Traditional use of medicinal in the Chyangthapu-Phalaicha biological sub-corridor, Panchthar District, Kangchenjunga Landscape,

Prabin Bhandari (  [email protected] ) Institute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0199-8656 Min Bahadur Gurung Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology, Chandra Kanta Subedi Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University Ram Prasad Chaudhary Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University Khadga Bahadur Basnet Tribhuvan University - Birat Science Campus Janita Gurung International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Lalitpur, Nepal Yadav Uprety Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Ajay Neupane Tribhuvan University - Mechi Multiple Campus Krishna Kumar Shrestha Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal

Research

Keywords: Ethnobotany, Indigenous knowledge, Ailments/diseases, Quantitative analysis, East Nepal, East Himalaya

Posted Date: October 28th, 2020

DOI: https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-96892/v1

License:   This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Read Full License

Page 1/26 Abstract

Background: Chyangthapu-Phalaicha located in the northeastern Panchthar District, is a biodiversity hotspot in the Eastern Himalaya. The area is dominated by the Kirat indigenous community. The present study was conducted to document the knowledge of the ethnomedicinal uses and practices that exist in the area before the associated socio-cultural knowledge on biological diversity is lost.

Methods: Ethnomedicinal data were collected through three focus group discussions and 47 key informant interviews using semi-structured questionnaires. The importance of medicinal was assessed using quantitative indices such as informant consensus factor, relative frequency of citation, relative importance, fdelity level and Rahman’s similarity index.

Results: Altogether, 140 medicinal plant species from 68 families and 127 genera were reported, which were used to treat 12 diseases categories. The dominant families were Asteraceae and Fabaceae which contributed eight species each. Fifty-fve percent of the total medicinal plant species comprised of herbs. The most frequently used plant parts were underground parts (33%) and leaf (15%). The most common remedies preparation method was extract. Oral administration was the most common therapeutic mode (60%). Maximum informant consensus factor (0.96) was calculated for gastrointestinal diseases. The highest relative frequency of citation and fdelity level was observed for Swertia chirayita (0.83 and 100% respectively). Artemisia dubia depicted the highest relative importance (91.67). A thorough review of previous literature and analysis of feld data revealed 90 new therapeutic use reports for 42 ailments belonging to 64 plant species.

Conclusions: The ethnomedicinal study of the Chyangthapu-Phalaicha biological sub-corridor in the Kangchenjunga Landscape indicates that the area supports signifcant medicinal plants and associated traditional knowledge. The varied use of reported medicinal plants in the area indicates the need for their cultivation, processing and phytochemical investigation, especially for those with high ethnobotanical indices.

Background

Mountain people living in remote areas have a sound harmony with nature along with a deep understanding of interacting sustainably with it [1, 2]. They developed skills, beliefs and practices in order to maintain a healthy ecosystem [1]. They use a variety of plant resources for livelihood security, fnancial income and more importantly, for physical health [3-5]. Considering that about 25% of modern drugs are derived from plants [6-8], the traditional knowledge of indigenous communities is important in the preparation of herbal remedies and in the isolation of bioactive constituents, which may lead to the discovery of novel drugs [9-12]. Traditional remedies are cheap, easy and sustainable options over modern drugs, so the existing knowledge of indigenous people on plants and their traditional uses need to be documented systematically [13, 14]. However, socio-economic transformation, land-use change, over-exploitation of natural resources and climate change are factors contributing to the worldwide loss of biological resources and the associated traditional knowledge [15-18]. In addition, the lack of interest among the younger generation in traditional herbal therapies and their preference for modern medicines has made the indigenous knowledge vulnerable [19].

About 2,000 plant species are reported to have medicinal value in Nepal [20], and 85% of the population is dependent on traditional herbal medicine for primary health care [21]. Regardless of the wide use of herbal medicine, the associated traditional knowledge of medicinal plant species is gradually disappearing with increasing urbanization, out-migration and climate change [22, 23]. The Chyangthapu-Phalaicha biological sub-corridor within the Eastern Nepal Conservation Corridor in the Kangchenjunga Landscape is a human-inhabited landscape of cultural and ecological signifcance [24, 25]. While this area is gradually growing towards urbanization, there is still a high incidence of poverty in the area (approximately 10% of the population) and outmigration is also very high [25]. Growing urbanization and increasing youth outmigration for better economic opportunities will have a major impact on the transfer of indigenous knowledge to younger generations resulting in the depletion of traditional knowledge. Hence, documenting the local medicinal plants, traditional uses, and formulating guidelines for their conservation and management are important. The present study was, therefore, carried out in the Chyangthapu- Phalaicha biological sub-corridor to document the medicinal plant species and their traditional use patterns within the local community. The information generated will potentially contribute to the conservation and sustainable use of local plant resources [26], along with the preservation of cultural and genetic diversity [27, 28].

Methods

Study area

The Kangchenjunga Landscape (KL) in the Eastern Himalaya is a transboundary landscape that connects adjoining areas of Nepal, , and [29]. This landscape is connected through seven conservation corridors (Fig. 1) and exhibits exceptionally rich biodiversity with three Important Bird Areas (IBA) and 18 Important Plant Areas (IPAs) [24, 25]. This landscape is also a part of the “Himalaya” biodiversity hotspot, one of the 36 global biodiversity hotspots accommodating diverse ecosystems, species and genetic resources of global importance [25].

Chyangthapu-Phalaicha biological sub-corridor is a part of the East Nepal Conservation Corridor of Kangchenjunga Landscape. Located in the northeastern part of Yangawarak Rural Municipality (RM), Panchthar District, Eastern Nepal (Fig. 1), the sub-corridor borders with Barsey Sanctuary, , India in the east, Falelung RM in the south, Hilihang RM in the west, and in the north (Fig. 1). The altitude ranges from 1600 m asl (meter above sea level) at Chyangthapu village to 4500 m asl at Timbu Pokhari. The climatic condition of the area is subtropical at the lower elevations, temperate in the mid-hills, and subalpine and alpine at the higher elevations.

The area is dominated by the indigenous Kirats (Limbu, Rai), followed by Gurung, Brahmins, Chhetris, and other caste and ethnic groups [30]. Livelihood strategies of local communities cover both on-farm and off-farm activities. Agriculture is the major livelihood strategy and includes mixed farming systems of

Page 2/26 crop production and animal husbandry. The major cultivated crops are paddy, millet, maize, and wheat. Cash crop production of large cardamom is highly signifcant [31]. Animal husbandry is an integral part of agriculture systems in the sub-corridor. While stall-fed livestock, including cows, goats, and pigs are kept at the lower elevations, yaks, and yak-crossbreeds (i.e. Chauri) are maintained at the higher elevations with some families engaged in transhumance [32, 33].

Fig. 1 Map of Study Area: A. Kangchenjunga Landscape (source: [29]), B. East Nepal Conservation Corridor, C. Yangawarak RM

Data collection and plant identifcation

Ethnobotanical data were collected between September 2016 and October 2017. Information on the medicinal plant use was gathered through focus group discussions (FGD) and key informant interviews (KII) with local healers, herders, and other knowledgeable individuals. Semi-structured questionnaires were prepared to facilitate the FGDs and KIIs. Three FGDs were organized in different localities of the Chyangthapu-Phalaicha sub-corridor, and interviews were conducted with 47 informants (19 females and 28 males) whose ages ranged from 31 to 80. Before conducting the interviews, information about the Kangchenjunga Landscape was provided and a prior informed consent was sought from interviewees who granted it on condition that the collected data would be used only for academic purposes.

The questionnaires were designed to collect data on: (i) vernacular names of the plants, (ii) ailments/diseases treated by using the plant species, (iii) preparation of remedies, and (iv) therapeutic administration. Other information including the informant’s name, age, occupation and the geographic locality and date of the interview were also noted.

The collected plant specimens [34] were identifed using standard foras and taxonomic literature [35-41] and by consulting digital databases of the National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories (KATH) and Herbarium of the University of (TI). The collected specimens were deposited in the Tribhuvan University Central Herbarium (TUCH). Specimens collected from the Chyangthapu-Phalaicha by other researchers and deposited at KATH and TI are also cited in Table 1 with corresponding voucher number. The nomenclature of the family followed APG IV [42]. TROPICOS and The Plant of the World were consulted for authentication of the species name.

Ethnobotanical data analysis

The data were analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative approaches. The collected data were generalized qualitatively to document the medicinal plants diversity, their life forms, habitat and plant parts utilization. The quantitative analysis included calculation of ethnobotanical indices as follows:

Informant consensus factor (ICF)

This quantitative tool is used to test the homogeneity of knowledge among informants; ICF was calculated as [43]

Where Nur refers to the number of uses reported for a specifc use category, and Nt refers to the number of taxa used for a particular use category by all informants. Informants consensus factor (ICF) values are low (near 0) when plants are selected randomly or when there is no exchange of information about their use among informants, and approach one (1) when there is a well-defned selection criterion in the community and/or if the information is exchanged between informants [44].

Relative frequency of citation (RFC)

RFC is calculated to identify the plant species most used by the local people [45]. The RFC value is‘0’ when no one refers to the plant as being useful and ‘1’ when all the informants refer to the plant as being useful. RFC is calculated as

Where, ‘FC’ denotes the number of informants who mention the use of the species, and N denotes the total number of informants.

Page 3/26 Results

Diversity of medicinal plant species and their uses

Page 4/26 Altogether 140 medicinal plant species, including three pteridophyte species, 1 gymnosperm species and 136 angiosperms species belonging to 127 genera and 68 families were reported (Table 1). Thirty families were represented by two or more species, whereas 38 families were represented by a single species each (see details in Table 1). Asteraceae and Fabaceae were the dominant families each contributing eight species, followed by Rosaceae and Poaceae each with six species. The therapeutic dominancy of Asteraceae and Fabaceae is associated with the wide and common distribution of the family in Nepal and adjoining areas [49-58].

Fifty-fve percent of the total medicinal plant species constituted herbs followed by trees (25%), (11%), and climbers (9%) (Fig. 2). Such dominance of herbs as medicinal plants is comparable with other research fndings from Nepal and neighbouring countries [59-63]. Wide distribution and easy access favour the collection of herbs over other life forms such as shrubs and trees [64]. The presence of bioactive compounds like alkaloids, phenolic and cyanogenic glycosides in herbs [65] makes them able to treat a majority of ailments [66].

A total of 83% (116 species) of medicinal plants were harvested by the local communities from the wild, while the remaining 17% (24 species) were cultivated in home gardens. Similar fndings have been reported by independent studies from other parts of the world [58, 67-70]. The species harvested from the wild include 110 native species, 2 invasive alien plant species (IAPs) and four naturalized species. The species cultivated in home gardens comprise 18 introduced species and fve native species. A wild buckwheat species, Eskemurkerjea megacarpum (), endemic to west and central Nepal [71], was cultivated in the study area for its medicinal value [60]. The majority of the IAPs and naturalized species were used for healing cuts and wounds [49, 52, 53, 62, 63, 72], while the majority of cultivated-introduced species (for example, Saccharum ofcinarum) were used to treat jaundice [72-75] (see Table 1 for details).

Table 1 Medicinal plant species used by the indigenous peoples’ and local communities of Chyangthapu-Phalaicha biological sub-corridor

Preparation of remedies: Bu (burnt), Co (cooked), Ch (chewing) Es. Ol (essential oil), Ex (extract), Pa (paste), Pi (pickled), Po (porridge), Pw (powder), Ra (raw), Ro (roasted), Sq (squeezed), Va (vapour), Wa (warmed)

Administrative route: O (Oral), T (Topical), I (Inhalation)

Habit: C (climber), H (Herb), S (), T (Tree)

Habitat: C(e) = cultivated-endemic, C(i) = cultivated-introduced, C(n) = cultivated-native, W(ia) = wild-IAPS, W(na) = wild-native, W(nt) = wild-naturalized

The number and letter in parenthesis after the Latin names represent the voucher specimens number and the housed herbaria respectively, while ‘*’ represents the species whose samples were not collected.

Fig. 2 Life forms of medicinal plant species in the study area

Utilization of plant parts

Plant parts including the , rhizome, tuber, stem bark, latex, leaf, aerial shoot, fower, fruit and seed and their exudates were used either singly or in combination with other parts. In some cases, multiple parts of a single species were used such that the total number of species exceed 140. The most common used plant parts were underground parts (i.e. root, rhizome, tuber-33%) followed by leaf (15%), bark (15%), fruit/seed (15%), whole plant (7%), and others (i.e. fower, latex, mature shoot, young shoot, stem, and wool for a collective total of 15%) (Fig. 3). The dominant use of underground parts may be linked to the presence of bioactive compounds in these parts [76-78]. These results agree with the previous studies [23, 49, 50, 63, 79-85]. Harvesting of the underground parts must be monitored at regular intervals for the sustainable use of the medicinal plant species [23, 86].

Fig. 3 Number of species and plant parts used

Preparation and administration of remedies

The local people in the study area use different preparation methods for administrating the remedies i.e. extract, chewing, paste, raw, powder, burnt, cooked and others. The most common method of preparing remedies was the extract i.e. decoction, juice and infusion (53%), followed by chewing (19%), paste (12%), raw (4%), powder (3%), burnt and cooked (2% each), and others (5%) (Table 2). Although there was no standardization for remedies administration [8, 76], the quantity and concentration of remedies depended on the age, illness, and diagnosis of the disease [87, 88]. Children were given lower doses, while for adults the type of diseases and their severity were the determining factors [74, 83]. Most of the remedies were given twice a day until recovery [89-91]. The measurement unit was not standardized [67], instead traditional techniques were used for weighing. The extract was either administered using a teaspoon (~ 5 ml) or diluted in a glass of water. Most of these remedies used water as a solvent for extraction. In some cases, honey, cow milk, egg, rock sugar, salt, and mouse droppings were used as additives. For example, a small piece (1 choito ~ 5-10 gm) of a rhizome of Nardostachys jatamansi was chewed twice a day to treat dysentery. A pinch (1 chimti ~ 5-10 gm) bark powder of Psidium guajava, dissolved in 500 ml water was consumed twice daily to treat diarrhea and vomiting. One handful (1 muthi) leaves of Taxus wallichiana was boiled in about 750 ml (1 mana) of water, and the extract was consumed twice a day to treat jaundice. A mixture of powdered Viscum album, honey (5 ml), cow milk (10 ml) and an egg was consumed to treat body pain. In case of hematuria and dysuria, a solution of Cissampelos pariera, Ocimum basilicum, Centella asiatica and rock sugar was left overnight under the open sky and consumed in the early morning. A paste of Urtica parvifora (root) and mouse droppings was effective against dog bites. Several wild plants were consumed as fresh fruits (Cassia fstula, Euodia fraxinifolia, Heracleum nepalense, Rhus javanica), while other plant parts such as tubers (Nephrolepis cordifolia), root/rhizome (Acorus calamus, Costus speciosus, Nardostachys jatamansi) and fowers () were consumed raw for their nutritional and medicinal value.

The method of preparing and mode of administrating herbal remedies are related to the bioactive compounds present in the plant extract [72, 92]. Oral and topical modes of administration have been the preferred, easiest, and most effective practice in delivering bioactive compounds into the body [61, 72, 76, 81,

Page 5/26 82, 93]. In the present study, oral administration was reported for the majority of remedies (63%), followed by topical administration (32%) and inhalation (5%) (Table 3). Nine species were inhaled either as vapour or as smoke. The hot vapour by boiling young shoots of Justicia adhatoda and the smoke from burning aerial parts of Drymaria cordata were inhaled twice a day to treat sinusitis [94-96]. The smoke of the burnt fruit of Solanaum viarum was directed towards an infected tooth to overcome the associated pain. The smoke of burnt seeds of Heracleum nepalense was inhaled to treat sneezing and the common cold [30], indicating that the inhalation mode was used to treat the respiratory disorders.

Altogether, 48% (68 species) of the total species cured single ailments, while 29% (40 species) cured two and 23% (32 species) cured three or more ailments (Table 1). Lobelia pyramidalis cured six ailments, while Artemisia dubia, Astilbe rivularis, Rhododendron arboreum, Urtica parvifora and armatum each cured fve ailments. The plant species were used either singly or in combination to treat one or several ailments. Ficus benghalensis, Ficus religiosa, Magnolia champaca, and Rhododendron arboreum were used in combination to treat epileptic disorder. A mixture of Astilbe rivularis, australe, and Viscum album was used for body pain and ankle sprain. The paste of Clematis buchananiana, Pouzolzia zeylanica, and Ulmus laceifolia was useful for bone fracture and dislocation. The solution prepared by mixing Equisetum diffusum, Nasturtium ofcinale and Raphanus sativus was consumed to treat jaundice. The combined action of different species is believed to increase the catalytic activity of the medicinal constituents and accelerates its assimilation within the body [97]. The multiple uses of these species for curing different ailments also refect their widespread adoption of these species [82].

Table 2 Preparation methods for different remedies

Table 3 Administration mode for different remedies

Medicinal plant species and ailment categories

The reported medicinal plant species were used to treat 59 different health disorders in the study area. These health disorders were categorized into 12 ailment categories (Table 4). The majority of the plant species were used to treat gastrointestinal disorders (52 species), followed by general disorders (49 species) and respiratory disorders (46 species). The other categories included musculoskeletal disorders (26 species), dermatological disorders (11 species), cardiovascular disorders (7 species), genitourinary disorders (6 species), antidote, gynaecological disorders, neurological and nervous system disorders (5 species each) and socio-culture bound syndromes (2 species). The prevalence of treatments for gastrointestinal disorders was likely due to malnutrition, poor hygiene, irregular dietary routine and contaminated drinking water [64, 84, 98, 99]. Respiratory disorders can be associated with long-term exposure to indoor air pollution from traditional biomass-based fuel-wood burning and tobacco smoking [100-103]. Musculoskeletal disorders could be linked with the region’s difcult topography, labor-intensive lifestyle of the local people and the long-term conditions of other pathogenic processes [64, 104].

Quantitative analysis of ethnomedicinal use

Informant consensus factor

Informant consensus factor (ICF) tests the homogeneity of knowledge among informants in the use of plant species to treat particular ailment categories [43, 44]. In this study, the ICF was calculated for 12 ailments categories, and the range varied from 0 to 0.96 (Table 4). The highest ICF (0.96) was reported for socio-culture bound syndromes and comprised two species (Heracleum nepalense and Ligusticopsis wallichiana) with 26 use reports. This indicates that the information related to the use of these two species is well exchanged among members of the community. The ICF of musculoskeletal disorders was 0.92 with 26 species and 305 use reports followed by respiratory diseases (0.9) with 46 species and 432 use reports. The ailment category ‘sensorial disease’ has the lowest degree of consensus (0) where only two informants cited two plant species (Artemisia dubia and Iresine herbstii) suggesting no exchange of information about their uses among the informants. The socio-culture bound syndrome was preferably treated with herbal medicine [105] because there is no synthetic treatment available [106]. These species should be given priority as they represent the cultural identity of the area [106, 107]. Furthermore, detailed phytochemical screening of species showing high informant consensus can aid in the transfer of local knowledge to the global level [63, 108].

Table 4 Therapeutic/Administration categories of plant species with corresponding informant consensus factor values

Relative frequency of citation

The RFC value showed a wide range varying from 2% to 86%. The most commonly mentioned MP was Swertia chirayita (43 citations, 86% RFC), which was primarily used for the treatment of fever [49, 72, 83]. This plant is commonly known as a bitter tonic in the traditional medicinal system and is used for the treatment of fever and other ailments [72, 109]. The other most cited species were Neopicrorhiza scrophulariifora (42 citations, 84% RFC), followed by Aconitum laciniatum and Viscum album each with 41 citations (RFC 83%), used for the treatment of multiple disorders [21, 50, 59, 60, 63]. These plants have high antimicrobial, antiseptic and anti-infammatory properties [110, 111], and were being used for similar therapeutic purposes in different localities [20, 21, 72, 83]. The high use value of these species may be attributed to easy availability, common distribution, and widespread information about their therapeutic uses within the community [112]. The RFC of the reported medicinal plant species was 21% on average and only 16.4% species (23 species) have over 25 citations. This indicates that only few species are popular among the local communities, and immediate action is needed to preserve and document the plant species, especially those with high citations and the associated ethnomedicinal knowledge [49]. The RFC of all the reported species is shown in Table 1.

Relative importance

The RI measures the usefulness of the plant species and is derived from several indicators, such as pharmacological properties of the plant species (ailments treated in our case) and the number of body systems treated [46]. The most useful species in our study area were Artemisia dubia, Zanthoxylum armatum and Urtica parvifora (92 each) followed by Rhododendron arboreum (82), Neopicrorhiza scrophulariifora and Astilbe rivularis (73 each) (Table 1). The high RI of

Page 6/26 these species shows their potential to cure various ailments, possesses strong pharmacological properties, and their wide use by the local communities [46, 76].

Fidelity level

The FL index denotes the most preferred plant species used in the study area to cure a particular ailment/disease [47]. Of the 140 medicinal plant species in total, 36 species were cited by 15 informants or more (Table 5). The major ailment was chosen based on the number of citations. The FL index ranges from 79.49% to 100%. The most preferred MP species was Swertia chirayita which was used to treat fever (100%, 43 citations), followed by Ageratina adenophora used to treat cuts and wounds (100%, 35 citations), Aconitum ferox used to treat fever (100%, 34 citations), Saussurea gossypiphora used to treat cuts and wounds (100%, 33 citations), Rheum australe used to treat body pain (100%, 31 citations), Ulmus lanceifolia used to treat bone fracture and dislocation (100%, 29 citations) and others (Table 5). The high popularity of these plant species could be attributed to their high healing potential of a particular ailment and the widespread knowledge among the informants about their uses [76]. However, the plants with low FL or RI value should not be deemed of minor importance. The low value could mean that the traditional knowledge associated with those plant species is not being exchanged or transmitted and is on the brink of extinction [113]. For example, the leaves of Artemisia dubia were heated over fre and applied around the eyes to reduce the pain, but only a single informant cited this therapeutic use. The single citation for this therapeutic use may be because the informants did not share the information, or synthetic drugs replaced its traditional use.

Table 5 Fidelity level of most important plant species in the study area

N = the total number of informants citing the plant species for any ailments, Np = number of respondents citing the plant species for a particular ailment.

Reliability of indigenous use reports

Indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants varies with socio-economic, demographic, historical and ecological status [114, 115]. Using a certain quantitative index, indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants in one area can be compared with others. A new ethnobiological similarity index, ‘Rahman’s similarity index (RSI)’ [48] has recently been proposed, which compares the present study with published data from an allied, regional, national and global sources. In our study, the data was compared to 36 published literature from Nepal, the Himalayan region, the Tibetan Plateau and East Asia. The percentage of Rahman similarity varied between 0 and 12.57 among the allied area (Table 6). The highest RSI value (0.12, 12.57%) corresponds to the studies in , East Nepal [116], followed by the studies in neighbouring districts of Nepal [72, 117] and adjacent areas of the Eastern Himalaya [52, 83]. The similarity index gradually decreased from East to West Nepal and reached zero with the Western Himalaya [57] and East Asian studies [70, 80]. The high degree of similarity with the surrounding areas can be attributed to the similar type of vegetation, geography and culture shared among each other [76].

Comparative analysis of this study with published literature [21, 22, 30, 49-53, 58-63, 69, 70, 72-83, 96, 112, 113, 116, 118-124] revealed some novel therapeutic uses of plant species. In total, 90 therapeutic uses were newly reported for 42 ailments representing 64 plant species (denoted as NR in Table 1). The newly documented use reports need further phytochemical research to validate the traditionally used system and to provide new insights into medical sciences.

Table 6 Rahman’s similarity index comparing the present study with previous studies

NRSAA: number of recorded plants species of aligned areas, TSCBA: Total species common in both area, SEOAA: Species enlisted only in aligned areas, SEOOA: Species enlisted only in our study area, CSSU: Common species with similar uses

Threats to ethnomedicinal plant species and conservation practices

Although over 2,000 plant species are used to treat various therapeutic ailments/diseases in Nepal [20], many people continue to suffer from various diseases each year. Poverty, lack of modern health care and sanitation facilities, and poor governance are among the most important reasons [23]. The distribution of medicinal plants and associated indigenous knowledge is not uniform across the country [125], and a huge gap in knowledge sharing has been observed within different communities [21, 84, 125]. Traditional knowledge transmission is declining primarily due to rapid innovations in modern allopathic medicines and changes in social trends and cultural beliefs [126].

Medicinal plants and biodiversity are threatened by habitat fragmentation and degradation within the Chyangthapu-Phalaicha biological sub-corridor. The ongoing developmental process, such as highway construction through prime forests and (Ailurus fulgens) habitat and the construction of several rural roads without proper environmental impact assessment, is a major cause of habitat fragmentation. Furthermore, the increased vehicle trafc along this highway is also likely to cause both physical and mental disturbances to the wildlife in the area. The areas adjacent to the Chyangthapu-Phalaicha biological sub-corridor, i.e. the Barsey Rhododendron Sanctuary in Sikkim and Singhalila National Park in , are managed by the Government of India as protected areas. Unlike these areas in KL-India, the protection and monitoring of the Chyangthapu-Phalaicha biological sub-corridor is fairly low in Nepal.

Tables

Table 1 Medicinal plant species used by the indigenous peoples’ and local communities of Chyangthapu-Phalaicha biological sub-corridor

Page 7/26 Latin name Vernacular name Habit Habitat Part(s) Preparation TA Ailment(s) Previous RFC RelPH RelBs used of cured use remedies reports (NR = new report) PTERIDOPHYTE Equisetaceae Equisetum Salli bisalli/ Ram H W(na) Whole Ex O Jaundice, NR 0.12 0.33 0.4 diffusum D.Don baan, Kurkure plant Menstrual [P522, TUCH] (;NnLaL;NnL, /fd disorders jf0f\, s's{'/]) Nephrolepidaceae Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) Pani amala H W(na) Tuber Ex, Ch O Indigestion, [21] 0.06 0.33 0.4 C.Presl (kfgL cdnf) Dehydration [P545, TUCH] Pteridaceae Cheilanthes albomarginata Kali sinka H W(na) Leaf- Ra T used in ear NR 0.1 0.17 0.2 C.B.Clarke (sfnL l;Gsf) after piercing [P569, TUCH] agianst bacterial infection Pteris biaurita L.* Thade Uniyo H W(na) Rhizome Ex T Cut and [21, 83] 0.2 0.17 0.2 (7f8] plgo") wound GYMNOSPERMS Taxaceae Taxus wallichiana Zucc.* Loth salla T W(na) Leaf, Ex O Body pain, NR 0.26 0.33 0.4 (nf]7 ;Nnf) Bark Jaundice ANGIOSPERMS Acanthaceae Justicia adhatoda L. Asuro S W(na) Leaf Ex O Fever [21, [P661, TUCH] (c;'/f]) 118, 119] Young Va I Sinusitis [118] 0.1 0.33 0.4 shoot Thunbergia coccinea Wall. Kag chuche C W(na) Leaf Ex T Cut and [21] 0.06 0.33 0.4 [D208, KATH] lagara/Kanase wound (sfu r"Rr]) Sq I Sinusitis NR Acoraceae Acorus calamus L. Bojho H W(na) Rhizome Ch O Fever, [21, 22, 0.44 0.50 0.6 [P562, TUCH] (af]emf]) Common cold 52, 62, 63, 73, 82, 83, 118, 119, 121] Ex T Scabies [21, 30, 50, 83, 121] strigosa Hook.f. Theki phal C W(na) Root Ex T Bone fracture NR 0.1 0.33 0.4 & Thomson (7]sL kmn) and [9263245, TI] dislocation, Muscular swelling and sprain DC.* Gogan T W(na) Bark Ex O Fever [21] 0.02 0.17 0.2 (uf]ug) Adoxaceae Viburnum Ghodakhori S W(na) Seed Es. Ol T Fungal NR 0.06 0.17 0.2 cylindricum Buch.-Ham. ex (3f]8f vf]/L) infection D.Don* Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera L. Rato Akhle/ H W(na) Root Ex O Tonsillitis, [21, 62, 0.62 0.50 0.6 [P561, TUCH] Datiban Dysentery 112, (/ftf] cfVn]/ bltjg) 118, 121] Stem Ch O Gingivitis [60] Cyathula tomentosa (Roth) Bhede kuro S W(na) Root Ex O Tonsillitis NR 0.1 0.17 0.2 Moq. (e]8] s'/f]) [P600, TUCH] Iresine herbstii Hook.* Aayotin phul H C(i) Leaf Ex T Cut and NR 0.04 0.33 0.4 (cfof]l6g km'n) wound, Ear infection Amaryllidaceae Allium sativum L.* Lasun H C(i) Root Pa T Wart [21] 0.06 0.17 0.2 (n;'g) Allium wallichii Kunth Nara/ Ban lasun H W(na) Whole Co O Fatigue, Body NR 0.14 0.33 0.2

Page 8/26 [P536, TUCH] (gf/f, ag n;'g) plant pain Anacardiaceae Rhus javanica L. Bhakimlo T W(na) Fruit Ch O Diarrhea [50, 0.14 0.17 0.2 [P507, TUCH] (elsDnf]) 119, 121] Apiaceae Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Ghod tapre H W(na) Whole Ex O Tonsillitis, [21, 49, 0.12 0.67 0.6 [P568, TUCH] (3f]8 6fk) Plant Pneumonia 73, 83, 116] Ex O Dysuria, High [21, 22, blood 52, 79, pressure 112] Heracleum Chimphing H W(na) Seed Bu I Common [30, 0.66 0.50 0.4 nepalense D.Don (lrdlkmË) cold, 121] [9240945, TI] Sneezing Ch O Nervousness NR Ligusticopsis wallichiana Bhutkesh H W(na) Root Ex O Cold, Fatigue NR 0.34 0.50 0.6 (DC.) Pimenov & Kljukov (e'ts]z) Mature Ra I Nervousness [60] [D151, KATH] shoot Apocynaceae Plumeria rubra L.* Chuwa T C(i) Bark Ex O Jaundice NR 0.4 0.17 0.2 (r'jf) Araceae Remusatia pumila (D.Don) Mane H W(na) Root Ex T Abscess/ NR 0.06 0.17 0.2 H.Li & A.Hay (dfg]) Furunculosis [P540, TUCH] Araliaceae Panax pseudo- Malagiri/Jinsing H W(na) Root Ex O Intestinal [81, 0.1 0.17 0.2 ginseng Wall. (dfnflu/L, lhG;LË\) worms 120, [D147, KATH] 121] Asparagaceae Asparagus racemosus Kurilo H W(na) Root Ex O Fatigue [21, 30, 0.1 0.33 0.4 Willd. (s'l/nf) 116, [P564, TUCH] 120, 121] Ch Pneumonia NR Ophiopogon Gademala H W(na) Root Ex O Intestinal NR 0.06 0.17 0.2 intermedius D.Don* (uf8]dfnf) worms Asphodelaceae Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Ghuikumari H C(i) Leaf- Sq T Skin burn [21, 22, 0.32 0.50 0.6 [P519, TUCH] (l3ps'df/L) pulp 52, 62, 72, 73, 82, 116, 119, 121] Ex O High blood [21, pressure, 116, Indigestion 121] Asteraceae Ageratina Kali jhar H W(ia) Leaf Ex T Cut and [22, 49, 0.7 0.17 0.2 adenophora (Spreng.) (sfnL emf/) wound 50, 52, R.M.King & H.Rob. 53, 60, [P515, TUCH] 62, 63, 72, 73, 78, 116, 121] Anaphalis Buki H W(na) Leaf Pw T Cut and [21] 0.06 0.17 0.2 triplinervis (Sims) (a'sL) wound C.B.Clarke [P534, TUCH] Artemisia dubia Wall. ex Tite Pati S W(na) Leaf Ex O High blood [119] 0.68 0.83 1 Besser (ltt] kftL) pressure [P563, TUCH] Ex O Tonsillitis NR Wa T Eye pain NR Ex T Cut and [50, 52, wound 59, 63, 119, 121] Ex T Muscular [30] swelling and sprain Cirsium verutum (D.Don) Sungure kanda H W(na) Root, Ex O Tonsillitis, [72, 0.36 0.50 0.6 Spreng. (;'+u'/] sfF8f) Young Jaundice, 121] [P523, TUCH] shoot Intestinal worms Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Bhringee H W(nt) Whole Ex T Cut and [21, 61, 0.02 0.17 0.2 [6306247, TI] (le|+uL emf/) plant wound 69, 73, 112, 121] Page 9/26 Galinsoga parviflora Cav. Ilame jhar H W(nt) Leaf Ex T Cut and [21] 0.14 0.17 0.2 [P501, TUCH] (O{nfd] emf/) wound Saussurea Mai Kopila H W(na) Wool Ra T Cut and [59, 0.66 0.33 0.4 gossypiphora D.Don* (dfO{ sf]lknf) wound 117] Root Ex O Headache NR Tagetes erecta L. Saya patri H C(i) Leaf, Ex O Tonsillitis, [69, 72, 0.26 0.33 0.4 [P527, TUCH] (;okqL) Fever 121] Berberidaceae Berberis asiatica Roxb. ex Tinsure/ Chutro S W(na) Root Ex O Jaundice, [21, 49, 0.06 0.33 0.4 DC. (ltg;'/], r'qf]) Fever 121] [P566, TUCH] Mahonia napaulensis DC. Kesari S W(na) Root Ex O Polydipsia [121] 0.06 0.17 0.2 [P506, TUCH] (s];/L) Bignoniaceae Oroxylum indicum (L.) Tatelo T W(na) Root, Ex O Jaundice [75, 82, 0.16 0.17 0.2 Kurz (66]nf]) Leaf, 116, [P582, TUCH] Bark 121] Brassicaceae Lepidium sativum L.* Chamsur H C(n) Whole Co O Muscular [75] 0.04 0.17 0.2 (rD;'/) plant swelling and sprain Nasturtium Sim sag H W(nt) Leaf Co O Jaundice NR 0.18 0.33 0.4 officinale R.Br.* (l;d ;fu) Ex T Cut and NR wound Raphanus sativus L.* Mula H C(i) Root Ex O Jaundice NR 0.08 0.33 0.2 (d'nf) Seed Ch O Gastritis NR Campanulaceae Lobelia pyramidalis Wall. Yeklebir H W(na) Root Ex, Ch O Jaundice, [72] 0.38 1.00 0.8 [P536, TUCH] (PSn]aL/\) Dysentery, Diarrhea, Pneumonia, Menstrual disorders Ex T Cut and NR wound Cannabaceae Celtis australis L.* Khari T W(na) Bark Ex O Gingivitis NR 0.06 0.17 0.2 (v/L) Caprifoliaceae Nardostachys Jatamasi H W(na) Rhizome Ch O Dysentery [22, 59, 0.24 0.17 0.2 jatamansi (D.Don) DC.* (h6fd;L) 121] Valeriana jatamansi Jones* Sugandawal H W(na) Rhizome Ch O Tonsillitis, [51, 59, 0.2 0.67 0.6 (;'uGwjfn) Fever, Body 62, 121] pain Leaf Ex T Cut and [59, wound 121] Caryophyllaceae Drymaria cordata (L.) Ana/Abijalo H W(na) Whole Bu I Sinusitis [30, 49, 0.5 0.33 0.2 Willd. ex Schult. (cGgf, cljhfnf]) Plant 52, 116, [P528, TUCH] 121] Ex O Tonsillitis [116] Stellaria Jethimadhu H W(na) Root Ch O Dehydration NR 0.04 0.33 0.4 monosperma Buch.-Ham. (h]l7dw') ex D.Don* Ex Fatigue NR Convolvulaceae Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Sun lahara H W(na) Whole Ex O Jaundice [21, 22, 0.28 0.17 0.2 [P594, TUCH] (;'g nx/f) plant 30, 62, 69, 72, 73, 77, 116, 118] Costaceae Costus speciosus (J. Beth lauri H W(na) Root Ch O Dizziness NR 0.1 0.33 0.4 Koenig) Sm. (a]b nf}/L) Ex O Dysuria [21, 49, [P543, TUCH] 52, 83, 116] Cucurbitaceae Solena heterophylla Lour. Golkakri C W(na) Root Ch O Tonsillitis [122] 0.24 0.17 0.2 [P768, TUCH] (uf]nsfqmL) Trichosanthes Ban ghiraulo C W(na) Fruit Ex O Jaundice [72] 0.2 0.17 0.2 cucumerina L.* (jg l3/f}nf]) Trichosanthes Indreni C W(na) Seed Ex T Abscess NR 0.16 0.33 0.4 tricuspidata Lour.* (O{G›]gL) Ro O Tonsillitis NR Ericaceae (Wall.) Angeri T W(na) Leaf Ex T Scabies [21, 22, 0.34 0.17 0.2 Drude (c+u]/L) 72, 73] [9240946, TI] Pieris formosa (Wall.) Nalu/Balu T W(na) Root Ex O Fatigue NR 0.02 0.33 0.4

Page 10/26 D.Don* (gfn', afn') Young Ex T Headache NR shoot Rhododendron Lali Gurans T W(na) Flower Ch O Diarrhea [21, 30, 0.18 0.83 0.8 arboreum Sm. (nfnL u'/fF;) 49, 52, [P510, TUCH] 53, 62, 73, 74, 83, 120] Flower Ch O Tonsillitis [49] Flower Ch O Bone struck [21, 22, in throat 50, 59, 60, 72, 73, 74, 75, 83, 116] Bark Ex O Jaundice [72] Bark Ex O Epilepsy NR Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia Siudi S W(na) Latex Ra O Toothache NR 0.1 0.33 0.4 royleana Boiss.* (l;p8L) Mature Ch O Anorexia [21, 72, shoot 119] Fabaceae Albizia lebbeck (L.) Kalo siris T W(na) Bark Ex O Gingivitis [21] 0.06 0.17 0.2 Benth.* (sfnf] l;l/;) Albizia procera (Roxb.) Seto siris T W(na) Bark Ex T Dandruff NR 0.18 0.17 0.2 Benth.* (;]tf] l;l/;) Cassia fistula L.* Rajbrichhe T W(na) Fruit Ch O Bone struck NR 0.02 0.17 0.2 (/fhj[If) in throat Entada rheedei Spreng.* Pangra C W(na) Fruit Ex, Ra T Mumps [121] 0.18 0.17 0.2 (kf+u|f) Macrotyloma Gahat dal H C(i) Seed Ex O Kidney stone [75] 0.12 0.17 0.2 uniflorum (Lam.) Verdc.* (uxt bfn) Mimosa pudica L.* Lajjawoti H W(ia) Root Ex O Jaundice [112] 0.08 0.50 0.6 jhar/Buhari jhar Root Ex O Menstrual [72] (nHhfjtL emf/, disorders a'xf/L emf/) Leaf Ex T Cut and [72, wound 118, 120] Trigonella foenum- Methi H C(i) Fruit Ex O Cough, [21, 22, 0.12 0.33 0.4 graecum L.* (d]yL) Stomachache 73, 75] Fagaceae Quercus lanata Sm.* Banjh T W(na) Bark Ex O Gastritis [121] 0.04 0.17 0.2 (af+em) Gentianaceae Gentiana sp. Page mendo H W(na) Whole Ch O Tonsillitis NR 0.1 0.17 0.2 [P517, TUCH] (kf+u] d]Gbf]) plant Swertia chirayita H.Karst. Chiraito H W(na) Whole Ex O Fever, High [21, 22, 0.86 0.33 0.4 [P554, TUCH] (lr/fO{tf) Plant blood 49, 52, pressure 60, 62, 63, 72, 73, 75, 77, 83, 116, 117, 120, 121] Swertia Sharma guru H W(na) Root Pa T Cut and [72, 0.18 0.17 0.2 multicaulis D.Don* (zdf{ u'?) wound 121] Iridaceae Belamcanda chinensis (L.) Tarbare H W(na) Root Ex O Anorexia [21] 0.3 0.17 0.2 Redouté (t/af/]) [P544, TUCH] Juglandaceae Engelhardia Mauwa T W(na) Bark Ex O Fatigue NR 0.06 0.17 0.2 spicata Lesch. ex Blume (df}jf) [P645, TUCH] Juglans regia L.* Okhar T W(na) Bark Ex O Body pain [59, 61, 0.08 0.17 0.2 (cf]v/) 63] Lamiaceae Callicarpa arborea Roxb.* Ghurbis T W(na) Bark Ex O Common NR 0.02 0.33 0.4 (3'la{;) cold, Body pain Mentha spicata L.* Pudina H C(n) Whole Ex O Cold NR 0.08 0.33 0.4 (k'lbgf) Plant Pi O Anorexia [116] Ocimum basilicum L. Babari H C(n) Leaf Ex O Hematuria NR 0.02 0.17 0.2 [P560, TUCH] (afa/L) Ocimum sanctum L.* Tulasi H C(n) Whole Va, Ex, Ch I, Cough, [69, 82] 0.28 0.50 0.2 (t'n;L) plant O Tonsillitis, Common cold

Page 11/26 Vitex negundo L.* Simali S W(na) Young Ra I Sinusitis [21, 22, 0.06 0.17 0.2 (l;dnL) shoot 30, 61, 72, 121] Lauraceae Lindera neesiana (Wall. ex Siltimur/Bilimse T W(na) Fruit Ex O, Tonsillitis NR 0.72 0.50 0.6 Nees) Kurz (l;n l6d'/, lalnD;]) T [P504, TUCH] Es. Ol T Ringworm NR Es. Ol T Muscular NR swelling and sprain Magnoliaceae Magnolia champaca (L.) Aaule Chanp T W(na) Bark Ex O Epilepsy NR 0.02 0.17 0.2 Baill. ex Pierre (cf}n] rfFk) [P534, TUCH] Malvaceae Sida acuta Burm. f.* Kuro H W(na) Root Ex O Tonsillitis NR 0.08 0.17 0.2 (s'/f]) Melanthiaceae Paris polyphylla Sm. Satuwa H W(na) Rhizome Ch, Ex O Gastritis, [21, 22, 0.46 0.33 0.2 [P524, TUCH] (;t'jf) Stomach 60, 62, swelling 63, 121] Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A. Neem T W(na) Leaf Ex O Kidney stone [21, 69] 0.1 0.17 0.2 Juss.* (lgd) Menispermaceae Cissampelos pareira L. Gujar gano, C W(na) Leaf Ex O Hematuria, [21, 83] 0.06 0.33 0.2 [P570, TUCH] Batulpate Dysuria (u'h/ ufgf], a6'n kft]) Tinospora Gurjjo C W(na) Stem Ex O Stomachache [21] 0.02 0.17 0.2 cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex (u'hf]{) Hook.f. & Thomson [P559, TUCH] Moraceae Artocarpus lakoocha Wall. Badahar T W(na) Latex Ra T Mumps [69] 0.08 0.33 0.4 ex Roxb.* (a8x/) Bark Ex O Body pain NR Ficus benghalensis L.* Bar T W(na) Bark Ex O Epilepsy, NR 0.06 0.33 0.4 (j/) Hematuria Ficus religiosa L.* Peepal T W(na) Leaf Ra O Tonsillitis NR 0.08 0.50 0.6 (kLkn) Bark Ex Hematuria, NR Epilepsy Ficus sarmentosa Buch.- Lute Khaniyeu T W(na) Latex Ex O Tonsillitis NR 0.04 0.17 0.2 Ham. ex Sm.* (n't] vlgp) Musaceae Musa × paradisiaca.* Kera H W(na) Flower Ex O Dysuria NR 0.04 0.17 0.2 (s]/f) Myricaceae Myrica esculenta Buch.- Kaphal T W(na) Bark Ex T Muscular [21, 0.54 0.50 0.4 Ham. ex D.Don (sfkmn) swelling and 121] [P651, TUCH] sprain Pw I Sinusitis [21, 30, 121] Ch O Tonsillitis NR Myrtaceae Psidium guajava L. Ambak T C(i) Young Ex O Diarrhea, [21, 22, 0.16 0.50 0.4 [P516, TUCH] (cDas) shoot Vomiting 69, 72, 73, 74, 75, 83, 113, 116, 118, 119, 121] Bark Ex, Ch O Gingivitis [72, 83] Oleaceae Jasminum humile L.* Jai phul/Dhesi S W(na) Young Ex O Tonsillitis, NR 0.06 0.50 0.6 phul/Jaisara shoot Jaundice, (hfO{ km'n, b];L High blood km'n, h};/f) pressure Orchidaceae Dactylorhiza Panchaule H W(na) Rhizome Pa T Cut and [21, 60, 0.58 0.33 0.4 hatagirea (D.Don) Soó* (kfFrcf}+n]) wound 77, 78, 117, 121] Ch O Fever [49, 72, 121] Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus emblica L. Amala T W(na) Bark Ch O Tonsillitis [62, 0.18 0.17 0.2

Page 12/26 [P533, TUCH] (cdnf) 118, 121] Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca acinosa Roxb.* Jaringo H W(na) Root, Ex O Anorexia [117] 0.18 0.17 0.2 (hl/+uf]) Leaf Piperaceae Piper mullesua Buch.- Chabo C W(na) Leaf Ch O Tonsillitis NR 0.04 0.17 0.2 Ham. ex D.Don (rfaf]) [P503, TUCH] Plantaginaceae Neopicrorhiza Kudki H W(na) Rhizome Ex O Fever, [21, 49, 0.84 0.67 0.8 scrophulariiflora (Pennell) (s'8\sL) Headache 52, 59, D.Y.Hong 60, 78, [D134, KATH] 83] Ex O High blood [63] pressure, Body pain Plumbaginaceae Plumbago zeylanica L. Chitu H W(na) Root Pa T Muscular [61, 72, 0.56 0.33 0.2 [P621, TUCH] (lrt') swelling and 77, 116] sprain, Body pain Poaceae Cynodon dactylon (L.) Dubo H W(na) Leaf Ex O Jaundice [123, 0.04 0.17 0.2 Pers. (b'af]) 124] [P511, TUCH] Eleusine coracana (L.) Kodo H C(i) Fruit Po O Gingivitis NR 0.06 0.17 0.2 Gaertn.* (sf]bf) Imperata cylindrica (L.) Siru H W(na) Root Ex O Intestinal [72, 75, 0.2 0.33 0.4 Raeusch.* (l;?) worms 112, 119] Ch O Common cold [49] Saccharum officinarum L.* Gyabre ukhu H C(i) Mature Ex O Jaundice [72, 73, 0.22 0.17 0.2 (Uofa|] p'v') shoot 74, 75] Thysanolaena Amriso H W(na) Root Pa T Splinter NR 0.08 0.50 0.4 latifolia (Roxb. ex (cld|;f]) Ex T Abscess NR Hornem.) Honda [P548, TUCH] Ch O Tonsillitis NR Zea mays L.* Makai H C(i) Seed Ro O Altitude NR 0.06 0.33 0.2 (ds}) sickness Polygonaceae Bistorta Anante H W(na) Root Ch O Diarrhea [58] 0.04 0.17 0.2 amplexicaulis (D.Don) (cgGt]) Greene [D030, KATH] Eskemurkerjea Rato tamarke C C(e) Root Pa T Cut and [60] 0.08 0.17 0.2 megacarpum (H.Hara) (/ftf] tds]{) wound H.Hara* Rheum australe D.Don* Khokim H W(na) Root Ex O Body pain, [117, 0.62 0.33 0.2 (vf]lsd) Muscular 121] swelling and sprain Rheum nobile Hook. f. & Padamchal H W(na) Root Pa T Bone fracture [117, 0.54 0.67 0.6 Thomson (kbdrfn) and 121] [SH-106] dislocation, Cut and wound Ex O Back pain, NR Constipation Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Halhale H W(na) Root Pa T Cut and [21, 49, 0.08 0.33 0.4 [P518, TUCH] (xnxn]) wound 53, 58, 83, 121] Ex O Pneumonia NR Ranunculaceae Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Seto bikhma H W(na) Rhizome Ch O Fever, [21, 52, 0.68 0.50 0.6 Ser. (;]tf] laVdf) Anorexia 83, 116, [P530, TUCH] 117, 121] Ex T Cut and NR wound Aconitum Kalo bikhma H W(na) Rhizome Ch O Anorexia, NR 0.82 0.50 0.4 laciniatum (Brühl) Stapf* (sfnf] laVdf) Fever, Tonsillitis Clematis Pinase C W(na) Stem Pw I Sinusitis [21, 49, 0.34 0.33 0.4 buchananiana DC. laharo/Phuphumba/ 72, 75, [P535, TUCH] Maha gagri 83, 119] (lkgf;] nx/f], Root Pa T Bone fracture NR km'km'Daf, dx and ufu|L) dislocation Page 13/26 Rosaceae Potentilla lineata Trevir. Bajradanti H W(na) Root Ch O Toothache [22, 49, 0.16 0.33 0.4 [P525, TUCH] (ah|bGtL) 62, 73, 121] Ex O Diarrhea [121] Prunus cerasoides Buch.- Painyu T W(na) Bark Pa T Bone fracture [21, 50, 0.26 0.33 0.4 Ham. ex D.Don (k}o') and 72, 78, [P553, TUCH] dislocation 83] Ex O Gastritis NR Prunus persica (L.) Aaru T C(i) Young Ex O Toothache NR 0.04 0.17 0.2 Batsch* (cf?) shoot Rosa sericea Lindl. Darim S W(na) Bark Pa T Fungal [59, 60] 0.06 0.17 0.2 [9240965, TI] (bfl/d) infection Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. Mayal T W(na) Fruit Ex O Dysentery [21, 72, 0.3 0.17 0.2 ex D.Don (don\) 75, 78, [P722, TUCH] 119] Rubus ellipticus Sm. Ainselu S W(na) Root Ex T Muscular [21] 0.42 0.50 0.6 [P513, TUCH] (P]+;]n') swelling and sprain Root Ex O Stomachache [30, 83, 121] Mature Ch O Tonsillitis [21, 76] Shoot- pith Rubiaceae Rubia manjith Roxb. ex Majitho C W(na) Young Ex T Snake bite [21, 0.04 0.17 0.2 Fleming (dlh7f]) shoot 121] [P508, TUCH] Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck Jyamir S C(i) Fruit Ex O Diarrhea NR 0.12 0.17 0.2 [P551, TUCH] (Hofld/) Citrus reticulata Blanco Suntala T C(i) Fruit Ex O Pneumonia, [83, 0.02 0.33 0.4 [P552] (;'Gtnf) Tonsillitis 121] Euodia fraxinifolia (D.Don) Khanakpa T W(na) Fruit Ch O Common [52, 0.66 0.50 0.6 Hook. f.* (vfgSkf) cold, Fever, 116, Tonsillitis 117] Zanthoxylum Boke timur S W(na) Fruit Ro O Gastritis [49, 52, 0.18 0.33 0.4 acanthopodium DC. (af]s] l6d'/) 116, [P531, TUCH] 117] Pw T Leech bite [49, 53, 121] Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Timur S W(na) Fruit Pw, Pa T Headache, [21, 0.14 0.83 1 [P657, TUCH] (l6d'/) Fever 121] Ch O Toothache [62, 73, 77, 121] Ch O Asthma [121] Ch O Stomachache [50, 63, 72, 73, 78, 79, 117] Santalaceae Pyrularia edulis (Wall.) Amphi H W(na) Seed Es. Ol T Cut and [116] 0.04 0.17 0.2 A.DC. (cDkmL) wound [9261343, TI] Viscum album L.* Hadchur S W(na) Whole Pa T Bone fracture [21, 50, 0.82 0.50 0.4 (x8\r'/) Plant and 62, 72, dislocation 116, 120] Ex T, Body pain, [117] O Menstrual disorders Sapotaceae Diploknema Chuiri T W(na) Seed Pa T Fungal [22, 62] 0.06 0.17 0.2 butyracea (Roxb.) H.J.Lam (lrp/L) infection [P565, TUCH] Saxifragaceae Astilbe rivularis Buch.- Budi hokto H W(na) Rhizome Ch O Fever, [21, 59, 0.54 0.67 0.8 Ham. ex D.Don (a'9L xf]Qmf]) Cough, 117] [D025, KATH] Stomachache Pa T Body pain [21, 49, 75, 116, 117] Bergenia ciliata Sternb. Pakhambed H W(na) Rhizome Ex O Gingivitis [21, 0.78 0.50 0.4 [P505, TUCH] (kfvda]b) 117] Ch O Body pain, [51, 73, Muscular 79, 117] swelling and sprain

Page 14/26 paniculata Wall. Bhimsen pati T W(na) Leaf Ex T Allergy NR 0.06 0.17 0.2 [P592, TUCH] (led;]g kftL) Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L.* Akabare H C(i) Fruit Pa T Abscess NR 0.08 0.17 0.2 (csa/]) Solanum viarum Dunal* Bhanbheda H W(nt) Fruit Bu I Toothache NR 0.18 0.17 0.2 (age]8f) Thymelaeaceae Daphne bholua Buch.- Kagte S W(na) Root Ex O Sinusitis, [21, 62, 0.28 0.33 0.4 Ham. ex D.Don* (sfUt]) Anorexia 117] Ulmaceae Ulmus lanceifolia Roxb. ex Chamlayo T W(na) Bark Pa T Bone fracture [72] 0.58 0.17 0.2 Wall. (rDnfof]) and [P512, TUCH] dislocation Urticaceae Boehmeria virgata var. Kamle H W(na) Bark Pa T Skin burn NR 0.04 0.17 0.2 macrostachya (Wight) Friis (sfDn]) & Wilmot-Dear [P580, TUCH] Girardinia Allo H W(na) Root, Bu T Skin burn NR 0.1 0.50 0.6 diversifolia (Link) Friis (cNnf]) Stem, Pa T Dog bite NR [P689, TUCH] Leaf Pa T Bone fracture [21, 50, and 62] dislocation Pouzolzia rugulosa Dar T W(na) Bark Ex T Muscular NR 0.02 0.17 0.2 (Wedd.) Acharya & (bf/) swelling and Kravtsova sprain [6304689, TI] Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Sano chiple/Bhui H W(na) Root Pa, Ex T, Bone fracture [72, 0.52 0.17 0.2 Benn. & R.Br.* chiple O and 121] (;fgf] lrKn], e'O{ dislocation lrKn]) Urtica parviflora Roxb.* Ghariya Sisno H W(na) Root Ex T Bruise [21, 0.56 0.83 1 (3l/of l;:gf]) 119] Root Ex O High blood [49, 52, pressure 72, 117, 121] Root, Pa T Dog bite, [21, 72, Young Snake bite 75, 117, shoot 119, 121] Young Co O Stomachache [21] shoot Zingiberaceae Cardamomum Alainchii H W(na) Fruit Ex O Dehydration NR 0.08 0.17 0.2 subulatum (Roxb.) Kuntze* (cn}FrL) Curcuma longa L. Besar H C(i) Rhizome Pa T Fungal NR 0.18 0.50 0.4 [P521, TUCH] (a];f/) infection Ex O Tonsillitis, [73, 82, Common cold 83, 120] Kaempferia rotunda L. Bhui champa H C(n) Rhizome Pa T Skin burn, [52, 0.08 0.33 0.4 [P520, TUCH] (e'O{ rDkf) Bone fracture 116, and 121] dislocation Zingiber Aduwa H C(i) Rhizome Ex O Tonsillitis, [21, 61, 0.3 0.33 0.2 officinale Roscoe* (cb'jf) Common cold 69, 72, 73, 74, 81, 82, 83, 113, 117, 121]

Preparation of remedies: Bu (burnt), Co (cooked), Ch (chewing) Es. Ol (essential oil), Ex (extract), Pa (paste), Pi (pickled), Po (porridge), Pw (powder), Ra (raw), Ro (roasted), Sq (squeezed), Va (vapour), Wa (warmed) Administrative route: O (Oral), T (Topical), I (Inhalation) Habit: C (climber), H (Herb), S (shrub), T (Tree) Habitat: C(e) = cultivated-endemic, C(i) = cultivated-introduced, C(n) = cultivated-native, W(ia) = wild-IAPS, W(na) = wild-native, W(nt) = wild- naturalized The number and letter in parenthesis after the Latin names represent the voucher specimens number and the housed herbaria respectively, while ‘*’ represents the species whose samples were not collected.

Table 2 Preparation methods for different remedies

Page 15/26 Preparation method Frequency Percentage

Extract 101 53 Chewing 35 19 Paste 23 12 Raw 8 4 Powder 6 3 Burnt 4 2 Cooked 4 2

Others (essential oil, roasted, squeezed, vapour, porridge, pickled, warmed) 10 5

Table 3 Administration mode for different remedies Therapeutic administration Frequency Percentage Oral 108 63 Topical 55 32 Inhalation 9 5

Table 4 Therapeutic/Administration categories of plant species with corresponding informant consensus factor values

Page 16/26 Therapeutic/ Ailment/Disease Latin name Use Number ICF Ailment Report of taxa categories Socio-culture Nervousness (She) Heracleum nepalense, Ligusticopsis wallichiana 26 2 0.96 bound syndromes Musculoskeletal Body pain, Bone Actinidia strigosa, Allium wallichii, Artemisia dubia, Artocarpus lakoocha, 305 26 0.92 disorders fracture and Astilbe rivularis, Bergenia ciliata, Callicarpa arborea, Clematis dislocation, buchananiana, Artocarpus lakoocha, Girardinia diversifolia, Juglans regia, Muscular swelling Kaempferia rotunda, Lepidium sativum, Lindera neesiana, Myrica esculenta, and sprain Plumbago zeylanica, Pouzolzia rugulosa, Pouzolzia zeylanica, Prunus cerasoides, Rheum australe, Rheum nobile, Rubus ellipticus, Taxus wallichiana, Ulmus lanceifolia, Valeriana jatamansi, Viscum album Respiratory Asthma, Cold, Achyranthes aspera, Aconitum laciniatum, Acorus calamus, Artemisia dubia, 432 46 0.90 diseases Common cold, Artocarpus lakoocha, Asparagus racemosus , Astilbe rivularis, Callicarpa Cough, Mumps, arborea, Centella asiatica, Cirsium verutum, Citrus reticulata, Clematis Pneumonia, buchananiana, Curcuma longa, Cyathula tomentosa, Daphne bholua, Sinusitis, Drymaria cordata, Entada rheedei, Euodia fraxinifolia, Ficus religiosa, Ficus Sneezing, sarmentosa, Heracleum nepalense, Imperata cylindrica, Jasminum humile, Tonsillitis Justicia adhatoda, Ligusticopsis wallichiana, Lindera neesiana, Lobelia pyramidalis, Mentha spicata, Myrica esculenta, Ocimum sanctum, Phyllanthus emblica, Piper mullesua, Rhododendron arboreum, Rubus ellipticus, Rumex nepalensis, Sida acuta, Solena heterophylla, Tagetes patula, Thunbergia coccinea, Thysanolaena latifolia, Trichosanthes tricuspidata, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Valeriana jatamansi, Vitex negundo, Zanthoxylum armatum, Zingiber officinale Anti dote (e.g. Allergy, Bacterial Girardinia diversifolia, Rubia manjith, Solanum viarum, Urtica parviflora, 37 5 0.89 Animal bite) infection, Dog Zanthoxylum acanthopodium bite, Leech bite, Snake bite General Altitude sickness, Aconitum ferox, Aconitum laciniatum, Acorus calamus, Ageratina 414 49 0.88 disorder Back pain, Bone adenophora, Allium wallichii, Aloe vera, Anaphalis triplinervis, Artemisia struck in throat, dubia, Asparagus racemosus, Astilbe rivularis, Berberis asiatica, Bergenia Bruise, Cut and ciliata, Boehmeria virgata var. macrostachya, Cassia fistula, Cheilanthes wound, albomarginata, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Eclipta prostrata, Engelhardia Dehydration, spicata, Eskemurkerjea megacarpum, Euodia fraxinifolia, Galinsoga Fatigue, Fever, parviflora, Girardinia diversifolia, Iresine herbstii, Justicia adhatoda, Headache, Kaempferia rotunda, Ligusticopsis wallichiana, Lobelia pyramidalis, Mimosa Polydipsia, Skin pudica, Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora, Nephrolepis cordifolia, Nasturtium burn, Splinter officinale, Pieris formosa, Pteris biaurita, Pyrularia edulis, Rheum nobile, Rhododendron arboreum, Rumex nepalensis, Saurauia napaulensis, Saussurea gossypiphora, Stellaria monosperma, Swertia chirayita, Swertia multicaulis, Tagetes erecta, Thunbergia coccinea, Thysanolaena latifolia, Urtica parviflora, Valeriana jatamansi, Zanthoxylum armatum, Zea mays

Gastro- Anorexia, Achyranthes aspera, Aconitum ferox, Aconitum laciniatum, Albizia lebbeck, 409 52 0.88 intestinal Constipation, Aloe vera, Astilbe rivularis, Belamcanda chinensis, Berberis asiatica, disorders Diarrhea, Bergenia ciliata, Bistorta amplexicaulis, Celtis australis, Cirsium verutum, Dysentery, Citrus limon, Cuscuta reflexa, Cynodon dactylon, Eleusine coracana, Gastritis, Equisetum diffusum, Euphorbia royleana, Imperata cylindrica, Jasminum Gingivitis, humile, Lobelia pyramidalis, Mentha spicata, Mimosa pudica, Nardostachys Indigestion, jatamansi, Nephrolepis cordifolia, Nasturtium officinale, Ophiopogon Intestinal worms, intermedius, Oroxylum indicum, Panax pseudo-ginseng, Paris polyphylla, Jaundice, Phytolacca acinosa, Plumeria rubra, Potentilla lineata, Prunus cerasoides, Stomachache, Prunus persica, Psidium guajava, Pyrus pashia, Quercus lanata, Raphanus Stomach swelling, sativus, Rheum nobile, Rhododendron arboreum, Rhus javanica, Rubus Toothache, ellipticus, Saccharum officinarum, Solanum viarum, Taxus wallichiana, Vomiting Tinospora cordifolia, Trichosanthes cucumerina, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Urtica parviflora, Zanthoxylum acanthopodium, Zanthoxylum armatum

Dermatological Abscess, Albizia procera, Allium sativum, Buddleja paniculata, Capsicum annuum, 80 11 0.87 diseases Dandruff, Fungal Cheilanthes albomarginata, Curcuma longa, Remusatia pumila, Lyonia infection, ovalifolia, Rosa sericea, Thysanolaena latifolia, Viburnum cylindricum Furunculosis, Ringworm, Scabies, Wart Genitourinary Dysuria, Costus speciosus, Ficus benghalensis, Ficus religiosa, Macrotyloma 24 6 0.78 disorders Hematuria, Kidney uniflorum, Musa × paradisiaca, Ocimum basilicum stone Cardio-vascular High blood Aloe vera, Artemisia dubia, Centella asiatica, Jasminum humile, 19 7 0.67 disorder pressure Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora, Swertia chirayita, Urtica parviflora Gynecological Menstrual Centella asiatica, Equisetum diffusum, Lobelia pyramidalis, Mimosa pudica, 8 5 0.43 disorders disorders Viscum album Neurological Dizziness, Costus speciosus, Ficus benghalensis, Ficus religiosa, Magnolia champaca, 8 5 0.43 and Nervous Epilepsy Rhododendron arboreum system disorders Sensorial Ear infection, Eye Artemisia dubia, Iresine herbstii 2 2 0.00 diseases pain Page 17/26

Table 5 Fidelity level of most important plant species in the study area S.N. Latin name Major ailment N Np FL 1 Swertia chirayita Fever 43 43 100 2 Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora Fever 42 40 95.24 3 Viscum album Bone dislocation and fracture 41 38 92.68 4 Aconitum laciniatum Anorexia 41 35 85.37 5 Lindera neesiana Tonsillitis 36 35 97.22 6 Ageratina adenophora Cut and wound 35 35 100 7 Aconitum ferox Fever 34 34 100 8 Artemisia dubia Cut and wound 34 33 97.06 9 Saussurea gossypiphora Cut and wound 33 33 100 10 Euodia fraxinifolia Common cold 33 32 96.97 11 Heracleum nepalense Nervousness 33 32 96.97 12 Bergenia ciliata Muscular swelling and sprain 39 31 79.49 13 Rheum australe Body pain 31 31 100 14 Achyranthes aspera Dysentery 31 30 96.77 15 Ulmus lanceifolia Bone fracture and dislocation 29 29 100 16 Dactylorhiza hatagirea Wounds 29 29 100 17 Plumbago zeylanica Muscular swelling and sprain 28 27 96.43 18 Urtica parviflora High blood pressure 28 27 96.43 19 Rheum nobile Bone fracture and dislocation 27 27 100 20 Astilbe rivularis Body pain 27 27 100 21 Myrica esculenta Sinusitis 27 26 96.30 22 Pouzolzia zeylanica Bone fracture and dislocation 26 26 100 23 Drymaria cordata Sinusitis 25 22 88.00 24 Paris polyphylla Gastritis 23 21 91.30 25 Acorus calamus Common cold 22 20 90.91 26 Rubus ellipticus Tonsillitis 21 20 95.24 27 Plumeria rubra Jaundice 20 20 100 28 Lobelia pyramidalis Jaundice 19 18 94.74 29 Cirsium verutum Jaundice 18 18 100 30 Lyonia ovalifolia Scabies 17 17 100 31 Ligusticopsis wallichiana Nervousness 17 17 100 32 Clematis buchananiana Sinusitis 17 15 88.24 33 Aloe vera Skin burn 16 15 93.75 34 Belamcanda chinensis Anorexia 15 15 100 35 Pyrus pashia Dysentery 15 15 100 36 Zingiber officinale Tonsillitis 15 15 100

N = the total number of informants citing the plant species for any ailments, Np = number of respondents citing the plant species for a particular ailment.

Table 6 Rahman’s similarity index comparing the present study with previous studies

Page 18/26 SN Study area NRSAA TSCBA SEOAA SEOOA CSSU RSI RSI-% Citation Western Himalaya 1 Kedarnath WLS, India 97 20 77 120 6 0.03 2.84 [78] 2 Jaunsar, Garhwal, India 66 12 54 128 3 0.02 1.57 [79] 3 Neehum valley 41 4 37 136 2 0.01 1.14 [51] 4 Gilgit Baltistan, 90 7 83 133 2 0.01 0.90 [58] 5 Jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan 140 5 135 135 1 0.00 0.36 [76] 6 Lahaul-Spiti, India 58 2 56 138 0 0.00 0.00 [96] West Nepal 7 Salyan 76 28 48 112 11 0.06 6.21 [119] 8 Bajhang, Baitadi, 258 50 208 90 16 0.05 4.82 [62] Dadeldhura & Darchula 9 Rolpa 82 23 59 117 9 0.05 4.74 [50] 10 Darchula 70 18 52 122 8 0.04 4.35 [60] 11 Kanchanpur 74 7 67 133 5 0.02 2.48 [112] 12 Dadeldhura, Baitadi & 238 20 218 120 5 0.01 1.42 [77] Darchula Central Nepal 13 Kaski 105 41 64 99 17 0.09 9.09 [73] 14 Makwanpur 161 46 115 94 15 0.06 6.25 [22] 15 Rasuwa 56 25 31 115 8 0.05 4.91 [63] 16 Mustang 121 16 105 124 9 0.04 3.81 [59] 17 Nawalparasi 94 22 72 118 7 0.03 3.41 [118] 18 Chitwan 115 25 90 115 5 0.02 2.22 [120] East Nepal 19 Ilam 90 42 48 98 21 0.13 12.57 [116] 20 Tinjure-Milke-Jaljale 48 22 26 118 16 0.11 10.67 [119] 21 (Taplejung, Panchthar, 225 63 162 77 28 0.10 10.22 [72] Ilam, Jhapa, Tehrathum, Dhankuta, Sunsari, Morang, Sankhuwasabha) 22 Fikkal, Ilam 61 34 27 106 13 0.08 8.44 [75] 23 Panchthar 87 27 60 113 10 0.05 5.26 [30] 24 Jhapa 40 14 26 126 7 0.04 4.40 [69] Eastern Himalaya 25 Sikkim, India 35 23 12 117 15 0.11 10.95 [52] 26 Sikkim, India 118 38 80 102 17 0.08 8.37 [83] 27 Sikkim, India 124 42 82 98 16 0.08 7.77 [49] 28 Kangchenjunga Landscape 739 82 657 58 42 0.06 5.56 [121] 29 West Bengal, India 53 11 42 129 6 0.03 3.41 [82] 30 , India 50 12 38 128 4 0.02 2.30 [74] East Asia & Tibetan Plateau 31 Natma Taung NP, 75 15 60 125 4 0.02 2.04 [53] 32 Mien, 50 5 45 135 2 0.01 1.09 [113] 33 Zhuang AR, 456 22 434 118 5 0.01 0.88 [61] 34 Son La province, 99 8 91 132 2 0.01 0.87 [81] 35 , China 68 3 65 137 0 0.00 0.00 [80] 36 Perak, Malaysia 62 2 60 138 0 0.00 0.00 [70]

NRSAA: number of recorded plants species of aligned areas, TSCBA: Total species common in both area, SEOAA: Species enlisted only in aligned areas, SEOOA: Species enlisted only in our study area, CSSU: Common species with similar uses

Conclusion

The diversity and importance of medicinal plants in the Chyangthapu-Phalaicha biological sub-corridor to treat various ailments in traditional health care were assessed. A total of 140 plant species used to treat various human ailments were documented. Ninety therapeutic uses for 42 ailments belonging to 64 plant species were newly reported.

The varied use of medicinal plants reported in this area shows the need for their domestication and cultivation. This will promote the transfer of knowledge between generations, thereby safeguarding the local biological resources and the associated indigenous knowledge. Establishing processing units at the local level is a logical follow-up to the cultivation of medicinal plants. We also recommend conducting phytochemical and pharmacological screening for the most promising species, particularly those with a high value of ethnobotanical indices, which can aid the transfer of local knowledge to the global level.

Declarations

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the local people for sharing their knowledge, cooperation and warm hospitality during the research. We are grateful to Mr. Sunil Thapa, ICIMOD, for preparing the maps of the study area.

Disclaimer

The views and interpretation in this publication are those of the authors and should not be ascribed to their respective institutions.

Page 19/26 Author’s contributions

PB conducted feld survey, gathered and analyzed data, and prepared the manuscript’s frst draft. MBG, AN assist in the feld survey. CKS, KB, RPC, JG, YU and KKS contributed to research design, feld survey, and revision of the prepared draft.

Funding

This study was partially supported by core funds of ICIMOD contributed by the governments of , Australia, Austria, , Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Norway, Pakistan, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. In particular, it was supported by the Austrian Development Agency and the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development through its German Agency for International Cooperation which made this publication possible.

Availability of data and materials

We have included all the data in the manuscript.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

A prior informed consent was sought from the concerned authorities and all the participants.

Consent for publication

Not applicable

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors details

1Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, 1030, Nepal

2State Key Laboratory of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100093, China

3University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China

4Small Mammals Conservation and Research Foundation

5International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, 3226, Nepal

6WWF Nepal, Baluwatar, Kathmandu

7Mechi Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Bhadrapur, Jhapa, Nepal

8Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal (ESON), Kathmandu, Nepal

References

1. Beltran J. Indigenous and traditional peoples and protected areas: principles, guidelines and case studies. IUCN-The World Conservation Union; 2000. 2. Lemonnier N, Zhou G-B, Prasher B, Mukerji M, Chen Z, Brahmachari SK, Noble D, Auffray C, Sagner M. Traditional knowledge-based medicine: a review of , principles, and relevance in the present context of P4 systems medicine. Prog Prev Med. 2017; 2(7):pe0011. https://doi.org/10.1097/pp9.0000000000000011. 3. Che CT, George V, Ijinu T, Pushpangadan P, Andrae-Marobela K. Traditional medicine. In: Badal McCreath S, Delgoda R, editors. Pharmacognosy, Fundamentals, Applications and Strategies. Boston: Academic Press; 2017. p. 15–30. 4. Fokunang C, Ndikum V, Tabi O, Jiofack R, Ngameni B, Guedje N, Tembe-Fokunang E, Tomkins P, Barkwan S, Kechia F. Traditional medicine: past, present and future research and development prospects and integration in the National Health System of Cameroon. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2011;8(3):284–95. https://doi.org/10.4314/ajtcam.v8i3.65276. 5. Hamilton AC. Medicinal plants, conservation, and livelihoods. Biodivers Conserv. 2004; 13:1477–517. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BIOC.0000021333.23413.42. 6. Newman DJ, Cragg GM. Natural products as sources of new drugs over the 30 years from 1981 to 2012. J Nat Prod. 2012;75(3):311–35. https://doi.org/10.1021/np200906s. 7. Robinson MM, Zhang X. The World Traditional Medicines Situation 2011 in Traditional medicines: Global Situation, Issues and Challenges, 3rd ed. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2011. 8. Wachtel–Galor S, Benzie IFF. Herbal Medicine: An Introduction to Its History, Usage, Regulation, Current Trends, and Research Needs. In: Benzie IFF, Wachtel–Galor S, editors. Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects. 2nd ed. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press/Taylor & Francis; 2011.

Page 20/26 9. Cox PA, Balick MJ. The ethnobotanical approach to drug discovery. Sci Am. 1994;270(6):82–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drudis.2009.05.009. 10. Fabricant DS, Farnsworth NR. The value of plants used in traditional medicine for drug discovery. Environ Health Perspect. 2001;109 Suppl 1:69–75. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.01109s169. 11. Farnsworth NR. The role of ethnopharmacology in drug development. Ciba Found Symp. 1990;154:2–21. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470514009.ch2. 12. Ouelbani R, Bensari S, Mouas TN, Khelif D. Ethnobotanical investigations on plants used in folk medicine in the regions of Constantine and Mila (northeast of Algeria). J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;194:196–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.08.016. 13. Aziz MA, Khan AH, Adnan M, Ullah H. Traditional uses of medicinal plants used by indigenous communities for veterinary practices at Bajaur Agency, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0212-0. 14. Dilshad SMR, Rehman NU, Ahmad N, Iqbal A. Documentation of ethnoveterinary practices for mastitis in dairy animals in Pakistan. Pak Vet J. 2010;30(3):167–71. 15. Ramirez CR. Ethnobotany and the Loss of Traditional Knowledge in the 21st Century. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007;5:245–7. 16. Santamaría L, Méndez PF. Evolution in biodiversity policy – current gaps and future needs. Evol Appl. 2012;5(2):202–18. 17. Slingenberg A, Braat L, van der Windt H, Rademaekers K, Eichler L, Turner K. Study on Understanding the Causes of Biodiversity Loss and the Policy Assessment Framework’, European Commission Directorate–General for Environment. 2009. http://ec.europa.eu/ environment/enveco/biodiversity/pdf/causes_biodiv_loss.pdf. 18. Smith P. Managing the global land resource. Proc R Soc B. 2018;285: 20172798. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.2798. 19. Hussain W, Badshah L, Ullah M, Ali A, Hussain F. Quantitative study of medicinal plants used by the communities residing in Koh-e-Safaid Range, northern Pakistani-Afghan borders. J Ethobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:30. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0229-4. 20. Baral SR, Kurmi PP. A Compendium of Medicinal Plants in Nepal. Kathmandu: Mrs. Rachana Sharma; 2006. 21. Manandhar NP. Plants and . Oregon: Timber Press Portland; 2002. 22. Luitel DR, Rokaya MB, Timsina B and Münzbergová Z. Medicinal plants used by the Tamang community in the Makawanpur district of central Nepal. J Ethobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10:5. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-10-5. 23. Rokaya MB, Münzbergová Z, Timsina B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from the Humla district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;130(3):485–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.05.036. 24. Baral H, Inskipp C. Important Bird Areas in Nepal. Kathmandu: Bird Conservation Nepal; 2005. 25. Chaudhary RP, Uprety Y, Joshi SP, Shrestha KK, Basnet KB, Shrestha KR, Bhatta KP, Acharya KP, Chettri N. Kangchenjunga Landscape Nepal: from conservation and development perspectives. Kathmandu: MoFSC, Government of Nepal; RECAST, Tribhuvan University; and ICIMOD; 2015. 26. Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany and biodiversity conservation. In: Ambasht RS, Ambasht NK, editors. Modern trends in applied terrestrial ecology. Boston: Springer; 2002. p. 343-60. 27. Hanazaki N, Nakamura M, Lindner B, Boef S. Opportunities for ethnobotany to contribute to community biodiversity management. In: de Boef WS, Subedi A, Peroni N, Thijssen M, O’Keefee E, editors. Community biodiversity management (Promoting resilience and the conservation of plant genetic resources). Routledge; 2013. p. 141–4. 28. Rodrigues E, Cassas F, Conde BE, da Cruz C, Barretto EHP, dos Santos G, Figueira GM, Passero LFD, dos Santos MA, Gomes MAS. Participatory ethnobotany and conservation: a methodological case study conducted with quilombola communities in Brazil’s Atlantic Forest. J Ethobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16.2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-019-0352-x. 29. ICIMOD, WCD, GBPNIHESD, RECAST. Kangchenjunga Landscape Conservation and Development Initiative feasibility assessment report—regional synthesis. Kathmandu: ICIMOD; 2017/9. 2017. 30. Gautam TP. Indigenous uses of some medicinal plants in Panchthar district, Nepal. Nepalese J Biosci. 2011;1:125–30. https://doi.org/10.3126/njbs.v1i0.7479. 31. Baniya A, Karki S, Dhungana S, Rizal G. Economic Analysis on the Production of Large Cardamom in Panchathar, Nepal. J Agr Env. 2019;20:117–28. https://doi.org/10.3126/aej.v20i0.25038. 32. Wu N, Oli KP, Gilani H, Joshi S, Bisht N. Yak raising challenges: transboundary issues in far eastern Nepal. In: Wu N, Yi S, Joshi S, Bisht N, editors. Yak on the Move: Transboundary challenges and opportunities for Yak raising in a changing Hindu Kush Himalaya Region. Nepal: ICIMOD; 2016: p. 53–64. 33. Oli KP. Pasture, livestock, and conservation: challenges in the transborder areas of Eastern Nepal. In: N. Chettri, B. Shakya, E. Sharma, editors. Biodiversity Conservation in the Kangchenjunga Landscape. Kathmandu: ICIMOD; 2008: p. 91–6. 34. Bridson D, Forman L. The Herbarium Handbook. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. London: Kew Publishing; 2010. 35. Polunin O, Stainton A. of the Himalaya. New York: Oxford University Press; 1984. 36. Stainton A, Polunin O. Flowers of the Himalaya. New York: Oxford University Press; 1988. 37. Grierson AJ, Long DG. Flora of Bhutan, Volume 2 part 1, 2 & 3 and Volume 3 part 2 & 3. Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Garden; 2003. 38. Grierson AJ, Long DG. Flora of Bhutan, including a record of plants from Sikkim. Volume 1 parts 1 and 2. Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Garden; 1983. 39. Hara H, Stearn W, Williams L. An enumeration of the fowering plants of Nepal, vol. 3. London: British Museum (Natural History); 1982. 40. Hara H, Stearn WT, Williams L. An enumeration of the fowering plants of Nepal. Vol. 1. London: British Museum (Natural History); 1978. 41. Hara H, Williams L. An enumeration of the fowering plants of Nepal. vol. 2. London: British Museum (Natural History); 1979. 42. Chase MW, Christenhusz M, Fay M, Byng J, Judd WS, Soltis D, Mabberley D, Sennikov A, Soltis PS, Stevens PF. An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classifcation for the orders and families of fowering plants: APG IV. Bot J Linn Soc. 2016;181(1):1–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/boj.12385. Page 21/26 43. Trotter R, Logan M. Informant Consensus: a new approach for identifying potentially effective medicinal plants. In: Etkin NL, editor. Plants in indigenous medicine and diet. Bedfort Hills: Redgrave Publishers; 1986: p. 91–112. 44. Gazzaneo LRS, De Lucena RFP, de Albuquerque UP. Knowledge and use of medicinal plants by local specialists in an region of Atlantic Forest in the state of Pernambuco (Northeastern Brazil). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2005;1(1):9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-1-9. 45. Tardío J, Pardo-de-Santayana M. Cultural importance indices: a comparative analysis based on the useful wild plants of Southern Cantabria (Northern Spain). Econ Bot. 2008;62(1):24–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231-007-9004-5. 46. Bennett BC, Prance GT. Introduced plants in the indigenous pharmacopoeia of Northern South America. Econ Bot. 2000;54(1):90–102. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02866603. 47. Friedman J, Yaniv Z, Dafni A, Palewitch D. A preliminary classifcation of the healing potential of medicinal plants, based on a rational analysis of an ethnopharmacological feld survey among Bedouins in the Negev Desert, Israel. J Ethnopharmacol. 1986;16(2-3):275–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378- 8741(86)90094-2. 48. Rahman I, Hart R, Afzal A, Iqbal Z, Ijaz F, Abd_Allah E, Ali N, Khan S, Alqarawi A, Alsubeie M. A new ethnobiological similarity index for the evaluation of novel use reports. Appl Ecol Environ Res. 2019;17(2):2765–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1702_27652777. 49. Badola HK, Pradhan BK. Plants used in healthcare practices by limboo tribe in south–west of khangchendzonga biosphere reserve, Sikkim, India. Indian J Traditional Knowledge. 2013;12(3):355–69. 50. Budha-Magar S, Bhandari P, Ghimire SK. Ethno-medicinal survey of plants used by Magar (Kham) community, Rolpa district, Western Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2020;19:1–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.32859/era.19.18.1-29. 51. Ijaz S, Perveen A, Ashraf S, Kousar S, Bibi A, Azhar N. Wild medicinal plants of Lawat village Neelum valley Azad Kashmir, Pakistan and their uses in ethnomedicine. Wulfenia. 2019;26(12): 27–55. 52. Lepcha TT, Pradhan P, Gaira KS, Badola HK, Shahid M, Singh M. Ethnomedicinal use of plants by Bhutia tribe in Sikkim Himalaya. In: Sirari P, Verma RK, Kumar K, editors, Proceedings of the Ist Himalayan Researchers Consortium, vol 1. Almora: National Mission on Himalayan Studies (NMHS), GB Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development (GBPNIHESD); 2019: p. 71–8. 53. Ong HG, Ling SM, Win TTM, Kang D-H, Lee J-H, Kim Y-D. Ethnomedicinal plants and traditional knowledge among three Chin indigenous groups in Natma Taung National Park (Myanmar). J Ethnopharmcol. 2018;225:136–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2018.07.006. 54. Press JR, Shrestha KK, Sutton DA. Annotated checklist of the fowering plants of Nepal. Lonon: Natural History Museum Publications; 2000. 55. Rajbhandari K, Rai S. A Handbook of the Flowering Plants of Nepal, vol. 1. Kathmandu: Department of Plant Resources; 2017. 56. Shrestha K, Bhattarai S, Bhandari P. Handbook of Flowering Plants of Nepal (Vol. 1 Gymnosperms and Angiosperms: Cycadaceae-Betulaceae). Jodhpur: Scientifc Publishers; 2018. 57. Singh K, Lal B. Ethnomedicines used against four common ailments by the tribal communities of Lahaul-Spiti in western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;115(1):147–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2007.09.017. 58. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Mashwani Z-R. A quantitative medico-botanical expedition of Fairy Meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. BioRxiv. 2019:507848. https://doi.org/10.1101/507848. 59. Bhattarai S, Chaudhary RP, Quave CL, Taylor RS. The use of medicinal plants in the trans-himalayan arid zone of Mustang district, Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6(1):14. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-6-14. 60. Ghimire K, Adhikari M, Uprety Y, Chaudhary R. Ethnomedicinal use of plants by the highland communities of Kailash Sacred Landscape, Far-west Nepal. Acad J Med Plants. 2018;6(11):365–78. 61. Hu R, Lin C, Xu W, Liu Y, Long C. Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants used by Mulam people in Guangxi, China. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16(1):1–50. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-020-00387-z. 62. Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:210–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.01.035. 63. Uprety Y, Asselin H, Boon EK, Yadav S, Shrestha KK. Indigenous use and bio-efcacy of medicinal plants in the Rasuwa District, Central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:3. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-6-3. 64. Abbas Z, Khan SM, Alam J, Khan SW, Abbasi AM. Medicinal plants used by inhabitants of the Shigar Valley, Baltistan region of Karakorum range- Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:53. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0172-9. 65. Coley PD, Bryant JP, Chapin FS. Resource availability and plant antiherbivore defense. Science 1985;230(4728):895–9. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.230.4728.895. 66. Lyon LM, Hardesty LH. Quantifying medicinal plant knowledge among non–specialist Antanosy villagers in southern Madagascar. Econ Bot. 2012;66(1):1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231-011-9185-9. 67. Hong L, Guo Z, Huang K, Wei S, Liu B, Meng S, Long C. Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants used by Maonan people in China. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:32. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-015-0019-1. 68. Maroyi A. Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild and cultivated plants in the Eastern Cape province, South Africa. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0173-8. 69. Rajbanshi N, Thapa LB. Traditional knowledge and practices on utilizing medicinal plants by endangered Kisan ethnic group of eastern Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18:1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.32859/era.18.23.1-9. 70. Samuel AJSJ, Kalusalingam A, Chellappan DK, Gopinath R, Radhamani S, Husain A, Muruganandham V, Promwichit P. Ethnomedical survey of plants used by the Orang Asli in Kampung Bawong, Perak, West Malaysia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:5. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-6-5. Page 22/26 71. Hara H. New or noteworthy fowering plants from eastern Himalaya. 10. J Jap Bot. 1972;47(5):137–43. 72. Limbu D, Rai BK. Ethno-medicinal practices among the Limbu community in Limbuwan, Eastern Nepal. Glob J Hum Soc Sci. 2013;2:7–29. 73. Adhikari M, Thapa R, Kunwar RM, Devkota HP, Poudel P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources in the Machhapuchchhre rural municipality of Kaski district, Nepal. Medicines 2019;6:69. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicines6020069. 74. Namsa ND, Mandal M, Tangjang S, Mandal SC. Ethnobotany of the Monpa ethnic group at Arunachal Pradesh, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7:31. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-7-31. 75. Tamang P, Singh NB. Medical ethnobiology and indigenous knowledge system of the Lapcha of Fikkal VDC of Ilam, Nepal. J Ins Sci Tech. 2014;19(2):45– 52. https://doi.org/10.3126/jist.v19i2.13851. 76. Farooq A, Amjad MS, Ahmad K, Altaf M, Umair M, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal knowledge of the rural communities of Dhirkot, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:45. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-019-0323-2. 77. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-24. 78. Malik ZA, Bhat JA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt A. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.06.002. 79. Bhatt V, Negi G. Ethnomedicinal plant resources of Jaunsari tribe of Garhwal Himalaya, Uttaranchal. Indian J Traditional Knowledge. 2006;5(3):331–5. 80. Liu Y, Dao Z, Yang C, Liu Y, Long C. Medicinal plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la, Yunnan, China. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009;5:15. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-5-15. 81. Nguyen TS, Xia NH, Van Chu T, Van Sam H. Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants in traditional markets of Son La province, Vietnam. Forest Soc. 2019;3:171-92. https://doi.org/10.24259/fs.v3i2.6005. 82. Pala NA, Sarkar BC, Shukla G, Chettri N, Deb S, Bhat JA, Chakravarty S. Floristic composition and utilization of ethnomedicinal plant species in home gardens of the Eastern Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-019-0293-4. 83. Pradhan BK, Badola HK. Ethnomedicinal plant use by Lepcha tribe of Dzongu valley, bordering Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve, in north Sikkim, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2008;4:22. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-4-22. 84. Rokaya MB, Uprety Y, Poudel RC, Timsina B, Münzbergová Z, Asselin H, Tiwari A, Shrestha SS, Sigdel SR. Traditional uses of medicinal plants in gastrointestinal disorders in Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;158:221–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.10.014. 85. Uprety Y, Poudel RC, Shrestha KK, Rajbhandary S, Tiwari NN, Shrestha UB, Asselin H. Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources in Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2012;8:16. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-8-16. 86. Ghimire S, Pyakurel D. A Manual of NTFPs of Nepal Himalaya (Gair Kastha Ban Paidawar Digdarshan). Kathmandu: WWF Nepal; 2008. 87. Mncwangi N, Chen W, Vermaak I, Viljoen AM, Gericke N. Devil's Claw-A review of the ethnobotany, phytochemistry and biological activity of Harpagophytum procumbens. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;143:755–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.08.013. 88. Densmore F. How Indians use wild plants, for food, medicine, and crafts. New York: Dover Publications; 2012. 89. Asase A, Akwetey GA, Achel DG. Ethnopharmacological use of herbal remedies for the treatment of malaria in the Dangme West District of Ghana. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;129:367-76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.04.001. 90. Manjula K, Pazhanichami K, Rajendran K, Kumaran S, Eevera T. Herbal remedy for urinary stones. In: Rana MK, editor, Vegetables and human health. Daryaganj: Scientifc Publishers (India); 2015: p. 454–68. 91. Wambugu SN, Mathiu PM, Gakuya DW, Kanui TI, Kabasa JD, Kiama SG. Medicinal plants used in the management of chronic joint pains in Machakos and Makueni counties, Kenya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;137:945–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.06.038. 92. Gurib-Fakim A. Medicinal plants: traditions of yesterday and drugs of tomorrow. Mol Aspects Med. 2006;27(1):1–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mam.2005.07.008. 93. Boadu AA, Asase A. Documentation of herbal medicines used for the treatment and management of human diseases by some communities in southern Ghana. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2017;2017:3043061. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/3043061. 94. Bantawa P, Rai R. Studies on ethnomedicinal plants used by traditional practitioners, Jhankri, Bijuwa and Phedangma in Himalaya. Natural Product Radiance. 2009;8(5):537–41. 95. Chhetri DR. Medicinal plants used as antipyretic agents by the traditional healers of Darjeeling . Indian J Traditional Knowledge. 2004;3(3):271–5. 96. Singh KJ, Huidrom D. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plant, Justicia adhatoda L. by Meitei community of , India. J. Coast Life Med. 2013;1(4):322–5. https://doi.org/10.12980/JCLM.1.2013C895. 97. Mahomoodally MF. Traditional medicines in Africa: an appraisal of ten potent African medicinal plants. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2013;617459. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/617459. 98. Dey A, De JN. Ethnobotanical survey of Purulia district, West Bengal, India for medicinal plants used against gastrointestinal disorders. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;143:68–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.05.064. 99. Miftahussurur M, Sharma RP, Shrestha PK, Suzuki R, Uchida T, Yamaoka Y. Molecular epidemiology of Helicobacter pylori infection in Nepal: specifc ancestor root. PloS one 2015;10(7):e0134216. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0134216. 100. Bhandari R, Sharma R. Epidemiology of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a descriptive study in the mid-western region of Nepal. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2012;7:253–7. https://doi.org/10.2147/COPD.S28602.

Page 23/26 101. Joshi H, Pandeya R, Dhakal B. Health impact of indoor air pollution. J Nepal Health Res Counc. 2009;7(15):69–75. 102. MoHP. Brief Profle on Tobacco Control in Nepal. Kathmandu: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health and Population; 2010. 103. Ranabhat CL, Kim C-B, Kim C-S, Jha N, Deepak K, Connel FA. Consequence of indoor air pollution in rural area of Nepal: a simplifed measurement approach. Front Public Health 2015;3:5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2015.00005. 104. Dufeld SJ, Ellis BM, Goodson N, Walker-Bone K, Conaghan PG, Margham T, Loftis T. The contribution of musculoskeletal disorders in multimorbidity: implications for practice and policy. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2017;31(2):129–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.berh.2017.09.004. 105. Guarnaccia PJ, Rogler LH. Research on culture-bound syndromes: New directions. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156(9):1322–7. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.156.9.1322. 106. Andel T, Fundiko M-CC. The trade in African medicinal plants in Motonge–Ixelles, Brussels (Belgium). Econ Bot. 2016;70:405–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231-016-9365-8. 107. Bayles BP, Katerndahl DA. Culture-bound syndromes in Hispanic primary care patients. Int J Psychiatry Med. 2009;39(1):15–31. https://doi.org/10.2190/PM.39.1.b. 108. Rashid N, Gbedomon RC, Ahmad M, Salako VK, Zafar M, Malik K. Traditional knowledge on herbal drinks among indigenous communities in Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0217-8. 109. Aleem A, Kabir H. Review on swertia chirata as traditional uses to its pyhtochemistry and phrmacological activity. J Drug Deliv Ther 2018;8:73–8. https://doi.org/10.22270/jddt.v8i5-s.1957. 110. Nazaruk J, Orlikowski P. Phytochemical profle and therapeutic potential of Viscum album L. Nat Prod Res. 2016;30(4):373–85. https://doi.org/110.1080/14786419.2015.1022776. 111. Urech K, Baumgartner S. Chemical constituents of Viscum album L.: Implications for the pharmaceutical preparation of Mistletoe. Transl Res Biomed. 2015;4:11-23. https://doi.org/10.1159/000375422. 112. Bhatt MD, Kunwar RM. Distribution pattern and ethnomedicinal uses of plants in Kanchanpur district, Far-Western Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2020;20:1– 21. http://dx.doi.org/10.32859/era.20.14.1-21. 113. Srithi K, Balslev H, Wangpakapattanawong P, Srisanga P, Trisonthi C. Medicinal plant knowledge and its erosion among the Mien (Yao) in northern Thailand. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;123(2):335–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.02.035. 114. Ladio A, Lozada M, Weigandt M. Comparison of traditional wild plant knowledge between aboriginal communities inhabiting arid and forest environments in Patagonia, . J Arid Environ. 2007;69(4):695–715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2006.11.008. 115. Weckmüller H, Barriocanal C, Maneja R, Boada M. Factors affecting traditional medicinal plant knowledge of the Waorani, Ecuador. Sustainability 2019;11:4460. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11164460. 116. Bhattarai KR. Ethnomedicinal practices of the Lepcha community in Ilam, east Nepal. J Pl Res. 2017;15:31–44. 117. Shrestha N, Shrestha S, Koju L, Shrestha KK, Wang Z. Medicinal plant diversity and traditional healing practices in eastern Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;192(4):292–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.067. 118. Bhattarai S, Chaudhary R, Taylor RS. Ethno-medicinal plants used by the people of Nawalparasi District, Central Nepal. Our Nature 2009;7(1):82–99. https://doi.org/10.3126/on.v7i1.2555. 119. Kurmi PP, Baral SR. Ethnomedical uses of plants from Salyan District, Nepal. Banko Janakari 2004;14(2):35–39. https://doi.org/10.3126/banko.v14i2.17049. 120. Rijal A. Living knowledge of the healing plants: Ethno-phytotherapy in the Chepang communities from the Mid-Hills of Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2008;4:23. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-4-23. 121. Uprety Y, Poudel RC, Gurung J, Chettri N, Chaudhary RP. Traditional use and management of NTFPs in Kangchenjunga Landscape: implications for conservation and livelihoods. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0089-8. 122. Janbaz KH, Akhtar T, Saqib F, Imran I, Zia-Ul-Haq M, Jansakul C, De Feo V, Moga M. Pharmacological justifcation of use of Solena heterophylla Lour. in gastrointestinal, respiratory and vascular disorders. J Transl Med. 2015;13:134. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-015-0470-8. 123. Naikade S, Meshram M. Ethno-Medicinal plants used for jaundice from Konkan region, Maharashtra, India. Int J Pharm Sci Invent. 2014;3(12):39–41. 124. Tewari D, Mocan A, Parvanov ED, Sah AN, Nabavi SM, Huminiecki L, Ma ZF, Lee YY, Horbańczuk JO, Atanasov AG. Ethnopharmacological approaches for therapy of jaundice: Part I. Front Pharmacol 2017;8:518. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2017.00518. 125. Rokaya MB, Münzbergová Z, Shrestha MR, Timsina B. Distribution patterns of medicinal plants along an elevational gradient in central Himalaya, Nepal. J Mt Sci. 2012;9:201–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-012-2144-9. 126. Oyebode O, Kandala N-B, Chilton PJ, Lilford RJ. Use of traditional medicine in middle-income countries: a WHO-SAGE study. Health Policy Plan. 2016;31(8):984–91. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/czw022.

Figures

Page 24/26 Figure 1

Map of Study Area: A. Kangchenjunga Landscape (source: [29]), B. East Nepal Conservation Corridor, C. Yangawarak RM. Note: The designations employed and the presentation of the material on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Research Square concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. This map has been provided by the authors.

Figure 2

Life forms of medicinal plant species in the study area

Page 25/26 Figure 3

Number of species and plant parts used

Page 26/26