Physiographic and Geological Setting of the Colombian Territory

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https://doi.org/10.32685/pub.esp.35.2019.01 Physiographic and Geological Setting Published online 24 November 2020 of the Colombian Territory Paleogene Jorge GÓMEZ TAPIAS1* , Alberto NÚÑEZ–TELLO2 , Daniela MATEUS–ZABALA3 , Fernando Alirio ALCÁRCEL–GUTIÉRREZ4, Rubby Melissa LASSO–MUÑOZ5 , Eliana MARÍN–RINCÓN6 , and María Paula MARROQUÍN–GÓMEZ7

1 [email protected]

Servicio Geológico Colombiano Cretaceous Dirección de Geociencias Básicas Abstract The territory of the Republic of Colombia is in the northwestern corner of Grupo Mapa Geológico de Colombia South America, a region influenced by the Caribbean and Nazca oceanic plates, and Diagonal 53 n.° 34–53 Bogota, Colombia the South American continental plate. In Colombia, six natural regions are distin- 2 [email protected] Servicio Geológico Colombiano guished: Andean, Caribbean, Pacific, Orinoquia, Amazonian, and Insular. The Andean Jurassic Dirección de Geociencias Básicas region corresponds to the great mountain belt of the Andes, which in Colombia is Grupo Mapa Geológico de Colombia Diagonal 53 n.° 34–53 divided into the Western, Central, and Eastern Cordilleras, separated by the inter– Bogota, Colombia Andean valleys of the Cauca and Magdalena Rivers. The Caribbean region is to the 3 [email protected] north and include the coastal areas of the Caribbean Sea. It is a region of flat to un- Servicio Geológico Colombiano

Dirección de Geociencias Básicas Triassic dulating relief, with some high topography, among which the Sierra Nevada de Santa Grupo Mapa Geológico de Colombia Diagonal 53 n.° 34–53 Marta stands out. The Pacific region, in the west of Colombia, has flat to undulating Bogota, Colombia morphology and host the serranía de Baudó. To the east, the territory consists of the 4 [email protected] Servicio Geológico Colombiano Orinoquia and Amazonian regions, with their flat and undulating surface, the first Dirección de Geociencias Básicas corresponds to plains and savannas, while the second corresponds to the Amazonian Grupo Mapa Geológico de Colombia Permian Diagonal 53 n.° 34–53 jungle, where are some isolated ranges as the serranía de Chiribiquete. The Carib- Bogota, Colombia bean Insular region groups the San Andrés, Providencia, and Santa Catalina Islands, 5 [email protected] Servicio Geológico Colombiano besides of islets, atolls, and reef banks; whilst the Pacific Island region encompass Dirección de Geociencias Básicas the Gorgona and Gorgonilla Islands, and the Malpelo Islet. Caribe, Magdalena–Cau- Grupo Mapa Geológico de Colombia Diagonal 53 n.° 34–53

ca, Orinoco, Amazonas, and Pacífico are the main hydrographic watersheds of the Bogota, Colombia Carboniferous country. The geological setting of Colombia is diverse, with rocks of multiple types 6 [email protected] Servicio Geológico Colombiano and ages, spanning the Paleoproterozoic to Holocene, as well as geological struc- Dirección de Geociencias Básicas tures of diverse type and origin, reflecting a complex and diverse geological history. Grupo Mapa Geológico de Colombia Diagonal 53 n.° 34–53

This geological framework has led to the identification of 23 marine and continental Bogota, Colombia Devonian sedimentary basins. 7 [email protected] Servicio Geológico Colombiano Keywords: Colombian geography, natural regions, hydrographic watersheds, sedimentary Dirección de Geociencias Básicas Grupo Mapa Geológico de Colombia basins. Diagonal 53 n.° 34–53 Bogota, Colombia Silurian * Corresponding author Resumen El territorio de la República de Colombia está ubicado en la esquina norocci- dental de Suramérica, región influenciada por las placas oceánicas del Caribe y de Naz- ca y la placa continental de Suramérica. Seis regiones naturales han sido identificadas: Supplementary Information: Andina, Caribe, Pacífica, Orinoquia, Amazonia e Insular. La zona andina es la prolon- S: https://www2.sgc.gov.co/ LibroGeologiaColombia/tgc/ gación de la gran cordillera de los Andes, que en Colombia se divide en las cordilleras sgcpubesp35201901s.kmz Ordovician Occidental, Central y Oriental separadas por los valles interandinos de los ríos Cauca

Citation: Gómez, J., Núñez–Tello, A., Mateus–Zabala, D., Alcárcel–Gutiérrez, F.A., Lasso–Muñoz, R.M., Marín–Rincón, E. & Marroquín–Gómez, M.P. 2020. Physiographic and geological setting of the Colombian territory. In: Gómez, J. & Mateus–Zabala, D. (editors), The Geology of Colombia, Cambrian Volume 1 Proterozoic – Paleozoic. Servicio Geológico Colombiano, Publicaciones Geológicas Especiales 35, p. 1–16. Bogotá. https://doi.org/10.32685/pub.esp.35.2019.01

1 Proterozoic GÓMEZ TAPIAS et al.

y Magdalena. La región Caribe se localiza al norte y corresponde a las zonas costeras del mar Caribe. Es un área de relieve plano a ondulado con algunas elevaciones, entre las que se destaca la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. La región Pacífica, ubicada al oc- cidente colombiano, es de morfología plana a ondulada. Allí se encuentra la serranía de Baudó. Las regiones Orinoquia y Amazonia, de superficie ondulada y plana, ocupan el oriente del territorio; la primera corresponde a llanuras y sabanas, mientras que la segunda es selvática, con algunas zonas montañosas aisladas como la serranía de Chiribiquete. La región Insular del Caribe está conformada por las islas de San Andrés, Providencia y Santa Catalina, con islotes, atolones y bancos de arrecifes; las islas de Gorgona y Gorgonilla y el islote de Malpelo hacen parte de la zona Insular del océano Pacífico. Hidrográficamente se identifican cinco cuencas: Caribe, Magdalena–Cauca, Orinoco, Amazonas y Pacífico. La constitución geológica del territorio de Colombia es muy variada, con rocas de diferentes tipos y edades entre el Paleoproterozoico y el Holoceno, así como estructuras geológicas de diverso tipo y origen, que reflejan una historia geológica compleja. Esta armazón geológica ha dado lugar a la identificación de 23 cuencas sedimentarias, algunas marinas y otras continentales. Palabras claves: geografía colombiana, regiones naturales, cuencas hidrográficas, cuencas sedimentarias.

1. Introduction oceanic trenches, subduction zones, accretionary prisms, de- formation belts, transform faults, and several other structural Geographically, the 2 070 408 km2 that make up the continental elements, as defined by Gómez et al. (2015a, 2015b) based on (55.15%) and marine (44.85%) territory of the Republic of Colom- the findings of numerous researchers (Figure 5). bia are located in the northwestern corner of South America. Polit- The geological processes that contributed to the formation ically, this area is divided into 32 departments and a capital district, of the national territory yield different types of rocks (Figure Bogotá (Figure 1). The second political–administrative division is 6) and controlled the formation of folds and faults (Figure 7), by municipalities. In total, Colombia has 1101 that grouped make some of which mark the boundaries between geological terr- up the departments (see the 1101 municipalities of Colombia in anes and sedimentary basins, where converged the processes Google Earth, Supplementary Information). These political–ad- that allowed the formation and accumulation of hydrocarbons. ministrative divisions must be borne in mind when reading The Based on geological criteria and multiple aspects that Pardo et Geology of Colombia, since in several chapters they are indicated al. (2007a) considered for oil and gas exploration, the Agencia and used as reference points.. In addition, in the national territory, Nacional de Hidrocarburos (ANH) delimited 23 marine and six large natural regions are distinguished: Andean, Caribbean, Pa- continental sedimentary basins (Figure 8). cific, Orinoquia, Amazonian, and Insular (Figure 2). It is believed that the current Colombia geological setting 2. Andean Region results of the accretion of different continental and oceanic af- finity geological terranes that allowed the growth of the national The Andean region corresponds to the great mountain belt of territory from the Proterozoic basement located to the east of the Andes, which in Colombia is divided into three branches: the country (Gómez et al., 2015a, 2015b). Mountain uplift and the Western, Central, and Eastern Cordilleras. The Western and the formation of the inter–Andean valleys, as a consequence Central Cordilleras are forked north of the border of Colombia of the Andean Orogeny, shaped the Colombian landscape. The and Ecuador, in the so–called Nudo de Los Pastos; they run main physiographic features, such as cordilleras and ranges, and N–S, relatively parallel to the coast of the Pacific Ocean, and some localities that due to their geological relevance deserve are separated by the inter–Andean valley of the Cauca River, a to be highlighted, including massifs and valleys, are present in tributary of the Magdalena River. The Eastern Cordillera is the Figure 3. Figure 4 shows the main rivers of Colombia and the longest, oriented NE, and is detached from the Central Cordi- five major hydrographic watersheds that group the Colombian llera in the Macizo Colombiano, and on the border with Vene- drainage systems: Caribe, Magdalena–Cauca, Orinoco, Ama- zuela forks into the serranía de Perijá, N–S oriented, marking zonas, and Pacífico. the binational limit. The Central and Eastern Cordilleras are The tectonic framework of Colombia is influenced by the separated by the Magdalena River Valley, which discharges into interaction between the Caribbean and Nazca oceanic plates, the Caribbean Sea. Each of the three mountain ranges has a and the South American continental plate, with ocean ridges, different geological composition and geotectonic environment.

2 Physiographic and Geological Setting of the Colombian Territory

Santa Catalina San Andrés Island

Island 75° W 70° W Atlantic Caribbean Ocean Sea Caribbean Sea 0°

Riohacha

Providencia Santa Marta La Guajira Island 0 4 km Barranquilla 20° S Caribbean Atlántico Sea Cartagena Valledupar Pacic Magdalena Ocean 10° N 0 4 km

40° S Sincelejo Cesar Panamá Montería Sucre W ° 0 50° W Bolívar 7 70° W Córdoba Norte de Santander Cúcuta

Venezuela Pacic Ocean Bucaramanga Arauca

Malpelo Island Antioquia Santander Arauca Medellín Puerto Carreño

Quibdó Boyacá 0 1 km Tunja Chocó Yopal Caldas Casanare Risaralda Cundinamarca 5° N Pacic Ocean Manizales Pereira Vichada Gorgona Bogotá Island Armenia Ibagué Quindío Pacic Ocean Villavicencio Inírida Valle del Tolima Cauca Gorgonilla Cali Island Meta

Neiva 0 4 km San José del Guaviare Guainía Cauca Popayán Huila

Guaviare Florencia Nariño San Juan de Pasto Mitú Mocoa

Vaupés Caquetá Putumayo

0°

Ecuador Amazonas Brasil

Perú

Leticia 0 50 100 200 300 km

Figure 1. Political–administrative division of Colombia into departments. The figure also shows the capitals of the 32 departments. Modified from Instituto Geográfico Agustín Codazi (1999).

3 GÓMEZ TAPIAS et al.

Santa Catalina San Andrés Island

Island 75° W 70° W Atlantic Caribbean Ocean Sea Caribbean Sea 0°

Providencia Island 0 4 km Barranquilla 20° S Caribbean Sea Pacic Ocean 10° N 0 4 km

40° S Panamá W ° 0 50° W 7 70° W

Venezuela Pacic Ocean

t Malpelo r a

Island t o

i v e r Medellín

0 1 km a n er e r l iv e a v R i d R g o

5° N Pacic Ocean a a r e o c iv M u R n

i a a Bogotá et r C M

Gorgona O Island

Pacic Ocean ver e Ri iar Gorgonilla av Island Cali u G

0 4 km

ía Riv Pat er

0° C aq ue tá R iver

Ecuador

Natural regions Brasil

Paciﬁc

Caribbean

Andean Perú Orinoquia Amazon as R Amazonian iv e r 0 50 100 200 300 km Insular

Figure 2. Natural regions and main cities of Colombia.

4 Physiographic and Geological Setting of the Colombian Territory

75° W 70° W Atlantic Ocean 1 2 3 0° Caribbean Sea 5 4

Barranquilla 6 20° S

7 Pacic Ocean 10° N 26 8 40° S Panamá W ° 0 50° W 7 70° W

9 27 10 11 28 13 12 Venezuela

t r a 29 t o

i 14 v e r Medellín 15

v i 30

a n er e 31 r l iv e a v R i d R g o

c 5° N a a r 16 e 17 o c iv M u R n

18 i a a et r C M

19 O Pacic Ocean Bogotá

20 32 er Riv are vi Cali ua G 33 21 34 35 22 23 ía Riv 36 Pat er

24 0° C aqu etá Riv Ecuador er 25

Main physiographic Geographic places of subregions of Colombia frequent reference in the Brasil Colombian geological literature 1. Serranía de Jarara 14. Sierra Nevada del Cocuy 2. Serranía de Macuira 15. Serranía del Baudó 26. Lower Magdalena Valley 3. Serranía de Carpintero 16. Serranía de Los Paraguas 27. Mérida Cordillera 4. Serranía de Cocinas 17. Llanos Orientales–Orinoquia 28. Santander Massif 5. La Guajira Peninsula 18. Eastern Cordillera 29. Middle Magdalena Valley 6. Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta 19. Central Cordillera 30. Floresta Massif 7. Serranía de Perijá 20. Western Cordillera 31. Arauca Graben Perú 32. Quetame Massif 8. Serranía de Los Motilones 21. Serranía de La Macarena Amazon 33. Upper Magdalena Valley as 9. Serranía de San Lucas 22. Serranía de La Lindosa R 34. Garzón Massif iv 10. Serranía del Darién 23. Serranía de Naquén e 11. Serranía de San Jerónimo 24. Serranía de Chiribiquete 35. Guiana Shield r 12. Serranía de Ayapel 25. Amazonian 36. Macizo Colombiano 0 50 100 200 300 km 13. Serranía de Abibe 37. Nudo de Los Pastos

Figure 3. Main physiographic features of the Colombian territory and geographic places of frequent reference in the literature on Co- lombian geology.

5 GÓMEZ TAPIAS et al.

75° W 70° W Atlantic Ocean

0° Caribbean Sea

Barranquilla 20° S

Pacic Ocean 10° N

40° S Panamá W ° 0 50° W 7 70° W

v i

g a Venezuela

M Arauca River

t r a

t o Medellín

r ver Ri a r t e e iv M R O

5° N a r

c i u n

a o

Bogotá c C Pacic Ocean r o ive da R R ha i Vic v e r

er r Riv e re v ia i av Cali R u a G n e l a d g a

Inirida River ía Riv Pat er

V aup és R iv er A p o p o ri s R iver 0° C aq ue tá R iver Ecuador Pu tum ay o

R i v er Brasil Hydrographic watersheds

Caribe

Magdalena–Cauca

Orinoco Perú Amazon as R Amazonas iv e r 0 50 100 200 300 km Pacíﬁco

Figure 4. Main rivers of the country and hydrographic watersheds. Modified from Instituto de Hidrología, Meteorología y Estudios Ambientales (2013).

6 Physiographic and Geological Setting of the Colombian Territory

90° W 80° W 70° W North American 60° W Plate

ico Tr 20° N Puerto R ench

Cayman Trough

ne zo re tu ac k fr Nicaragua Ban ro ed Rise P Chortis Beata Ridge Aves Block Ridge

Central America Trench Hess Escarpment Caribbean Plate

10° N

Panamá Cocos Plate Block

Coiba Coiba Ridge Plate

Cocos Ridge Malpelo Ridge

h c n re T r o South American d a u c Plate E – a i Subduction zone b 0° m o l Thrust fault o

C Carnegie Normal fault Ridge Strike–slip fault Nazca Plate Fault Active spreading 0 350 700 km Abandoned spreading

Figure 5. Tectonic scheme of northern South America and the Caribbean (Gómez et al., 2015a, 2015b).

The Western Cordillera is essentially constituted by Creta- nozoic plutons generated by the subduction of the Nazca Plate ceous sedimentary, gabbroic, and basaltic rocks of the Caribbe- under the South American Plate. In the eastern flank, the Meso- an–Colombian oceanic plateau, accreted to the western margin zoic intrusions are linked to Jurassic volcaniclastic sequences. of Colombia during the Late Cretaceous to Paleogene. In the Also, Mesoproterozoic – Neoproterozoic high–grade metamor- southern sector, there are Paleogene plutonic and volcanoclastic phic rocks incorporated during the different orogenies recorded rocks, while in the northern part, there are Miocene basalts and in Colombia are exposed. In the western flank, are found volca- Pliocene volcanoclastic rocks, as well as small Neogene intru- noclastic and low–grade metamorphic rocks of the Cretaceous. sions. At the southern end of the mountain range are deposits Locally, Cretaceous marine sedimentary sequences are presented of Neogene and Quaternary volcanic eruptions, and some of the both the western and eastern flanks of the cordillera. The Neo- volcanoes in this area are active and are part of the Southern gene – Quaternary volcanoes, some of which are active, of the Volcanic Segment of Colombia (Monsalve–Bustamante, 2020). central and northern segments of Colombia (Monsalve–Busta- The Central Cordillera has a low–grade polymetamorphic mante, 2020) are located towards the summit of this mountain Triassic basement, with the last event recorded in the Jurassic. range. The Miocene molasse deposits of the Magdalena River This basement is intruded by Permian, Mesozoic, and some Ce- Valley and volcanoclastic fans overlies the eastern foothills of

7 GÓMEZ TAPIAS et al.

75° W 70° W Atlantic Ocean

0° Caribbean Sea

20° S

Pacic Ocean 10° N

40° S Panamá W ° 0 50° W 7 70° W

Venezuela

5° N Pacic Ocean

0°

Ecuador

Brasil

Subduction zone Thrust fault Normal fault Strike–slip fault Perú Fault Syncline 0 50 100 200 300 km Anticline

Figure 6. Geological map of Colombia. After Gómez et al. (2019).

8 Physiographic and Geological Setting of the Colombian Territory

Legend

Quaternary basaltic rocks Jurassic volcanic rocks

Quaternary volcanic rocks Jurassic plutonic rocks

Quaternary volcaniclastic rocks Triassic sedimentary rocks

Quaternary sedimentary rocks Triassic volcaniclastic rocks

Pliocene – Pleistocene volcaniclastic rocks Triassic plutonic ultramaﬁc rocks

Pliocene volcanic rocks Triassic plutonic rocks

Pliocene volcaniclastic rocks Triassic low grade metamorphic rocks

Miocene basaltic rocks Paleozoic sedimentary rocks

Neogene sedimentary rocks Permian plutonic rocks

Neogene plutonic rocks Carboniferous plutonic rocks

Paleogene – Neogene sedimentary rocks Carboniferous sedimentary rocks

Paleogene sedimentary rocks Devonian sedimentary rocks

Paleogene plutonic rocks Silurian – Devonian low grade metamorphic rocks

Paleogene volcaniclastic rocks Ordovician plutonic rocks

Cretaceous – Paleogene sedimentary rocks Ordovician low grade metamorphic rocks

Cretaceous sedimentary rocks Ordovician sedimentary rocks

Cretaceous volcanic rocks Cambrian – Ordovician sedimentary rocks

Cretaceous medium grade metamorphic rocks Neoproterozoic plutonic rocks

Cretaceous plutonic ultramaﬁc rocks Neoproterozoic volcaniclastic rocks

Cretaceous basaltic rocks Meso–Neoproterozoic high grade metamorphic rocks

Cretaceous volcaniclastic rocks Mesoproterozoic plutonic rocks

Cretaceous low grade metamorphic rocks Mesoproterozoic low grade metamorphic rocks

Cretaceous plutonic rocks Paleoproterozoic plutonic rocks

Jurassic sedimentary rocks Paleoproterozoic medium grade metamorphic rocks

Jurassic volcaniclastic rocks

this mountain range. The Cauca–Almaguer and Silvia–Pijao thick succession of Cretaceous marine and Cenozoic con- Faults, exposed in the western foothills, are the tectonic limits tinental sedimentary rocks that were deformed during the of the Colombian continental terranes. Andean Orogeny. In the Santander Massif and the western The Eastern Cordillera has a basement of Mesoproterozo- flank of the serranía de Perijá, the Jurassic record consist of ic – Neoproterozoic high–grade metamorphic rocks exposed sedimentary rocks, intrusions, and volcaniclastic sequences. in the Garzón and Santander Massifs and the serranía de La Jurassic plutons are also present in the extreme south of the Macarena. In this mountain range are also found Ordovician cordillera. South of the eastern flank, the Borde Amazónico low–grade metamorphic rocks, especially in the Santander Fault System and the Algeciras Fault mark the boundary with Massif; Paleozoic (Cambrian – Ordovician and Devonian) the Caguán–Putumayo Basin. To the north, the Borde Llanero sedimentary sequences, some of them fossiliferous; and a Fault System serves as a boundary with the Llanos Orientales

9 GÓMEZ TAPIAS et al.

75° W 70° W Atlantic Ocean 1 0° Caribbean Sea 2 3 4 1 5 20° S

7 Pacic 6 2 Ocean 10° N

8 9 40° S

1100 Panamá 3 1111 W ° 0 50° W 7 70° W 1212 4 1313

5 Venezuela 1616 1818 2020 1919 1515 6 7 1414 1177 2211 2222 2255 2233 8 2277 2244 2266 9 1010 1111 3322 2288 2929 1212 1414 3300 1313 5° N 3333 1515 3355 3311 Pacic 3636 Ocean 3344 1616 3377

3388 1010 3399 4411 1717 4400 4422 Colombia 1818

4433 4444 1919 4455

4466

Brasil 0°

Folds Ecuador 1. Sabanalarga Syncline 2. Guamo Anticline 3. Socoavo Syncline Faults 4. Zulia Syncline Subduction zone 5. Los Cobardes Anticline 1. Simarúa Fault 17. Mistrató Fault 33. Itsmina Fault Zone 6. Las Mercedes Syncline 2. Cuisa Fault 18. Espíritu Santo Fault 34. Garrapatas Fault Thrust fault 7. Samaricote Syncline 3. Oca Fault 19. Otú Fault 35. Ibagué Fault 8. Desespero Syncline 4. Sevilla Fault 20. Cimitarra Fault 36. Tesalia Fault Normal fault 9. Chiquinquirá–San José 5. Cerrejón Fault 21. Bituima Fault 37. Prado Fault de Pare Syncline 6. Sinú Fault 22. Suárez Fault 38. Silvia–Pijao Fault Strike–slip fault 10. Arcabuco Anticline 7. Santa Marta Fault 23. Boyacá Fault 39. Altamira Fault 11. Nunchía Syncline 8. Algarrobo Fault 24. Guaicáramo Fault 40. Dagua–Calima Fault Fault 12. Córdoba Syncline 9. Arena Blanca Fault 25. Mansa Fault 41. Fraile–La Pava Fault Perú 13. Checua Syncline 10. Cauca–Almaguer Fault 26. Arma Fault 42. Chusma–La Plata Fault Syncline 14. Chámeza Syncline 11. Mejía Fault 27. Palestina Fault 43. Cauca–Patía Fault 15. Teusacá Syncline 12. Bucaramanga Fault 28. Cambao Fault 44. San Jerónimo Fault Anticline 16. Prado Syncline 13. Las Mercedes Fault 29. Soapaga Fault 45. Algeciras Fault 17. Colombia Syncline 14. Los Saltos Fault 30. Borde Llanero Fault System 46. Borde Amazónico 18. Tesalia Syncline 15. Murindó Fault 31. Meta Fault Fault System 0 50 100 200 300 km 19. Tarquí Syncline 16. Uramita Fault 32. Amurrapá Fault

Figure 7. Main geological structures of Colombia. After Gómez et al. (2019).

10 Physiographic and Geological Setting of the Colombian Territory

75° W 70° W Atlantic Ocean 02 03 0° Caribbean Sea 04

Barranquilla EB 20° S

Pacic 05 Ocean 10° N 08 40° S 07 Panamá 06 W ° 0 50° W 09 7 70° W 10 EB Venezuela

EB 11 Medellín 14 Pacic 15 Ocean 16 5° N 13 Bogotá 17 12

Cali 20 21

18 19 EB EB

EB 22

0° Ecuador 23

Sedimentary basins of Colombia Brasil

01 Los Cayos 13 Chocó Offshore 02 Colombia 14 Chocó 03 Guajira Offshore 15 Amagá 04 Guajira 16 Eastern Cordillera 05 Sinú Offshore 17 Llanos Orientales 06 Sinú–San Jacinto 18 Tumaco Offshore 07 Lower Magdalena Valley 19 Tumaco 08 Cesar–Ranchería 20 Cauca–Patía Perú 09 Catatumbo 21 Upper Magdalena Valley 10 Urabá 22 Caguán–Putumayo 11 Middle Magdalena Valley 23 Vaupés–Amazonas 0 50 100 200 300 km 12 Colombia Deep Paciﬁc EB Economic basement

Figure 8. Sedimentary basins of Colombia. Modified from Pardo et al. (2007b).

11 GÓMEZ TAPIAS et al.

Basin. These geological structures mark the limit of the An- by low alluvial and flooded coasts interrupted by short cliffs dean zone over eastern Colombia. (González et al., 1998). In the serranía del Baudó, Cretaceous basalts and Paleogene 3. Caribbean Region volcaniclastic sequences are found, derived from an island arc accreted to the continental margin. In the other areas of the The Caribbean Region is between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific region, there are Paleogene and Neogene sedimentary northern foothills of the Andes. This region has 85% flat to units, and alluvial and coastal deposits of the Quaternary. undulating relief and some low–elevation hills, associated with lowland coasts, and include coastal plains, alluvial plains, salt 5. Orinoquia and Amazonian Regions flats and floodplains, mangrove plains, coastal lagoons, beaches and sandbanks, dune fields, platforms and reef bars, among The plains of the northern sector of eastern Colombia form other geomorphological features (Molina et al., 1998). The oth- Orinoquia, while the Amazonian constitutes the jungle region er 15% of the littoral corresponds to cliffs, where stands out of southeastern Colombia, where the serranía de Chiribiquete the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (SNSM), with the Cristóbal stands out. These two regions are the largest in the country, the Colón and Simón Bolívar Peaks over 5700 masl, the serranías least inhabited and the least developed. Both regions are bound- de Jarara, Macuira, Carpintero, and Cocinas in La Guajira Pen- ed to the west by the foothills of the Eastern Cordillera, while to insula; and the serranías de Abibe, Ayapel, Darién, and San the east, they extend until the borders of Brasil and Venezuela. Jerónimo in the southwestern sector. Mud diapirism and the Geographically, the boundary between the Orinoquia and the alluvial delta of the Magdalena River are important geological Amazonian regions is defined along the Guaviare River. features of this region. In Orinoquia and Amazonian, the basement is formed by The serranías de Jarara, Macuira, Carpintero and Cocinas, Paleoproterozoic and Mesoproterozoic medium– and low– located in the Alta Guajira, are composed by Triassic and Creta- grade metamorphic rocks, respectively, with Paleoproterozoic ceous low–grade metamorphic assemblages. In some areas, Ju- and Mesoproterozoic granitic intrusions and Neoproterozoic rassic intrusives are exposed, as well as Triassic and Cretaceous volcaniclastic rocks. This igneous–metamorphic assemblage is marine and Jurassic continental sedimentary rocks. part of the western sector of the Guiana Shield and is covered The SNSM is a triangular block bounded to the north by by Neoproterozoic (Ediacaran and Cryogenian), Cambrian – the Oca Fault and to the west by the Santa Marta Fault. The Ordovician, and Ordovician marine sedimentary rocks with Sevilla Fault cross the range in SW–NE direction. To the east, fossiliferous levels, exposed in mountainous areas such as ser- along the boundary with the Cesar–Ranchería Basin, are mainly ranías de Chiribiquete and La Lindosa or reported in borehole found Cretaceous marine and Cenozoic continental sedimen- cores (Dueñas–Jiménez & Montalvo–Jónsson, 2020; Dueñas– tary rocks. This basin separates it from the serranía de Perijá, Jiménez et al., 2020). Cretaceous marine and Cenozoic conti- the north extension of the Eastern Cordillera. The oldest rocks nental sedimentary rocks cover, in most of these regions, the exposed are Mesoproterozoic high–grade metamorphic rocks, oldest rocks. Ibañez–Mejia et al. (2011) indicate that in wells while Jurassic plutons conform most of the SNSM. To the located in the southwestern part of the Putumayo Basin, they northwestern corner, Triassic and Cretaceous medium to low– found Proterozoic metamorphic rocks under the sedimentary grade metamorphic rocks are intruded by a Paleogene granitoid, cover, confirming that the Proterozoic basement extends to the and to the eastern flank are found mainly Triassic and Jurassic Eastern Cordillera. sedimentary and volcaniclastic rocks. The serranías de Abibe, Ayapel, Darién, and San Jeróni- 6. Insular Region mo are formed by Paleogene sedimentary rocks surrounded by Neogene sedimentary formations and Quaternary alluvial The insular region in the Caribbean Sea comprises the archi- deposits. pelago of San Andrés and Providencia and several cays, while in the Pacific Ocean comprise the Gorgona, Gorgonilla, and 4. Pacific Region Malpelo Islands. The insular region of the Colombian Caribbean includes The coastal plains of western Colombia and some mountain three main islands: San Andrés, Providencia, and Santa Cata- ranges, such as the serranía del Baudó, make up the Pacific lina, and other smaller islands, atolls, and coral reefs (Ortiz– region. This region is a narrow fringe that extends between the Royero, 2012). Geologically, this zone is located in the Lower Pacific Ocean and the foothills of the Western Cordillera. Mor- Nicaragua Rise between the Pedro fracture zone and the Hess phologically, the northern sector has high coasts with cliffs, Escarpment (Rogers et al., 2007). beaches, and floodplains in the interior of large bays (González According to Geister & Díaz (2007), the archipelago consists et al., 1998). The central and southern parts are dominated of a platform of carbonates and reefs that cover deep volcanic

12 Physiographic and Geological Setting of the Colombian Territory cones. The authors state that according to the available informa- References tion, the atolls, islands, and coral banks to the south of the archipelago were formed around volcanoes in the early Cenozoic, Álvarez–Gutiérrez, Y., Amaya–López, C., Barbosa–Mejía, L.N., and that subsidence and settlement of carbonates over shallow Builes–Carvajal, J.B., Henao–Casas, J.D., Montoya–Cañola, areas and in the summits of the volcanoes during the Cenozo- S.M., Pacheco–Sintura, P.A., Ramírez–Hoyos, L.F., Urrego– ic and the Quaternary facilitated their formation. Additionally, Osorio, S., Zapata–Montoya, A.M., Ordóñez–Carmona, O., these features are oriented NNE, possibly following geological Restrepo–Álvarez, J.J. 2014. Descripción e interpretación structures with the same orientation (Geister & Díaz, 2007). The geológica de las Islas de Providencia y Santa Catalina. Boletín island of San Andrés comprises mainly limestone deposits of the Ciencias de la Tierra, (35): 67– 81. Pleistocene, while Providencia and Santa Catalina are part of the Bermúdez, H.D., García, J., Stinnesbeck, W., Keller, G., Rodríguez, same composite volcanic cone; they are essentially alkaline and J.V., Hanel, M., Hopp, J., Schwarz, W.H., Trieloff, M., Bolívar, calc–alkaline volcanic rocks of middle Miocene and Pliocene L. & Vega, F.J. 2016. The Cretaceous – Paleogene boundary age, respectively (Álvarez–Gutiérrez et al., 2014). To the south at Gorgonilla Island, Colombia, South America. Terra Nova, of Providencia, some intercalations of Miocene reef limestone 28(1): 83–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/ter.12196 between volcanic series and Quaternary marine sedimentary de- Bermúdez, H.D., Arenillas, I., Arz, J.A., Vajda, V., Renne, P.R., Gi- posits are located (Geister & Díaz, 2007). labert, V. & Rodríguez, J.V. 2019. The Cretaceous/Paleogene The Colombian insular region in the Pacific Ocean is made boundary deposits on Gorgonilla Island. In: Gómez, J. & Ma- up of the Gorgona and Gorgonilla Islands, the Malpelo Islet, teus–Zabala, D. (editors), The Geology of Colombia, Volume and El Viudo and El Horno rocky promontories (Díaz et al., 3 Paleogene – Neogene. Servicio Geológico Colombiano, Pu- 2001). More than 80% of the surface of the two main islands blicaciones Geológicas Especiales 37, p. 1–19. Bogotá. https:// is constituted by igneous rocks, including basal peridotites and doi.org/10.32685/pub.esp.37.2019.01 gabbros covered by basaltic lavas with komatiite flows (Díaz Díaz, J.M., Pinzón, J.H., Perdomo, A.M, Barrios, L.M. & López–Vic- et al., 2001; Echeverría, 1982; Gansser et al., 1979; Parada & toria, M. 2001. Generalidades. In: Barrios, L.M. & López– Tchegliakova, 1990). The remaining 15% corresponds to upper Victoria, M. (editors), Gorgona marina: contribución al Eocene to upper Miocene sedimentary rocks and Quaternary conocimiento de una isla única. Instituto de Investigaciones sedimentary deposits that conform beaches, small deltas of Marinas y Costeras José Benito Vives De Andreis, Publica- surface currents, and some terraces. Reef zones surround the ciones Especiales, 7: 17–26. southern part of the main island (Díaz et al., 2001). Malpelo is Dueñas–Jiménez, H. & Montalvo–Jónsson, J. 2020. Neoproterozoic a cliff formed entirely by basic volcanic rocks and in Gorgo- records of the Llanos Orientales Basin, Colombia. In: Gómez, nilla, Bermúdez et al. (2016, 2019) report the boundary of the J. & Mateus–Zabala, D. (editors), The Geology of Colombia, Cretaceous – Paleogene with the presence of tektites from the Volume 1 Proterozoic – Paleozoic. Servicio Geológico Co- Chicxulub impact. lombiano, Publicaciones Geológicas Especiales 35, p. 91–99. Bogotá. https://doi.org/10.32685/pub.esp.35.2019.05 7. Conclusions Dueñas–Jiménez, H., Corredor–Bohórquez, V.E. & Montalvo–Jóns- son, J. 2020. Paleontology of the Paleozoic rocks of the Llanos The marine and continental territory of the Republic of Colom- Orientales Basin, Colombia. In: Gómez, J. & Mateus–Zabala, bia is in the northwest of South America, where interact the D. (editors), The Geology of Colombia, Volume 1 Proterozoic Caribbean and Nazca oceanic plates and the South American – Paleozoic. Servicio Geológico Colombiano, Publicaciones continental plate. Between the Proterozoic and the Holocene Geológicas Especiales 35, p. 133–148. Bogotá. https://doi. multiple geological events originated the current physiography org/10.32685/pub.esp.35.2019.07 setting that comprises six natural regions, five major drainage Echeverría, L.M. 1982. Komatiites from Gorgona Island, Colombia. basins, 23 sedimentary basins, and diverse lithologies. In: Arndt, N.T. & Nisbet, E.G. (editors), Komatiites. George Allen & Unwin, p. 199–209. London, UK. Acknowledgements Gansser, A., Dietrich, V.J. & Cameron, W.E. 1979. Palaeogene komatiites from Gorgona Island. Nature, 278: 545–546. https://doi. Authors recognize the support provided by the management of org/10.1038/278545a0 the Servicio Geológico Colombiano, especially by the director Geister, J. & Díaz, J.M. 2007. Ambientes arrecifales y geología de un general Dr. Oscar PAREDES ZAPATA, for the writing of this archipiélago oceánico: San Andrés, Providencia y Santa Cata- chapter. The geologist Ana María PATIÑO ACEVEDO support- lina, Mar Caribe, Colombia; con guía de campo. Ingeominas, ed the style review. 114 p. Bogotá.

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Gómez, J., Montes, N.E., Nivia, Á. & Diederix, H., compilers. 2015. pectos erosivos del Litoral Caribe colombiano. Publicaciones Geological Map of Colombia 2015. Scale 1:1 000 000. Ser- Geológicas Especiales del Ingeominas, (21): 1–73. Bogotá. vicio Geológico Colombiano, 2 sheets. Bogotá. https://doi. Monsalve–Bustamante, M.L. 2020. The volcanic front in Colombia: org/10.32685/10.143.2015.936 Segmentation and recent and historical activity. In: Gómez, J. Gómez, J., Nivia, Á., Montes, N.E., Diederix, H., Almanza, M.F., & Pinilla–Pachon, A.O. (editors), The Geology of Colombia, Alcárcel, F.A. & Madrid, C.A. 2015b. Explanatory notes: Volume 4 Quaternary. Servicio Geológico Colombiano, Publi- Geological Map of Colombia. In: Gómez, J. & Almanza, M.F. caciones Geológicas Especiales 38, p. 97–159. Bogotá. https:// (editors), Compilando la geología de Colombia: Una visión doi.org/10.32685/pub.esp.38.2019.03 a 2015. Servicio Geológico Colombiano, Publicaciones Ortiz–Royero, J.C. 2012. Exposure of the Colombian Caribbean coast, Geológicas Especiales 33, p. 35–60. Bogotá. including San Andrés Island, to tropical storms and hurricanes, Gómez, J., Schobbenhaus, C. & Montes, N.E., compilers. 2019. 1900–2010. Natural Hazards, 61(2):815–827. https://doi. Geological Map of South America 2019. Scale 1:5 000 000. org/10.1007/s11069-011-0069-1 Commission for the Geological Map of the World (CGMW), Parada, C. & Tchegliakova, N.N. 1990. Foraminíferos y sedimentos Colombian Geological Survey and Geological Survey of Bra- de Playa Blanca, Isla Gorgona. Geología Colombiana, (17): zil. Paris. https://doi.org/10.32685/10.143.2019.929 227–237. González, J.L., Marín, L., Martínez, J.O. & Carvajal, J.H. 1998. Geo- Pardo, A., Barrero, D., Vargas, C.A. & Martínez, J.F. 2007a. Sedimen- morfología y aspectos erosivos del Litoral Pacífico colombia- tary basins of Colombia: Geological framework. In: Barrero, no. Publicaciones Geológicas Especiales del Ingeominas, (21): D., Pardo, A., Vargas, C.A. & Martínez, J.F. (editors), Colom- 75–111. Bogotá. bian Sedimentary Basins: Nomenclature, boundaries and pe- Ibañez–Mejia, M., Ruiz, J., Valencia, V.A., Cardona, A., Gehrels, G.E. troleum geology, a new proposal. ANH and B&M Exploration & Mora, A.R. 2011. The Putumayo Orogen of Amazonia and Ltda., p. 14–20. Bogotá. its implications for Rodinia reconstructions: New U–Pb geo- Pardo, A., Vargas, C.A., Barrero, D. & Martínez, J.F. 2007b. Review chronological insights into the Proterozoic tectonic evolution of of nomenclature and boundaries of Colombian basins. In: Ba- northwestern South America. Precambrian Research, 191(1–2): rrero, D., Pardo, A., Vargas, C.A. & Martínez, J.F. (editors), 58–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2011.09.005 Colombian Sedimentary Basins: Nomenclature, boundaries Instituto de Hidrología, Meteorología y Estudios Ambientales and petroleum geology, a new proposal. ANH and B&M Ex- (IDEAM). 2013. Zonificación y codificación de unidades ploration Ltda., p. 22–52. Bogotá. hidrográficas e hidrogeológicas de Colombia. Comité de Co- Rogers, R.D., Mann, P. & Emmet, P.A. 2007. Tectonic terranes of the municaciones y Publicaciones del IDEAM, 47 p. Bogotá Chortis Block based on integration of regional aeromagnetic Instituto Geográfico Agustín Codazzi (IGAC). 1999. Mapa oficial and geologic data. In: Mann, P. (editor), Geologic and tec- político–administrativo de Colombia. Bogotá. tonic development of the Caribbean Plate in northern Central Molina, L.E., Pérez, F., Martínez, J.O., Franco, J.V., Marín, L., America. Geological Society of America, Special Paper 428, González, J.L. & Carvajal, J.H. 1998. Geomorfología y as- p. 65–88. https://doi.org/10.1130/2007.2428(04)

Explanation of Acronyms, Abbreviations, and Symbols:

SNSM Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta

14 Physiographic and Geological Setting of the Colombian Territory

Authors’ Biographical Notes

Jorge GÓMEZ TAPIAS is a geolo- Ciencia y Tecnología and the Asociación Colombiana para el Avance gist and has worked as a cartographer de la Ciencia; she was also in charge of the writing and proofreading at the Servicio Geológico Colombiano of texts written in Spanish and English and conducted the editorial for 20 years, during which time, he has review of the chapters. authored approximately 70 geological maps. He is the coordinator of the Fernando Alirio ALCÁRCEL–GU- Grupo Mapa Geológico Colombiano of TIÉRREZ is a geologist who graduated the Dirección de Geociencias Básicas, from the Universidad Nacional de Co- which was recognized by Colciencias as lombia and a is specialist in geomatics a research group in 2017. GÓMEZ is the graduated from the Universidad Militar first author of the Geological Map of Colombia at a scale of 1:1 M Nueva Granada. He has been part of the –editions 2007 and 2015– and of the 26 map sheets of the Geological Grupo Mapa Geológico de Colombia Atlas of Colombia at a scale of 1:500 K and is the co–editor of the since 2012. He has co–authored several book Compilando la geología de Colombia: Una visión a 2015. Since publications from the group, including February 2018, he has served as vice president for South America the Catálogo de dataciones radiométri- on the Commission for the Geological Map of the World. He was a cas de Colombia en ArcGIS y Google Earth, and he is also the first co–coordinator and the first author of the Geological Map of South author of the informative Geological Map of Colombia 2019 at a scale America at a scale of 1:5 M 2019. Since October 2020, he was elect- of 1:2 M. ALCÁRCEL has extensive experience in the vectorization ed as a member of the International Union of Geological Sciences and digitization of graphic material for scientific publications, which is (IUGS) Nominating Committee for the term 2020–2024. Currently, why he is the main graphic artist for The Geology of Colombia and is in he is the editor–in–chief of The Geology of Colombia. GÓMEZ is in charge of elaborating and improving the figures and maps. charge of coordinating all the activities related to the project and the editorial process. Rubby Melissa LASSO–MUÑOZ is a geological engineer who graduated from Alberto NÚÑEZ–TELLO is a geolo- the Universidad Nacional de Colombia gist who graduated from the Universidad Sede Medellín in 2016. LASSO has Nacional de Colombia and is a special- worked in the petroleum industry and ist in environmental management and conducted science outreach with com- disaster prevention for the Universidad munities. Since 2019, she has worked on del Tolima. He has worked for 32 years the Grupo Mapa Geológico de Colombia at the Servicio Geológico Colombiano in the Servicio Geológico Colombiano in different positions, including that of and has been in charge of coordinating technical director. His main interest is in the project promotion and the science outreach activities. She is also regional geological mapping and geolog- responsible for updating The Geology of Colombia website and pro- ical risk management. ducing text, graphics, and audiovisual content for it.

Daniela MATEUS–ZABALA is a geol- Eliana MARÍN–RINCÓN is a geolo- ogist who graduated from the Universi- gist who graduated from the Universidad dad Nacional de Colombia Sede Bogotá de Caldas in 2017. In the editorial pro- in 2016 and is a copyeditor of scientific cess of The Geology of Colombia, she is and science outreach texts. She has par- in charge of preparing and adjusting the ticipated in geological and geomorpho- chapters’ figures. MARÍN also supports logical mapping projects, petrographic the science outreach events through gen- and geochemical characterization of eral logistics management and maintains rocks, and geochemical evaluation of the correspondence with and databases soils. Since 2017, she has been part of of participants. the Grupo Mapa Geológico de Colombia and is a deputy editor of The Geology of Colombia. In this editorial project, she supported the coordination of the editorial process stages and coordinated the advi- sory work for the project provided by the Observatorio Colombiano de

15 GÓMEZ TAPIAS et al.

María Paula MARROQUÍN–GÓMEZ is a geoscientist who graduated from the Universidad de los Andes in 2019, where she completed her studies with the finan- cial support of Bachilleres por Colombia Ecopetrol scholarship. She has been part of the Grupo Mapa Geológico de Colom- bia since 2019, supporting the editorial and thematic reviews for The Geology of Colombia by ensuring the clarity and consistency of the chapters.