouses, 185–9, 191–4, 196–7 jars, 141, 154, 192 letters, 285, 294 ossuary, 154 Lewis, R. B., 81 Jebel Ala, 171 Lex agraria, 19, 21 Jenkins, G. K., 106, 234 Libri punici, 172, 177 jewellery, 37, 61, 73, 163, 209 Libya, 18, 87, 176, 181, 223–4, 299 Jongeling, K., 228 Libyan elites, 205, 218 Juba II, 197, 211, 215 Libyan identity, 160, 166 Jugurthine War, 172 Libyan inscriptions, 148 Jupiter, 231 Libyan names, 212, 216 Justin, 260, 285, 289 Libyan necropoleis, 159–60, 165–6 juxtapositions, 56, 200, 242 Libyan traditions, 158, 168, 216 Libyans, 5, 146, 148, 156–7, 162, 166–8, 211, Kadmos, 284, 294–5 216, 222–4 Kamarina, 77–81, 97 Libyphoenician coins, 219–42 Kelin, 252–3 Libyphoenician mints, 226–8, 230, 236, 242 Kerkouane, 130, 153 Libyphoenician towns, 235–6 kilns, 217, 251–2 Libyphoenicians, 209, 219, 221–5, 236, 239 kinship, 223, 293–4, 302 Lilliu, Giovanni, 53, 278 koprologoi, 127 Lilybaeum, see Lilybaion. Kore, 65, 100, 234 Lilybaion, 73, 81, 84–135 head of, 87–92, 96–9, 103 necropolis, 87 Kossyra, 96, 102 linguistic evolution, 13, 21 Kouass, 205–6, 209, 213, 217 lionskin, 229, 235, 237 Krings, V., 172, 261–3 Lipari, 133 Kronos, 293 literary tradition, 12, 21, 23

Index 371

lithograph of Salammbô, 43, 45 mercenaries, 42, 77, 81, 303 Livy, 12, 14, 19–21, 54, 65, 177–81, 197, 222, merchants, 28, 51, 145, 199, 217, 233, 255 244 metal bowls, 30–41 Lixus, 142–4, 204, 210–12, 217, 228, 235, 238 metropolis, 67, 130, 145, 198, 202, 223, 235, Llobregat, E.A., 245 246, 294 local communities, 56–7, 241, 254, 257, 280–1 migration, 156, 204, 243, 264–7 local contexts, 156, 168, 244, 252, 255, 278, 280 Millar, Fergus, 16, 282–3, 288 local diversity, 161, 281 mints, 82–4, 100, 102, 219, 221, 225–38, 303 local elites, 205, 213, 295–6 Minturnae, 101–2 local identities, 53, 148, 200, 266 Missonnier, F., 188 local populations, 52, 63–4, 246, 256, 297, 302–4 Mogador, 206, 210 local traditions, 55, 62 Moloch, 1, 43, 300 López Castro, J. L., 224 Montagna dei Cavalli, 86, 105, 108–9 Luquet, A., 204 Montagnola di Marineo, 105, 108–9 Monte Iato, 76, 80, 82–9, 99, 105 Macedonia, 284 Monte Sirai, 94, 257, 261, 267–73, 279 Macedonian empire, 285, 292 monumental time, 47, 56–7 Mactar, 183–7 Morel, J.-P., 156, 180 Maghreb, 4, 48–9, 113, 169, 202, 217 Morgantina, 77, 79, 88, 105, 108–9 central, 49–50 Morocco, 181, 192, 202–5, 215, 217–18, 302 Magna Graecia, 303–4 northern, 211–13 Mahdia necropolis, 150–2 pre-Roman, 4, 202 Makai, 173 mortar, 123, 252, 256 Makella, 105, 108–9 mosaics, 156, 243, 248, 256 Malaca/Málaga, 66, 73, 197, 222, 225, 228, Moscati, S., 2, 6, 24–5, 35–9, 41, 46, 58, 61, 70, 235–8, 242, 249 111, 116, 259, 301 Malkin, I., 171–6, 179 Motya, 3, 64–5, 67, 71, 84–5, 108–9, 301 Mallorca, 228 destruction of, 97–8 Malta, 1, 26–96, 107–9 Mozia, see Motya coins, 92–4, 107 Mucha, Alphonse, 43 University of, 8, 76, 107 mudbrick, 252–3 Maltese archipelago, 26, 28, 62–3 murals, 37 man-headed bull, 84, 96 Murcia, 191, 243 Manfredi, L. I., 82, 86 myths, 4, 171–8 marble, 129–30, 199, 211, 301 Marmilla region, 258, 275, 277 Nasamones, 173 Marsala, 84, 98, 105, 108–9 Neapolis, 257, 267, 273–5, 279–80 masks, 37, 77 necklaces, 73, 87, 166 terracotta, 61, 261 necropoleis, 71–3, 105, 107, 149–50, 158–66, Massinissa, 176–7, 181–2, 198 189–93, 196–7, 217–18 Matthews, V., 8, 172–3 Byzacium, 148, 153, 161 Mauretania negative stereotyping, 12–18 Punic, 202–18 negative tradition, 12–15, 18 western, 197, 200 negotiations, 260, 282, 284, 297 Mela, see Pomponius neo-Punic epigraphy, 182, 219, 225–8, 236, Melilla, 206 240–1, 247, 304 Melqart, 68, 143–4, 172, 229–33, 237, 286–93 neo-Punic coin legends, 213–15, 218, 224–8, images, 240, 304 234–41 temple, 286, 291 networks, 281, 292, 297, 300–1, 303–4 Melqart-Herakles, 229–33, 287 Niemeyer, H. G., 16, 142 memory, 26–8, 180, 211, 215–16, 282, 292 Nimrud, 3, 30–4 mentalities, 149, 175, 205 nomads, 157, 223 evolution of, 163–5 Nora, 52, 61, 73, 94, 257, 267–71, 279

372 Index

Nordström, S., 245 perfidia punica, 179 Numidia, 180–201, 234 perfumes, 156, 253 coinage, 182 periodization, 6, 26, 28, 34, 116–17 eastern, 198–200 Perrot, G., 29–35 kingdoms, 4, 157, 180–3 Persian Wars, 284–5, 299 western, 196, 199 Persians, 17, 282–7 Numidian settlements, 158, 166, 196, 200 personhood, 265 Numidian territory, 148, 157–61, 181–3, 197 Philaeni, 171, 173, 176 Numidians, 4, 148, 157–8, 168, 177, 181, 183, altars of, 169–79 197, 220 Phoenicia, 13, 16, 21, 30, 36, 282–8, 290–2, 297 numismatic evidence; see also coins, 180, 198, conquest by Alexander, 283–5 220 Hellenistic, 283–4 Nuraghe Genna Maria, 275, 277–9, 281 and its Mediterranean networks, 289–94 Nuraghe Ortu Còmidu, 275, 277–9 Phoenician, ancient usage of term, 15–22 Nuraghe Sirai, 261 Phoenician cities, 29, 80, 131, 235, 246, 282–4, Nuraghe Toscono, 276, 279, 281 289, 291, 303 nuraghi, 53, 274–5, 277–9 Phoenician colonies; see also Phoenician settlements, 61, 146, 150, 159, 211, 225, Oba, 225–30, 237 247 obsidian hydration dating, 276 Phoenician identities, 58–9, 288–9, 302 Obulco, 232, 235–9 in Hellenistic times, 282–98 Odysseus, 28, 173 Phoenician inscriptions, 32, 293 offerings, 74, 207, 253–6, 289 Phoenician settlements; see also Phoenician Olbia, 94, 247 colonies, 4–5, 14, 207, 211, 241, 246, 261 Olontigi, 235–8 Phoenician world, 3, 6–7, 43, 58–61, 171 Oniga, R., 172 Phoenicians, 1–7, 12–13, 15–20, 58–60, openness, 4, 136–7, 150, 165 113–18, 207–11, 223–4, 282–6, oracles, 179, 233, 287 299–303 Oral, El, 247–8 discovery and definition, 25–32 Oranie, 184, 192–3, 196–7 eastern, 13–14, 21, 220, 223 Orientalism, 34, 39, 45–6, 300 invention of, 24–41 Orientalist prejudices, 42, 46 western, 2, 7, 12–13, 20–2, 58, 70, 76, 113, Orientalist stereotypes, 51, 56 301–2 Oristano, 65 phoenicity, 5, 58–62, 68 Gulf of, 94, 273 and punicities, 58–68 orthogonal plans, 123–4, 144 phoenix/phoinix,11–23, 301 ostrich eggs, 37, 62, 73, 115, 205, 209 Phoinix, 295 overstrikes, 77, 82, 303 Phoronis, 294–5 pits, 153, 158, 162, 207, 248, 253 Palazzo Grassi exhibition, 25, 36–9, 41 septic, 123, 125 Palermo; see also Panormos, 64, 80 Plato, 18–20 Palestrina; see also Praeneste, 32–4 Pliny the Elder, 148, 171, 173, 197, 211, 241, palm trees, 76, 85–8, 94–7, 103 247 Panormos; see also Palermo, 85–6 Plutarch, 174, 285 Ṣyṣ–Panormos, 81, 86–7 poems, 294–5 Pantelleria, 96, 180, 197 Poeni,12–13, 15, 19–20 Paris, 286, 299 poenus,11–23, 69, 301 Pastrone, Giovanni, 1–2, 300 Polybius, 16–21, 42, 45, 175–8, 181, 222, 260, Pegasos, 87 262 perceptions, 44, 47, 50, 54, 239, 255, 267, 279, Pompeii, 99–102, 104 283 Pomponius Mela, 20, 179, 233, 240 local, 48, 53 Ponsich, M., 209 modern, 42–5, 48 Portugal; see also Iberia, 180, 192, 194

Index 373

Portuguese colonies, 217–18 modern interpretations, 259–65 pottery, see ceramics town‒country relationships and settlement pottery imports, 184, 274–6 patterns, 267–78 Praeneste; see also Palestrina, 32–4, 40 Punic settlements, 104, 205, 225, 237 prancing horse, 82–8, 96–8, 104 Punic Sicily, 65, 84, 96, 303 prehistory, 29, 46, 215 Punic sources, 7, 67, 172–3 protomes, 37, 62, 84–5, 212 Punic Wars, 21, 42, 46, 69, 245–6, 283 provenances, 32, 45, 92, 131, 190, 217 First, 77, 82, 88, 259 provinces, Roman, 76, 157, 204, 221 Second, 103–4, 177, 181–2, 199–200, 220–2, pseudo-Scylax, 171, 177, 181, 211 224, 234–5, 240 Ptolemy, 171–3, 176, 285 Punic world, 3–4, 43–5, 48, 62–7, 74–5, Puerto de Santa María, 143 113–15, 239–41, 245–6 Punic and Numidia, 180–201 see also Phoenician and Carthaginian punici, 13, 21, 69, 301 ancient usage of term, 15–22 punicities, 4–5, 103, 157, 166–8, 213 origins of term, 12 and phoenicity, 58–68 Punic books, 172 Punic Carthage quarries, 199, 211 definition, 113–17 as special city, 142–6 Rakob, F., 118, 120, 121, 124, 127 Punic ceramic repertoire, 131, 138, 257 Raqqada, 211 conservative traits, 136–7 Ras el Aáli, 171 new elements, 138–41 Ras Lanuf, 169–71 Punic coinage, 76–80, 84, 88, 99, 103–4, 238, raw materials, 30, 115 241, 303 Rawlinson, G., 29, 35 bronze, 77, 82, 87, 90, 97, 100, 103–4, 226, rebellions, 42, 54, 297 230–2, 234 reconstructions, 42, 124, 207, 213, 216, 249 in non-Punic environments, 99–102 Regolini-Galassi tomb, 32, 40 political message, 96–8 religion, 29, 59, 61, 65–6, 70, 98, 149, 182, 200 Punic communities, 98, 104, 220 religious landscapes, 286 Punic diaspora, 219 religious practices, 281, 284, 290–1 Punic epicracy, 64, 77–81, 88, 98–9, 104 Renan, E., 35 Punic–Iberian connections, 243–56 residential areas, 122–3, 127, 251 Punic iconography, 80, 97, 239 resistance, 53–4, 292, 297 Punic identities, 3–4, 22, 69–70, 80, 148, 220–1, revenge, 284–6 301–4 rhetoric, 39–40 after Punic times, 219–42 Ribichini, S., 15, 69, 74, 171, 174–5, 178–9 funerary world, 148–68 Rif, 206 heritage and tourism, 50–2 rites/ritual practices, 72, 74, 80, 98–9, 150, 156, local representations, 53–5 277–8, 280–1, 290 modern perceptions, 42–57 rivals, 300–1, 304 state representations, 48–50 Rocca di Entella, 76, 88, 105, 108–9 Punic influences, 166, 182, 200, 235 Roman coins, 101, 231, 235 Punic inscriptions, 74, 211, 215, 241, 293 Roman conquests, 65, 87, 108–9, 221, 241, 247, Punic necropoleis, 74, 119, 145, 150–1, 189 257, 304 Punic period, 63, 66, 73, 116, 257–8, 264, 268, Roman empire, 103, 202, 220, 224, 300 271–5, 277–80 Roman imperialism, 202, 300, 304 Early, 116–27, 131–45 Roman occupation, 54, 206, 216–18, 276 Late, 116, 142 Roman period, 73, 101, 143, 209 Middle, 117, 121, 127, 133–7 Roman provinces, 76, 157, 204, 221 Punic Sardinia, 197, 257–81 Roman tradition, 15, 22 and cultural identity discourse, 265–7 Romans, 7, 12–17, 20–3, 28, 49, 54, 178–81, identification, 278–81 204, 209

374 Index

Rome, 3, 8, 24, 42, 65, 69, 96–8, 100–4, 196, Serbine, 258, 275–6 199–202, 299–300, 304 Serra Orlando, 105, 108–9 Republic, 12–14, 76, 219, 225, 237, 242 Servius, 172 late, 12, 103, 220–1, 224, 238–41 settlement patterns, 5, 65, 257–9, 264, 267–71, rouah, 74, 164 278–9 Rouillard, P., 156 rural, 257, 264, 267 Rouse, R., 265–6 settlement sites, 63, 136 Ršmlqrt, 81, 87 settlement size, 143–5 Rue Ibn Chabâat site, 119, 123 settlements, 130–7, 142, 192–4, 198–200, Ruiz Mata, D., 143–4, 210, 252 205–15, 218–20, 236–43, 247–55, rural settlement patterns, 257, 264, 267 272–6 rural sites, 257, 264, 272–4, 279 Carthaginian, 133, 204, 245 coastal, 67, 194, 251, 256 sacrarium, 101–2 early, 143, 214 sacrifices, 1, 99, 244, 277, 286–7, 293, hilltop, 272–3 300–2 indigenous, 203, 208, 211, 213, 261, 268, 276, child, 1, 43, 46 279 human, 17, 290–2 Numidian, 158, 166, 196, 200 Saguntum, 235, 244 Phoenician, 4–5, 14, 207, 211, 241, 246, 261 Sahel, 137, 149–87, 195, 199 Punic, 104, 205, 225, 237 Sahlins, Marshall, 289, 297 small, 208, 212, 251 Salammbô,42–3 Sexs, 225–8, 232, 235–8, 242 Saldae, 182, 198, 238 shared ideas, 76, 265 Sallust, 22, 169–73, 176–9 shields, 18, 234 sanctuaries, 63, 66, 76, 94, 130–1, 207, 218 shrines, 252, 275, 278 sand, 154–5, 170–1 Sicily, 62–5, 67–8, 80–98, 101–4, 133–6, 224–8, Santa Pola, 247 299–301 sarcophagi, 26–7, 37, 158, 209 eastern, 79, 88, 97 Sardian sea, 221 northwestern, 85, 96 Sardinia, 35–8, 51–3, 65–7, 72, 83–99, Punic, 65, 84, 96, 303 102–3 western, 63, 77–83, 86–8, 97, 105, 133, central, 47, 275, 277 180 independence, 53, 55 Sidi Abdesselam el Bahr, 208 Punic, see Punic Sardinia. Sidi Slimane, 213 southern, 259, 261 Sidon, 30, 284–6, 289, 294–6, 303 Sardinian landscapes, 53, 280–1 Sidonians, 22, 31, 60, 284, 301 Sarroch hills, 268–71 siege of Tyre, 287, 291, 302 Sassari, 72 Siga, 158, 184, 188, 192–3, 197 scarabs, 31, 37, 61 silver, 82–4, 130, 235, 251 Schröder, P., 20 bowls, 32–3, 40 Scipio Africanus, 176–7, 197 jewellery, 209 see also coinage scripts, 20, 29, 182, 237, 239, 284 Smirat, 153 sculpture, 169, 171, 250, 253–4 snakes, 100, 233 sea, 170–1, 175–6, 223, 273, 287, 292, 300 social contexts, 5, 47, 255, 294 sea, corrupting, 286 social differentiation, 213 Sea Peoples, 57 social fluidity, 282, 297 Second Punic War, 103–4, 177, 181–2, social practices, 264–6, 281 199–200, 220–2, 224, 234–5, 240 social time, 47, 55–6 Segesta, 63–4, 105, 108–9 soldiers, 216, 222, 283 self-consciousness, 5 solidarity, 291–3 self-definition, 5, 11 Solinus, 174 Selinus/Selinunte, 81, 105, 108–9, 130, 301 Solus (Solunto), 65, 81, 86, 105, 108–9, 301 septic pits/latrines, 123, 125–39 sovereignty, 285–6

Index 375

Spain, 2–3, 94, 104, 116, 142–5, 202, 206, Thigibba Bure, 158–68 221–2, 235, 302–3 necropolis, 158–63 see also Iberia. Thucydides, 16, 63 southern, 142–5, 221, 235, 237–9, 242 Thugga, 158–61, 166, 182 Spanish-Moroccan excavations, 210, 212 Tiddis, 194, 198 spouts, 138–41 Timaeus, 17–18 Stannard, C., 76, 100–1 time stars, 215, 229–33, 242 monumental, 47, 56–7 statues, 26, 37–9, 60, 102, 294–5 social, 47, 55–6 stelae, 37, 131, 161, 204, 216, 229–31 Timoleon, 17 stereotyping, 19, 23, 51, 55, 178, 288 Tingi; see also Tangiers, 228, 235, 238 stone slabs, 71, 248–9 Tingitan peninsula, 208 storage facilities, 252, 269–72 Tipasa, 166, 183, 189–92, 197 Strabo, 171, 173, 177–8, 197–8, 211, 247 tombs, 73–4, 150–5, 158–66, 187–92, 204, Straits of Gibraltar, 5, 67, 181, 196–7, 217, 224, 208–11, 215–16, 248–50, 253–4 234, 239, 241 chambers, 115, 150, 154, 211 streets, 55, 124, 127–8, 215 dolmen, 162 Stucchi, S., 171, 176 haouanet, 159, 162 style, 30–2, 87, 96, 277, 289 tophets, 65, 72, 106–7, 131, 140–1, 160, 218, sufetes, 213–16, 218 290 Sulcis, 65 toponyms, 17, 228, 246, 296 sun, 18, 85, 231 torba, 125, 129 symbols, 99, 130, 169, 229–35, 242, 303–4 Toscanos, 142 Syphax, 16, 197 Toscono, 258, 275–7 Syracuse, 21, 63, 77–82, 86, 97–8, 104, 303 Tossal de les Basses, 250–6 Syria, Hellenistic, 282 tourism, 42, 50 Syrtes/Syrtic Gulf, 162, 169, 176–7, 180–1 towers, 250, 274–8 Euphrantas, 173 Tamuda, 213, 238 trade, 6, 35, 175–6, 180, 197, 205–6, 213, 217, Tangiers; see also Tingi, 72, 208–10, 216–17 260 Tanit, 129–31, 137, 229–31, 234 routes, 94, 217, 255–6 Sign of, 130 traders, 5, 250, 255–6 Tanit Sanctuary, 129 trading posts, 212, 217 Tarradell, M., 189, 201, 205, 208, 209, 211, 245 traditions, 17–21, 23, 28, 149, 152, 290, 293, Tas-Silġ, 76, 93–5, 109 297–8, 300 taxation, 19, 62, 175–7 cultural, 43, 133, 220–1, 242 technologies, 29, 205, 208, 218, 264 funerary, 61, 75, 182 Teixidor, J., 156 Libyan, 158, 168, 216 temples, 1, 52–102, 123, 143–4, 214–18 literary, 12, 21, 23 terminology, 12, 75, 117, 218, 238 local, 55, 62 terracotta masks, 61, 261 negative, 12–15, 18 terracottas, 38–9, 73, 209 Roman, 15, 22 Terralba, 54, 273, 279 treaties, 77–8, 86, 172, 175, 246, 260, 262–3, territorial control, 6, 63–4, 177 300 Tetuan, 206, 208, 217 trickery, 172, 179 Thamusida, 212–13, 217 Tripolitania, 1, 162, 169, 176–7, 183, 187, 195–6 Thapsus, 149, 153–6 Tripolitanian imports, 187 necropolis, 156 Troy, 286, 299 Tharros, 3, 51–95, 109 Truncu ‘e Molas, 270, 274 coins, 94–6, 105, 107 tumuli, 158, 210, 213–17 Thebes, 294–5 tuna ﬁsh, 229, 233, 237–40 theoroi, 291 Tunisia, 3, 35, 42, 48–52, 56–7, 75, 119, 203 Thermai, 81, 85–6, 108–9 Tunisian excavations, 119

376 Index

Tuniso-Belgian excavations, 126–31, 137–9 Maison à l’Ephèbe, 215–16 Turirecina, 225–30, 234–5, 237 mausoleum, 214–16 Tusa, Vincenzo, 67 Monument à l’inscription au bouclier Tyre, 30–2, 143, 145, 233, 239, 284–93, 295, punique, 216 299–300, 303 von Riedesel, Johann Hermann, 28 siege, 287, 291, 302 votive oﬀerings, see oﬀerings. Tyrians, 13, 60, 287, 291, 294, 299, 301–2 walls, 120, 129, 136, 150, 155, 215, 250, 277 unity, 5, 35, 60–2, 75, 98, 204 casemate, 120, 126 Urso, 225, 235 defensive, 124, 144, 276 wars, 21, 64, 81–2, 101, 157, 176–7, 235, 285 Vaga necropolis, 158–62 wealth, 73, 145, 211 Valencia, 191, 207, 243–5, 252 weapons, 247, 253 Varro, 13 western Phoenicians, 2, 7, 12–13, 20–2, 58, 70, Venice, 3, 25, 38 76, 113, 301–2 Vesci, 225, 227–31, 237 Whittaker, C. R., 6, 224, 260 Via Ampsicora, 54 wine, 73, 131, 136, 155–6, 196, 253–5 villages, 54–6, 71, 171, 209, 217, 276 consumption, 155–6 Villanovaforru, 277–8 women, 210, 285, 288, 291, 299, 302 Villaricos, 66, 71, 74, 228, 249 workmanship, 31, 158 Vincent, Captain, 158 workshops, 3, 8, 24, 122, 147, 189–92, 205, vines, 155–6, 251, 273 252 violence, 42, 285–8 Volubilis, 204, 213–18 Zóbel de Zangroniz, J., 219, 221, 240