I 4W
2-Dimensional Temperature Modeling in Lower Granite Reservoir (Washington)
By
Yu-Im Loh ENG B.S. Civil and Environmental Engineering University of California at Berkeley, 1999
Submitted to the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of
Master of Engineering in Civil and Environmental Engineering At the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
May 2000
@ 2000 Yu-Im Loh. All rights reserved.
The author hereby grants to MIT the permission to reproduce and to distribute publicly paper and electronic copies of this thesis document in whole or in part.
Signature of author: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering May 5, 2000
Certified by: E. Eric Adams Senior Research Engineer & Lecturer in Civil and Environmental Engineering Thesis Supervisor -77
Accepted by: Daniele Veneziano Chairman, Committee on Graduate Students
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
MAY 3 0 2000 ENG LIBRARIES 2-Dimensional Temperature Modeling in Lower Granite Reservoir (Washington)
BY
YU-IM LOH
Submitted to the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Master of Engineering in Civil and Environmental Engineering
ABSTRACT
Lower Granite Reservoir is a 10-40 m deep riverine reservoir impounded by Lower Granite Dam. The reservoir displays vertical thermal stratification, especially in summer. A two-dimensional modeling tool, CE-QUAL-W2, was applied to the reservoir in current conditions. This model application simulated water surface temperatures at the forebay to within an average of 1 C of observed temperatures, but overpredicted stratification, so that the simulated temperatures at depth were about 10'C too low. Subsequently, the model was applied to hypothetical free- flowing conditions, that is, for the scenario in which all four dams in the reservoir have been removed for some time. The model predicted a slight decrease in water surface temperatures at the present location of Lower Granite Dam going from the with-dams to the no-dams scenario. The average difference for 1995 conditions was 0.4'C. Vertical stratification decreased in the no- dams scenario, with bottom temperatures increasing by about 1-4*C from the with-dams scenario. This is a possible undesirable effect of removing the dams. Water surface temperatures are the highest in the water column in the summer, when stratification occurs.
Thesis Supervisor: E. Eric Adams Senior Research Engineer & Lecturer in Civil and Environmental Engineering Acknowledgments
I would like to express my thanks to my advisors Dr. Peter Shanahan and Dr. E. Eric Adams for their invaluable advice and guidance.
To the people I have bothered with my e-mails and phone calls - Dave Reese of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, Charles C. Coutant of Oak Ridge National Laboratory, William A. Perkins and Marshall C. Richmond of Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Scott Wells of Portland State University, and Ann Pembroke of Normandeau Associates - thank you for your unselfish help and interest.
Finally, thanks to my family and friends, especially my mother, Meng and my excellent suitemates.
3 Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...... 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... 4
LIST OF FIGURES...... 6
LIST OF TABLES...... 8
1.0 INTRODUCTION ...... 9 1.1 HISTORY 10 1.2 EFFECTS OF RIVER DEVELOPMENT ON ANADROMOUS FISH 11 1.3 PROPOSED SOLUTIONS 14 1.4 PROJECT MOTIVATION 15 1.5 EXISTING TEMPERATURE MODELS OF THE LOWER SNAKE RIVER 16 1.6 OBJECTIVE OF THESIS 17 2.0 CE-QUAL-W2...... 19 2.1 HISTORY AND APPLICATIONS 19 2.2 THEORY BEHIND THE MODEL 20 2.3 APPLICATION OF CE-QUAL-W2 TO LOWER GRANITE RESERVOIR 22 3.0 DATA REQUIREMENTS ...... 25 3.1 SOURCES 25 3.2 DATA ORGANIZATION 25 3.3 DATA QUALITY 26 4.0 MODEL CALIBRATION AND VERIFICATION ...... 27 4.1 CALIBRATION 27 4.1.1 Outflow A djustm ent...... 27 4.2 MODEL VERIFICATION 33 4.2.1 Vertical Temperature Profile...... 33 4.2.2 Water Surface Temperatures...... 35 4.3 CONCLUSION 36 5.0 RESULTS...... 37 5.1 DAM BREACHING SCENARIO 37 5.2 SIMULATION INPUT 37 5.3 RESULTS38 5.4 CONCLUSIONS 41 6.0 DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS...... 43
REFERENCES ...... 45
APPENDIX A...... 47
4 A PPENDIX B...... 50 B.1 LOCATIONS 50 B. 1.1 M eteorologicalStations...... 50 B.1.2 Flow Gauge Stations ...... 52 B. 1.3 Temperature M easurement Locations...... 53 B.2 DATA 54 A PPEND IX C ...... 76
5 List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Map of Columbia River Basin and dams. Source: US Army Corps of Engineers...... 9
Figure 1.2 Estimated Wild Sockeye passing the Uppermost Dam on the Snake River (Lower Granite Dam after 1974), 1962 to 1999 (May include Kokanee Prior to 1992). Source: USACE, 1999...... 12
Figure 1.3 Water Surface Temperatures at the Forebay of Lower Granite Dam. USACE Draft Lower Snake River Feasibility Study and Draft EIS, Appendix C, 1999 ...... 13
Figure 1.4 Vertical Temperature Profile at various points along Lower Snake River (SNR-18: between Ice Harbor Dam and Lower Monumental Dam; SNR-1 08: Forebay, Lower Granite Dam; SNR-129, Lower Granite Reservoir), and just above Snake River-Clearwater River confluence (CW-1). USACE, 1999. 17
Figure 2.1 Truncated representation of Lower Snake River in CE-QUAL-W2. Layer numbers are in the left-hand column while segment numbers are in the top row. Only segments 2 to 9 and layers 2 to 26 are represented here. Numbers in columns under each segment header are temperatures of respective cells, in degrees Celsius...... 22
Figure 4.1 Forebay Elevations at Lower Granite Dam in 1993. Data Source: USACE, 2000...... 29
Figure 4.2 Forebay Elevation in 1993 at Lower Granite Dam - Simulation 1 30
Figure 4.3 Simulated water surface elevations at the forebay of Lower Granite Dam, 1993. Inflows = outflows - evaporation loss of 1.4 m3/s.31
Figure 4.4 Simulated forebay water surface temperatures in Lower Granite Reservoir, 1993. Inflows = outflows + evaporation loss of 1.4 m3/s.31
Figure 4.5 Comparison of simulated and observed water surface elevations at the forebay of Lower Granite Dam in 1993. Source of observed data: US Army Corps of Engineers, W alla W alla District...... 32
Figure 4.6 Simulated and observed water surface temperatures at forebay, 1993, using the assumption that inflows = outflows. Source: US Army Corps of Engineers...... 33
Figure 4.7 Vertical Temperature Profiles at Snake River Miles a) 129 (between Clearwater-Snake confluence and Lower Granite Dam), and, b) 108 (forebay, Lower Granite Dam). Observed data from Appendix C, USACE Draft EIS, 1999...... 34
Figure 4.8 Simulated and observed water surface temperatures in Lower Granite Reservoir, 1995. Observed data from USACE...... 35
6 Figure 5.1 Water Surface temperatures simulated for the no-dams and with-dams scenarios. Conditions used were the same, as in the 1995 verification simulation...... 3 9
Figure 5.2 Water surface elevations for the no-dams scenario. Conditions used were the same as in the 1995 verification simulation...... 39
Figure 5.3 Vertical Temperature profiles at (a) RM 108 on August 10, and (b) RM 129 on August 13. Meteorological and inflow data as for 1995. Profiles are for simulations with and without dams...... 40
7 Table 1.1 Characteristics of the four Lower Snake River dams. Adapted from USACE Draft EIS Main Report, 1999 ...... 11
Table 1.2 Frequency with which temperatures at the dams exceed 200C in unimpounded (free-flowing) conditions. Values were read off the graphs presented in the reports. (Data obtained from Yearsley, 1999; and from Perkins and Richmond, 1999.) ...... 16
Table B.1 Characteristics of Flow Gauge Stations...... 52
8 1.0 Introduction
One of the most developed river systems in the world, the Columbia River system is home to several anadromous fish species, most of which are native to the region. As a tributary of the Columbia River system, the Snake River plays a major role in the life cycle of these fish species.
IsCo"p (t Engineeis SDamsowned by
Figure 1.1 Map of Columbia River Basin and dams. Source: US Army Corps of Engineers.
9 1.1 History
Dams have been a part of the Columbia River Basin since the 1800s. The 20* century has seen tremendous development of the hydropower system on the Columbia River. Large projects such as Bonneville Dam and Grand Coulee Dam have served to change the hydrology of the river and the basin. Dams are not only meant to harness the river's energy for electric power, but also to enable navigation, flood control, and irrigation.
Hydropower development eventually spilled over to other rivers in the Northwest, albeit on a smaller scale. On the Lower Snake River, four dams were built over the course of 15 years, for much the same purposes as the Columbia River dams were constructed. The four dams that span the Lower Snake River are, from upriver to downriver, the Lower Granite, Little Goose, Lower Monumental, and Ice Harbor dams. Since the completion of the last of the four dams in 1975, they have been providing irrigation, navigation, and electricity generation capabilities to residents of the Northwest.
The dates of completion and location of each project are listed in Table 1.1. Table 1.1 Characteristics of the four Lower Snake River dams. Adapted from USACE Dlraft EIS Main RenoL19 Facility Type of Snake Reservoir Reservoir Total Reservoir (year Facility River Name Capacity Reservoir Elevation constructed) Mile (acre-feet) Capacity (msl) (acre-feet)
Lower Granite Run of 107.5 Lower 49,000 483,800 733 to 738 (1976) River Granite Lake
Little Goose Run of 70.3 Lake Bryan 49,000 565,200 633 to 638 (1970) River Lower Run of 41.6 Lake 20,000 432,000 537 to 540 Monumental River Herbert G. (1969) West Ice Harbor Run of 9.7 Lake 25,000 406,500 437 to 440 (1962) River Sacajawea
1.2 Effects of River Development on Anadromous Fish
The huge facilities constructed across the width of the Columbia and Lower Snake Rivers changed the hydrology and hydrodynamics of the rivers drastically. Shallow areas became flooded permanently, the river depth increased, and river velocity slowed.
The change in the rivers has far-reaching effects on the anadromous fish species in the river systems. These fish migrate to the Pacific Ocean from their spawning ground above the Snake River as juvenile smolts, and return 2 or more years later to spawn. The entire journey from the spawning ground to the ocean for anadromous fish in the Snake River carries them through 8 major dams, more if they start from above Dworshak Dam on Clearwater River.
In 1991, the National Marine Fisheries Service listed the Snake River sockeye salmon as an endangered species. In 1992, spring and fall chinook salmon in the same river were listed as threatened species due to their rapid decline in recent decades (see Figure 1.2). In 1997, Snake
11 River steelhead joined the threatened species list (USACE, 1999). The population declines are manifested in lower numbers of returning adult fish migrating up the river system from the Pacific Ocean, and lower volumes of juveniles migrating down the river system toward the ocean.
Figure 1.2 Estimated Wild Sockeye passing the Uppermost Dam on the Snake River (Lower Granite Dam after 1974), 1962 to 1999 (May include Kokanee Prior to 1992). Source: USACE, 1999.
Several factors have been suggested as causes of the population decline. The most obvious cause of fish mortality is the obstruction of fish passage by the four dams on the Lower Snake River. Although ameliorative structures such as fish ladders for adult fish were installed when the dams were built, fish populations continue to decline as a result of poor passage rates through the dams. In recent years, the Corps has begun barging fish across dams in both the upstream and downstream directions. Facilities such as spillway deflectors improve water quality for fish that get "spilled" over the crest of the dam. Other fish passage measures have also been installed.
Apart from the direct fish mortality at the dams, it is suspected that the dams have indirectly caused population declines in the salmon and steelhead populations in a few different ways. Firstly, breeding habitats in the shallow areas of the natural river have been flooded to
12 create reservoirs. Secondly, the lower velocities in the river have probably decreased fish fitness by increasing migration times. The decrease in robustness of the species is also attributed to the elevated temperatures in the river, which are far higher than optimal temperatures for successful reproduction and survival. Temperatures have reached maximums of 25'C in dry years, and exceed the state's water quality standard of 20*C for most of the summer (see Figure 1.3).
-NR-18 -wF- 19T5p - r 1994 9-7-1
-~ A
I 1-Mar 29-Mer 264*~ 24Ma 214uim ~I *-Aug 13-Se il-Oct 06-Nom 064)w
L_-_- --19-94 *-- 199 1996 *-----
Figure 1.3 Water Surface Temperatures at the Forebay of Lower Granite Dam. USACE Draft Lower Snake River Feasibility Study and Draft EIS, Appendix C, 1999.
Other factors that are believed to contribute to the population declines are not related to the presence of the dams. These include changes in ocean conditions, which are known to cause dramatic declines in fish populations; global warming, which may have contributed to the elevated river temperatures to a not inconsiderable, although unquantified degree; and over- fishing, whether for recreation or industry.
As the operators of the federal dam projects on the Columbia River system, the US Army Corps of Engineers is responsible for the health of the fish populations, native and non-native,
13 that rely on the river system for their reproduction and survival. In response to a Biological Opinion released by the National Marine Fisheries Service in 1995, the Corps initiated a study of the Lower Snake River dams to determine how to improve fish passage on this stretch of the river system.
1.3 Proposed Solutions
In December 1999, the Corps released a feasibility study and draft Environmental Impact Statement describing the alternatives being considered to ameliorate the problems faced by anadromous fish in the Lower Snake River. The proposed alternatives follow.
A. "Existing Conditions"
Under this alternative, minor changes will be made to the current operating practices and facilities at the four dams. These changes are designed to decrease fish mortality rates in the passage through the Lower Snake River.
B. "Maximum Transport of Juvenile Salmon"
The operating principle behind this alternative is the minimization of in-river migration. Voluntary spills will not be used to promote migration. All fish collected at the dams will be transported by barge or truck to below Bonneville Dam. As spills will not be used to improve fish passage, spill deflectors and associated devices will not be installed for gas abatement.
C. "Major System Improvements"
Structural changes would be made to divert fish away from the turbines. The bulk of the improvements will occur on Lower Granite Dam. Surface bypass collectors will be installed at the dam. These collectors aim to guide most of the juvenile fish into smaller river volumes (i.e., near the water surface). The collected fish are then barged or trucked so that few juvenile fish will be left in the river below Lower Granite Dam.
D. "Dam Breaching"
The most drastic alternative of the four, dam breaching will involve removal of the earthen embankment portions of the four dams, effectively returning the Lower Snake to its natural river
14 levels. The drawdown behind the dams will be gradual (2 ft/day) in order to minimize structural failures of the river banks. The concrete sections and powerhouse structures will remain in the river, partly because the cost of removing them has no justifiable benefit, and partly to leave the door open to the possibility of future power generation activities at the dams.
1A Project Motivation
While it is easy to measure fish mortality rates due to their having to negotiate a way through each dam, it is much harder to measure indirect effects that the dams have on fish. Few fish experts will dispute the claim that salmon in Lower Snake River suffer trauma that is a result of having their natural habitats changed. However, the mechanisms by which this trauma occurs, and the relative importance of each mechanism is a topic of much argument.
One characteristic of the river that is believed to have an impact on fish is the high water
temperatures. Salmon species thrive at temperatures of 16-20*C. When temperatures exceed this optimal range by even a few degrees, the reproductive processes are inhibited, fish fitness is decreased, and the population as a whole weakens.
Temperatures at the Snake River-Clearwater River confluence range from about 1 C to
20*C. Above this point, the flow is relatively fast. Below the confluence is the first of the four artificial riverine reservoirs on the Lower Snake, Lower Granite Lake (called Lower Granite Reservoir in this paper). As the river proceeds downstream, temperatures naturally rise due to solar heating and higher ambient temperatures (since the flow goes from higher to lower elevations). The construction of the dams has caused the river to widen and deepen by causing the flooding of previously exposed land. Thus, for the same inflow rate into the river, there is more surface area exposed to solar radiation. As a result, water entering the reservoirs behind the dams from upstream is heated up to a greater degree by the time it gets to the Columbia River.
If this last hypothesis that the four dams have caused the elevation of water temperatures in the Lower Snake is proven correct, then the dams can be held responsible for the salmon decline on the premise that they are a cause of reduced fish fitness. The question to follow would be: What is to be done to lower temperatures in the Lower Snake River, assuming that lower temperatures would benefit the salmon population? Put in the context of the decision-making
15 process of the Corps: Would one or more of the proposed alternatives lower temperatures in the river, and if so, by how much?
1.5 Existing Temperature Models of the Lower Snake River
To find an answer to the latter question, the Corps modeled the Lower Snake River to see what temperatures would be in the scenario of a free-flowing river. At the same time, John Yearsley of the US Environmental Protection Agency also undertook to find the sources of the elevated temperatures in the Lower Snake River.
A comparison of the conclusions derived from the two models reveals a disparity between the returned results (see Table 1.2). These two models have been developed for use in the particular case of the Lower Snake River, and will probably feature prominently in a decision on whether to breach the dams.
0 Table 1.2 Frequency with which temperatures at the dams exceed 20 C in unimpounded (free-flowing) conditions. Values were read off the graphs presented in the reports. (Data obtained from Yearsley, 1999; and from Perkins and Richmond, 1999.)
Lower Granite Little Goose Lower Ice Harbor Monumental
Yearsley, 1999 5-18 % 6-18 % 6-18 % 7-19 % (EPA) Perkins and 3-8% 3-10% 3-10% 4-10% Richmond, 1999
Both of these models are one-dimensional. In other words, they run on the assumption that the only significant variation in the temperature regime of the river is in the longitudinal direction. Despite making the same basic assumption, the models return results that are significantly different. It bears mentioning that among the proposed alternatives, all will be costly, and some irreversible. An accurate assessment of the way each alternative will affect the temperature regime in the river is therefore vital to the decision-making process. Thus, the apparently small differences in the numbers presented by the two models may be significant.
16 1.6 Objective of Thesis
The Lower Snake River is not deep. Its depth at the upstream end is about 12 m; at the forebay of its most upstream dam, 32 m. In winter, when temperatures are cool, and in spring, when flows are high and fast, temperature across its depth is mostly uniform. However, when flows decrease in summer and ambient temperatures are high, vertical stratification may occur. Releases of cold water from Dworshak Dam (see Figure 1.1) in the summer would also encourage stratification. This practice was started on a large scale in 1994 in order to augment flows in the Lower Snake River and thus decrease the average hydraulic residence time in summer (USACE, 1999). Dworshak Dam is a storage reservoir on the Clearwater River (upstream of lower Snake River). The result is a vertical temperature variation, as shown in Figure 1.4.
Tempratr. Prailes COd 10-13 August 194
Tsfnpnrfuw (*VPC 120 140 WO, 180 200 22.0 X40
31
354
40.
CW1 -- SNIR48 -i- SNR-108 +- SNRA-129 Figure 1.4 Vertical Temperature Profile at various points along Lower Snake River (SNR-1 8: between Ice Harbor Dam and Lower Monumental Dam; SNR-1 08: Forebay, Lower Granite Dam; SNR-129, Lower Granite Reservoir), and just above Snake River-Clearwater River confluence (CW-1). USACE, 1999.
The presence of this variation raises the possibility that a 2-D temperature model may be more appropriate for the Lower Snake River than a 1-D model. The disagreement in the results of the two models applied to the river thus far may be partly due to the failure of the models to take vertical variations into account.
17 The objective of this thesis is to determine if there is sufficient basis to model the Lower Snake River as a two-dimensional water body. While it would be ideal to model the entire Snake River, the complexity of modeling a string of four reservoirs is too much to undertake in a preliminary study using the 2-D assumption. Effects of downstream reservoirs on the Columbia River would complicate the exercise. In any case, the goal is to find a basis, on conservative grounds, to model the Lower Snake River as a 2-D system. This is accomplished by modeling just one reservoir. Lower Granite Reservoir was picked because it has the least influence from the Columbia River Dams, and shows significant vertical stratification.
The Lower Granite Reservoir is the body of water that extends from just upstream of the Clearwater River-Snake River confluence to the Lower Granite dam. The dam is the most upstream of the four federal dams on the Lower Snake River. It was the last of the four to be constructed, having been completed in 1975, 14 years after Ice Harbor Dam came into service.
18 2.0 CE-QUAL-W2
Lower Granite Reservoir is a run-of-the-river reservoir, where the water elevation variability is about 1.5 m, from 223 m to 225 m over the space of a year. Run-of-the-river reservoirs earn their name from having a roughly constant water elevation. The depth of Lower Granite Reservoir varies from 10 m at the upstream end to 35 m at Lower Granite Dam. Its length is about 40 miles, while its width is only half a mile at the widest portion. These characteristics make it appropriate to assume river-like movement of water in the reservoir, meaning that water is not stagnant in most of the reservoir.
At any point along the reservoir's length, the meteorological conditions are assumed identical at every point across its width. As the main mode of heat exchange is through the water surface, there is little variation in temperature across the relatively short width of the reservoir.
CE-QUAL-W2 was deemed to be the best available model for the purpose of modeling temperature in Lower Granite Reservoir because it can represent the reservoir accurately in a simple model, has been used in several other applications, and is very well documented.
2.1 History and Applications
Derived from the Laterally Averaged Reservoir Model (LARM, see J.E. Edinger, 2000), CE-QUAL-W2 is a "two-dimensional, laterally averaged, hydrodynamic and water quality model" (Cole and Buchak, 1995). From the creation of the initial version in 1975, the model has been developed by several companies and government agencies to its current sophistication.
Among the government agencies that have used CE-QUAL-W2 are the US Geological Survey and the US Army Corps of Engineers. USGS used the model in their study of water movements in Shasta Lake (USGS, 2000). The simulation was for a year-long period in the lake from January to December. The Corps have used the model in several reservoir projects. Private firms which have employed the model are J.E. Edinger Associates, Inc. (J.E. Edinger, 2000), and Cornell University Utilities Department, which used it to determine the thermal characteristics of Lake Cayuga, NY (Cornell, 2000).
19 2.2 Theory behind the model
The theoretical basis of CE-QUAL-W2 has been extensively covered in other sources. The following is a summarized version of the User's Manual to Version 2.
The bases of CE-QUAL-W2 are laterally averaged momentum, continuity, and transport equations. The model can be used to model 21 constituents, and temperature. Factors that affect momentum such as salinity and temperature are built into the equations using an equation of state. Other influencing variables like local horizontal acceleration, momentum transfers in the horizontal and vertical directions, horizontal pressure gradient, and vertical and horizontal shear stresses are also accounted for.
The first step in making a model of a river is to make a grid of the river volume. The volume is discretized into segments, which line up along the longitudinal axis of the river; and layers, which divide the river depth into horizontal volumes. Each cell therefore has a segment and layer number. For example, the coordinates (5, 7) would represent a cell in segment 7 and layer 5. The variables associated with each cell center are width, density, constituent concentration, and pressure; those associated with cell boundaries are horizontal and vertical velocities, and dispersion coefficients.
Simulations are carried out by solving six equations for six unknowns (see Appendix A). Inputs are inflows, outflows, and bathymetric data. The unknowns are free water surface elevation, pressure, velocities in the horizontal and vertical directions, constituent concentrations, and density. The equations may be found in Appendix A, where an excerpt from the User Manual is included.
At each time-step, water surface elevation is first computed. This value is then used to compute horizontal velocity, which is consequently used to find vertical velocity from continuity. Constituent concentration is computed using the constituent balance equation. Finally, the vertical and horizontal velocities are used to solve for free water surface elevation, which is thus implicitly found by the entire process.
20 The solution of the hydrodynamics of the system is the key to the simulations. Once this is done, the heat exchange algorithm is applied to compute temperatures based on surface heat exchange, and heat exchange between the water column and the sediments. Ice cover is also accounted for if the system in question undergoes any icing over.
Heat exchange through the water surface is calculated as follows:
Hn=Hs+Ha +He+Hc -(Hsr+Har+Hbr) (2-1)
Where H n = the net rate of heat exchange across the water surface, W m -2 H , = incident short wave solar radiation, W m -2
H a = incident long wave radiation, W m -2
H e = reflected short wave solar radiation, W m -
H c = reflected long wave radiation, W m -
H sr = back radiation from the water surface, W m -
H ar = evaporative heat loss, W m -
H br = heat conduction, W m -2
The long wave atmospheric radiation is a function of air temperature and cloud cover (or vapor pressure) which are specified as time-varying series in the meteorology file. Short wave solar radiation is either measured or computed from sun angle relationships and cloud cover. Evaporative heat loss is calculated from air temperature, dew point temperature, and surface vapor pressure, which is calculated from the water surface temperature of each cell. Loss by conduction from the water surface is a function of the surface temperature. Back radiation is also a function of surface water temperature.
Sediment-water heat exchange is a function of the water temperature and the sediment temperature. The air temperature approximates sediment temperature. This is a rough assumption based on the idea that heat exchange at the water surface will far outweigh sediment-water heat exchange.
21 Returning to the hydrodynamics of the simulated system, density is an important factor that affects hydrodynamic computations. The code varies density according to temperature, salinity, and total solids content of each cell.
2.3 Application of CEQUAL-W2 to Lower Granite Reservoir
Lower Granite Reservoir is modeled as a single branch system consisting of 30 active segments and 27 active layers. Upstream and downstream boundary segments, segments 1 and 32 respectively, cap the two ends of the reservoir. These segments are inactive and have zero values for layer thicknesses. The active segments vary in length from 0.25 to 1 mile. Short segments represent regions of the reservoir which vary considerably from the adjacent segments in orientation. Segments are oriented with respect to True North.
Layer Depth 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 1.73 3.53 3.69 3.69 3.69 3.69 3.69 3.69 3 2.73 3.69 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 4 4.23 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 5 5.23 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 6 6.23 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 7 7.73 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 8 9.73 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 9 11.73 3.7 3.7 3.71 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 10 13.73 3.7 3.7 3.81 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 11 15.23 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 12 16.23 3.7 3.7 3.7 13 17.23 3.7 3.7 3.7 14 18.23 3.7 3.7 3.7 15 19.23 3.7 3.7 16 20.23 3.7 17 21.23 3.7 18 22.23
Figure 2.1 Truncated representation of Lower Snake River in CE-QUAL-W2. Layer numbers are in the left-hand column while segment numbers are in the top row. Only segments 2 to 8 and layers 2 to 26 are represented here. Numbers in columns under each segment header are temperatures of respective cells, in degrees Celsius.
In active segments, some or all of the layers are utilized, with active layers given a thickness of 1 or 2 m, and inactive layers given a thickness of zero. There are also two boundary layers, one on top and at least one on the bottom at all times. These layers are given a thickness of 1 m. The thickness of 1 or 2 m was chosen based on Figure 1.4, as significant temperature variation occurs over changes of water depth of the order of 1 m. The placement of 1 and 2-m
22 layers within the water column is loosely based on the observed vertical temperature profile in the summer of 1994, as this time of year represents the worst-case scenario for reservoir stratification, when flows are low and solar heating is at its greatest.
Time-varying inputs required for a simulation of temperatures over time and space are inflows to the reservoir, inflow temperatures, and meteorological conditions over the reservoir. Inflows are daily average values from both the Snake River just above the Clearwater-Snake confluence, and the Clearwater River into the Lower Snake. These flows are assumed to be similar to those recorded at the Snake River near Anatone, WA; and at Spalding, ID on the Clearwater River. Streamflow data was obtained from the USGS website (USGS Water, 2000).
Inflow temperatures from these two sources are also daily average water temperatures. The temperatures of these flows were approximated by data collected at the Snake River near Anatone for the Snake River inflow, and by temperatures at Orofino (Clearwater River Mile 44.6), adjusted for the summer months. Orofino was picked because it is the closest reliable station on the Clearwater River with year-round daily temperature data. The Orofino data was adjusted downward by 1-5'C for the summer months (June 19 - Aug 21 in 1993) to compensate for the colder temperatures of the Dworshak Dam releases into the Lower Snake in summer. These new temperatures were compared to daily average temperatures based on temperatures collected hourly 1.5 river miles downstream of Dworshak Dam tailrace (which were only available for Aug - September in 1993, and April - September in 1994, 1995 and 1996). In general, the adjusted temperatures gave good agreement with Dworshak Dam tailrace temperatures. Wherever possible, temperatures at Dworshak Dam tailrace were used as approximations of Clearwater tributary inflow temperatures. For instance, in 1995, Orofino temperatures were used until April 24, Dworshak Dam tailrace from April 25-Sept 30, with adjusted Orofino temperatures for Sept 12-13, and for 15 days after the Dworshak Dam data stops. See Appendix B for temperature data at Orofino and 1.5 Miles downstream of Dworshak Dam tailrace. Temperature data was obtained from the Streamnet web-site (Streamnet, 2000).
Meteorology at Lower Granite Reservoir was approximated by data collected at Lewiston Nez Perce County Airport. Data were either found as daily averages or calculated from hourly observations to give daily averages. Five measurements define the meteorology of the region in this model: air temperature, dew point, wind speed and direction, and cloud cover.
23 Note that all data used is presented in Appendix B together with descriptions of the data collection stations.
24 In order to model Lower Granite Reservoir to an accuracy of a day without requiring excessive computing power or run-time, daily inputs were preferred over hourly inputs. This chapter summarizes the sources of the data used in the calibration, verification, and, indirectly, in the simulation phases, and describes how data was organized into input file format. The final section discusses the quality of data used, and what was done when poor quality data was encountered.
3.1 Sources
Temperature data for inflows was obtained from files on the website of Streamnet (Streamnet, 2000). Most of this data was obtained from the US Army Corps of Engineers at Walla Walla District. Flows into Lower Granite from Snake River and Clearwater River were obtained from the USGS water data web-site (USGS, 2000). Meteorological data came from the records of the US Geological Survey. Finally, bathymetry of Lower Granite Reservoir was approximated from soundings mapped in Nautical Chart 18547 produced by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA, 1993).
3.2 Data Organization
In general, data from the various sources was in an easy-to-use format. Adjustments that were made were usually simple addition and subtraction operations.
Bathymetry was determined by using depth soundings indicated on the Nautical Chart 18547 (NOAA, 1993) to draw simple reservoir cross-sections in Microsoft Excel. Cross sections were taken at variable intervals along the length of the reservoir. These intervals ranged from 400 m to 4300 m, depending on the curvature and, hence, variability of the cross section. Reservoir stretches with large curvature were divided into shorter intervals while relatively straight stretches were assumed to have the same cross-section over long distances. See Appendix C for bathymetric cross-sections used. The Clearwater River tributary was not modeled as a section, but rather as a simple inflow into the third active upstream segment of the main branch.
25 Water temperatures for the main branch are assumed to be those measured on the Snake River near Anatone. Tributary temperatures are assumed to be the temperature observed at Orofino for pre-and-post summer months, and the flow-weighted average of temperatures measured at Dworshak Dam tailrace and at Orofino for the period every year when Dworshak Dam tailrace temperatures were recorded (mid or late April to September for 1994 and 1995). The measurements are daily average temperatures based on hourly gauge measurements.
Inflows were assumed to come from the Snake River above the Clearwater-Snake confluence and from the Clearwater River. The Snake River inflow was taken to be that near Anatone, where flows are measured at Station 13334300. Clearwater inflows were taken to be that measured at Spalding, ID (Station 13342500), a location downstream of Orofino and Dworshak Dam, about 10 miles upstream of the Clearwater-Snake confluence. The Clearwater inflow was modeled as a point tributary inflow into segment 4 of the main branch (note that the upstream boundary segment is Segment 1 and is inactive), while the Snake River inflow was equally divided over the entire cross-section (i.e., single-temperature inflow).
Outflows were assumed to occur only at the dam. These outflows were mainly through the turbines, which occupy the southern third of the dam's length. In May and June of every year, however, additional water is spilled over the crest of the dam. For these periods, spills and generator outflow together constitute the outflow value. Evaporation is the other means by which water is lost from the reservoir and is modeled by the software.
Meteorological data was mostly obtained as daily measurements and is used as such. The exception is daily average wind direction, which was obtained by taking the average of the hourly wind direction measurements, weighted by the corresponding hourly wind speeds. The measurement of wind direction and speed was only done for daylight hours.
3.3 Data Quality
All of the data used comes from reputable sources and appears reasonable. As far as possible, data was checked either directly with similar data from other sources (e.g., flow at one location compared to flows at other nearby locations) or indirectly with data from the same time periods in other years. For instance, flows from different years were compared to identify obvious erroneous data entries.
26 4.0 Model Calibration and Verification
This section describes the process by which CE-QUAL-W2 was calibrated for the Lower Granite Reservoir system. Calibration was based on the year 1993. Subsequently, the model was verified using the years 1994 and 1995 to encompass a range of weather conditions. 1994 was a dry year, with flows ranging from 10 to 75 kcfs; 1995 had mean monthly flows close to historical averages for the first half of the year, and slightly higher flows for the rest of the year. Unusually wet years are not modeled because they represent the least critical condition for Lower Snake salmon species.
4.1 Calibration
Calibration is the process by which a model is adjusted to give the most realistic simulation results. In the case of CE-QUAL-W2 for Lower Granite Reservoir, input outflows had to be varied somewhat from the Corps' data in order for the simulation to be in good agreement with the observed data. Good agreement means similar water surface temperatures, vertical temperature profiles, and water elevations. Note that not all of the inflows and outflows of the system were known. Thus, while all major flows were represented, it is possible that flows into or out of the reservoir between the Clearwater-Snake confluence and the Lower Granite Dam that were not represented in this model could have had an impact on the simulation. It is in anticipation of such inaccuracies in data input that outflows at the dam were adjusted. These adjustments are described below.
4.1.1 Outflow Adjustment
Lower Granite Dam has several functions. The reservoir is used for navigation, hydropower generation, recreation, and "incidental irrigation" (USACE, 2000). Hydropower generation is served by any non-spilled release of water from the upstream to the downstream side of the dam. Having the reservoir for navigation means that the height of the dam is limited to allow for the operation of locks. This means the dam cannot perform other storage functions, or can only fulfil them to a limited degree as a secondary purpose.
27 Recreation generally involves maintaining a full reservoir to allow for activities such as boating, swimming, fishing, and water sports. Excessive drawdown usually creates undesirable conditions for recreation. For instance, benthic surfaces may be exposed and become foul smelling areas. Boat piers may also be too far above the water surface to be functional. Despite these considerations, recreational function is usually incidental to other purposes of the reservoir.
Irrigation is a secondary purpose of creating the backwater that is Lower Granite Reservoir. As mentioned on the Corps' website, irrigation needs served by the reservoir are incidental and not sufficient to account for large sudden withdrawals from the reservoir. The fluctuation of water surface elevation over the course of a year is due mainly to the purposeful release of water from the reservoir to augment downstream flows for navigation. This occurs in the dry season when flows are low downstream due to lack of precipitation and higher rates of evaporation brought about by higher water temperatures and drier ambient air.
The pattern seen in Figure 4.1 shows a sharp drop in water elevation from 224.45 m to 223.6 m over just 4 days. The resulting elevation is maintained for several months (with small peaks due to storm events) until the winter months, when the elevation is increased back to the January elevation, just as suddenly as it was decreased. This is typical dam operation for navigation purposes and for flood control. In winter and spring, the main source of river flow will be stormwater. In the summer, precipitation halts and snowmelt becomes the main source. In order to prevent flooding of the surrounding lands as well as to provide navigation flows downstream, the elevation in the reservoir is kept at a minimum operating level (minimum to maintain recreational activities). In these same four days, however, flows recorded by the Corps are not especially high (USACE, 2000). This is unusual because typical practice is to release excess water over the crest of the dam or to run it through the hydropower turbines. Thus, higher rates of outflow from the reservoir than those shown on the Corps' datasheets are expected. The total outflow data on the web-site is possibly erroneous.
Initially, outflows were put into the model as single average daily outflows. These values came directly from the Corps' ftp website for the Northwestern Division (USACE, 2000). When the program was run, the water surface elevation increased throughout the year, reaching elevations about 20 m higher than the maximum water surface elevation at the forebay. Figure 4.1 indicates the observed water surface elevations in 1993 that are distinctly different from this initial prediction.
28 Forebay Elevation at Lower Granite Dam in 1993
224.8
224.6
224.4
224.2 --
224-
223.8
223.6
223.4 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 Days (from Jan 1)
Figure 4.1 Forebay Elevations at Lower Granite Dam in 1993. Data Source: USACE, 2000.
The root of the increasing elevations seemed to be unaccounted outflows from the reservoir. To address this problem, the volume of water "accumulated" in the reservoir by the end of the year was divided unequally among the 365 daily outflows for the year. The unequal division was meant to represent irrigation withdrawals from the reservoir that were not represented in the outflow at the dam. Due to lack of knowledge regarding the locations, volumes and timing of the withdrawals, the withdrawals were approximated by adding volumes to the outflow at the dam. As irrigation withdrawals are expected to be low in winter and spring, and higher in summer and fall, the accumulated volume from the initial run was divided to reflect this condition. For instance, the first run using this condition used outflows that were 20 m3/s higher from January to March, 50 m3/s from April to June, 129 m3/s from July to August, 50 m3/s in September, and 20 m3/s from October to December. The results of this run in terms of water elevations follow.
29 Forebay Elevation in Lower Granite Dam in 1993 -- Simulation 1 240 235 4 0U) eE > 230 E > 225 Wa>0 > > 0 220 215 0 100 200 300 400 Days (from Jan 1)
Figure 4.2 Forebay Elevation in 1993 at Lower Granite Dam - Simulation 1
This method of guessing additional outflows for different times of the year was unsuccessful in reproducing the observed water surface elevations. A new method was thus devised based on the following assumptions:
1. There are processes besides inflow and outflow by which the water balance in the reservoir is affected. Processes that decrease the water volume are irrigation withdrawals and evaporation. Conversely, precipitation and inflow from tributaries or runoff between the Snake-Clearwater confluence and Lower Granite dam cause an increase in the water volume. 2. Precipitation is roughly equal to evaporation for the year. 3. Evaporation data from NOAA (NOAA, 1983) indicates that the mean rate of evaporation for the lakes in the Lewiston region from 1946 to 1955 is about 40 in./year. This works out to about 1 m3/s. As the "excess" volume in the reservoir is equivalent to 46.6 m3/s, and evaporation accounts for just 1 m3/s, the bulk of the excess volume must be due to unknown quantities such as irrigation withdrawals or due to erroneous flow data. As these are not known, the simple assumption that inflows are equal to outflows (less evaporation loss) is made. Inflows are equal to outflows for the same day, as the reservoir is run-of-the-river (i.e., elevation does not change much).
Figures 4.3 and 4.4 show the results of a simulation done with outflows set equal to inflows minus evaporation loss. Observed temperature data is superimposed for comparison.
30 Water Surface Elevations at Forebay (Lower Granite Dam) -- Simulated, 1993 ( outflows = inflows - evap. loss) 225.6 a)W 225.4- o o 0) 225.2- *225 - 225 S224.8- 224.6 0 100 200 300 400 Days from Jan 1
Figure 4.3 Simulated water surface elevations at the forebay of Lower Granite Dam, 1993. Inflows = outflows - evaporation loss of 1.4 m3/s.
Forebay Temperatures in 1993 - Simulated (out = in - evap. loss) a 25 20 -f9e*~. (I) -EN 15 .a) U 10 *a 5 E 0 3/2 2/93 5/11/93 6/30/93 8/19/93 10/8/93
-+-Observed --- Simulated
Figure 4.4 Simulated forebay water surface temperatures in Lower Granite Reservoir, 1993. Inflows = outflows + evaporation loss of 1.4 m3/s.
The increase in elevation over the year in the latter simulation led to the inference that outflow was insufficient in the model. Thus, the evaporation loss was omitted from outflows, and outflows were set equal to inflows. The following figure shows the simulated and observed elevations. Note that inflows are the same in both simulations. Outflows are either equal to these inflows or decrease by the quantity lost by evaporation.
31 From the figure, it is clear that subtracting a constant volume from each day's outflows has the effect of increasing water elevations to higher than observed values. If outflows are set equal to inflows, there is a decrease in elevation throughout the year. The simulated elevation at the end of the year deviates by the same amount from the observed end-year value. The inference is that a smaller net constant decrease in daily outflow values will allow better replication of observed elevations (although not to the extent of reproducing sharp drops and rises in elevation). The aim here is to maintain a somewhat constant elevation, such that the elevation at the end of the year is roughly the same as at the beginning of the year.
Water Surface Elevations-Simulated vs. Observed
0225.5
M2 -
Cc 223.5 -
223 i ,
0 100 200 300 400 days from Jan 1, 1993 - in = out --- in = out + evaporation loss --- observed
Figure 4.5 Comparison of simulated and observed water surface elevations at the forebay of Lower Granite Dam in 1993. Source of observed data: US Army Corps of Engineers, Walla Walla District.
The problem with adjusting outflows in order to obtain a constant elevation is that these adjustments might change with changes in annual conditions. In this case, the simplest assumption that the reservoir is run-of-the-river is the best, because this assumption holds for all years. The simulation results obtained for water surface elevation with this assumption show variations that are within the observed elevation variation, that is, within the 223.5 m - 224.7 m range. Without a rough knowledge of the sources and sinks of flow in the reservoir, setting inflows to outflows is the best calibration option for this run-of-the-river reservoir.
32 The temperature-time plot for the simulation where inflows are equal to outflows gives good agreement with observed temperatures. The temperatures compared are at the surface of the forebay of the dam. Observed data were obtained from the Streamnet website (Streamnet, 2000).
Water Surface Temperatures at forebay, 1993
25 20- 15 - S10 -
a. E 0 1 3/22/93 5/11/93 6/30/93 8/19/93 10/8/93
--- Observed w Simulated
Figure 4.6 Simulated and observed water surface temperatures at forebay, 1993, using the assumption that inflows = outflows. Source: US Army Corps of Engineers.
Given the uncertainties in sources and sinks to the reservoir, the simulation is relatively accurate in its reproduction of forebay temperatures in 1993. The average absolute difference is about 1*C, while the simulated temperatures exceed observed temperatures by 0.20 C. The maximum difference was 4.2*C (the simulated temperature exceeded the observed temperature).
4.2 Model Verification
The model was verified on two counts. Firstly, it was verified with respect to vertical temperature profile, for which observed data is available for 1994. Secondly, the water surface temperatures simulated were compared to observed data for a year with average flows, 1995. The procedure for simulation is as described for model calibration.
4.2.1 Vertical Temperature Profile
As only two observed data sets are available (both from 1994), there is insufficient information with which to calibrate the model to simulate correct vertical temperature profiles. Only 1994 vertical temperature data was available. As 1994 was a low-flow, and, therefore, anomalous year, it is unsuitable for calibration use. Consequently, it was only used for
33 verification. Thus, vertical temperature profiles generated by the software should be treated with caution and only used in relative comparisons (i.e., comparisons between different simulated years) and to make qualitative inferences only.
Figure 4.7 shows simulated and observed vertical temperature profiles at two locations along Lower Snake River, both of which lie within Lower Granite Reservoir. The simulation overestimates stratification in both locations. The discrepancy is possibly due to cold water influxes from Clearwater River, which have adjusted temperatures (see Chapter 3) that are too low. The more likely reason is that the model fails to account for mixing between the Clearwater flow and the Snake River flow above the confluence. Thus, Clearwater inflow sinks to the bottom of the reservoir almost immediately after passing the confluence and remains there without interaction with the upper layers. The fact that hypolimnion temperatures are the same (8*C) at two locations 20 miles apart (see Figure 4.7) supports this argument.
Vertical Temperature Profile at RM 129, Aug 13, 1994
Temperature In deg C 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 ' ''
5- E E 10-
. 15-
20
25
-+-Simulated -U- Observed
Vertical Temperature profile at River Mile 108, Aug 10, 1994
Temperature In deg C 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0- 5- E 10
. 15 - 20- 25 -
-+- Simulated -U-Observed
Figure 4.7 Vertical Temperature Profiles at Snake River Miles a) 129 (between Clearwater- Snake confluence and Lower Granite Dam), and, b) 108 (forebay, Lower Granite Dam). Observed data from Appendix C, USACE Draft EIS, 1999.
34 4.2.2 Water Surface Temperatures
Temperatures simulated at the water surface for 1995 match observed data quite well (see Figure 4.8). The average absolute difference between observed and simulated temperature (for the period when observed data is available) is 1C, while the simulated temperatures are on average higher than observed temperatures by 0.5 C. The largest disparity of 4.3'C between simulated and observed temperature occurs on June 2 3rd. In late summer (August), temperature simulation appears inaccurate. The simulated results in fact appear to be leading the observed data. This is probably due to the fact that the model does not simulate enough vertical mixing, and therefore heat absorbed by the reservoir is not spread enough over the entire reservoir volume. Thus, water surface temperatures reflect ambient temperatures and upstream inflow temperatures faster than they would in reality. This is the same reason that the vertical temperature profiles have excessively low bottom temperatures. Otherwise, agreement between simulated and observed is good.
Water Surface Temperatures at forebay, 1995
25
20-
D15-
* 10
E 0_ 1 20/94 3/10/95 6/18/95 9/26/95 1/4 96
Obsered --- Simulated
Figure 4.8 Simulated and observed water surface temperatures in Lower Granite Reservoir, 1995. Observed data from USACE.
35 4.3 Conclusion
In both years when water surface temperatures are simulated, the model's prediction of water surface temperature at the dam exceeds observed temperatures, which are recorded for the late spring to late summer period. The exceedance is small at 0.2-0.5*C. Compared to the average absolute disparity of 1*C, this value is not large and the differences do not support a conclusion that the model is biased toward high-end temperatures based on two years' data. The maximum disparity, at about 4'C, is not unexpectedly large given that boundary conditions and meteorology data is input daily and not hourly.
36 This section describes the simulated 2-D river scenario where the river is returned to free-flowing conditions, i.e. when the four present dams are breached. The with-dams and no-dams scenarios are compared in terms of both water surface temperatures and stratification.
5.1 Dam breaching scenario
It is uncertain just how the hydrology of the Lower Snake River (and indeed, the hydrology of its tributaries) will change in response to the removal of the four dams. Clearly the flow velocity will be greater, although flow rates will probably remain the same. This is due to the lower elevations and therefore smaller cross-section of the river.
It bears noting that the overall exposed surface area of the river has increased since the dams were constructed. This is not unusual when dams are built, as water levels usually increase and the resulting reservoirs submerge previously dry areas flanking the river. This means that in the warm season, the area exposed to solar heating is greater, and therefore the total thermal energy entering the river is greater.
With the breaching of the dams, this exposed area will decrease because the elevation will be lowered significantly. In terms of heat absorbed by the river, this will be an improvement from the point of view of the fish species. Furthermore, with a greater flow velocity, fish will spend less time in Lower Snake River as a whole and therefore be less likely to suffer the ill- effects of excessive heating of the water in summer.
The above is a theory which requires significant research and investigation to prove or disprove. The following simulation is an estimate of water temperatures in the breached-dam scenario. By predicting vertical and longitudinal temperature profiles in the future scenario, the long-term effects of the breached-dam alternative on salmon species in Lower Snake River can be better understood.
5.2 Simulation input
The simulation was performed using meteorological data from 1995 (Yakima Station), inflows recorded at Spalding, ID, and Anatone, WA; and inflow temperatures at Orofino on the
37 Clearwater River, and near Anatone on the Snake River. 1995 was chosen because the flows in that year were close to historical averages (see Chapter 4). In general, the simulation should be run for a range of meteorological and flow conditions in order to encompass the entire variety of ambient environments.
Bathymetry was assumed to be the same as current bathymetry (i.e. 1993), except that the water elevation would be lowered by about 11 m. This lowered height was chosen because it was the drawdown proposed by the Corps when they were considering summertime drawdown as a fish-mitigation measure (see USACE, 1997) As the aim of the measure was to promote fish migration in late summer when river flows are lowest, it can be assumed that the principle behind this draw-down was to get the river to as close to free-flowing "natural" conditions as possible. Thus the maximum draw-down proposed was taken as the extent to which the existing reservoir system on Lower Snake would be lowered in the breached-dam scenario to achieve free-flowing conditions.
5.3 Results
Figures 5.1 and 5.2 show the water surface elevations and temperatures throughout the year simulated. The temperatures simulated seem to be almost the same for the river with and without dams. The with-dams temperatures exceed the no-dams temperatures by an average of
0.4'C. Over the summer months (July to September), the with-dams temperatures exceed no- dams temperatures by twice as much at an average of 0.8*C. The average absolute difference for the entire year is only O.60C, while the maximum difference is 6*C, on October 14th. The difference between the simulated temperatures for the two scenarios is not unlike the temperature differences in the calibration and verification runs. The reason for this similarity is that temperatures at the water surface are determined by solar radiation and other heat exchange processes which occur at the surface and are dependent mostly on meteorological conditions and less on below-surface temperatures, due to lack of mixing between the upper and lower depths. The rate at which the water surface temperatures increase depends on the time period for which they are exposed to ambient heating or cooling. With the dams removed, the hydraulic residence time is shorter, but given the same high ambient temperatures, and poor transmission of absorbed heat from upper to lower depths, it is expected that equilibrium temperatures (unaffected by the presence of dams) will be reached before river mile 107.5. Figure 5.1 shows how the surface temperature regime with dams is hardly changed when the dams are removed. Figure 5.2 shows water surface elevations, which have roughly the same shape as with dams in place.
38 Water Surface Temperatures at RM 108 - Simulated
25- 20 15- 10 S5 - CL 0 E .2-5- 1-Jan 20-Feb 10-Apr 30-May 19-Jul 7-Sep 27-Oct 16-Dec
simulated, no dams - simulated, with dams
Figure 5.1 Water Surface temperatures simulated for the no-dams and with-dams scenarios. Conditions used were the same, as in the 1995 verification simulation.
Figure 5.2 Water surface elevations for the no-dams scenario. Conditions used were the same as in the 1995 verification simulation.
If water surface temperatures do not show the effects of increasing flow velocity and lowering water elevation, the vertical temperature profiles might show greater differences. Firstly, the shallower depths and faster velocities (and hence greater turbulence) of the no-dam situation makes stable stratification harder to achieve. Figure 5.3 shows the vertical temperature profiles at certain locations in the present Lower Granite Reservoir for both the 1995 simulation (with dams)
39 and the no-dams simulation, demonstrating that there is indeed less predicted stratification without the dams.
Vertical Temperature Profiles at RM 108, with 1995 conditions
Temperature in deg C 12 14 16 18 20 22 0' 5-
E 101 S15- 0 S20-
25 30
-+-- Simulated, w ith dams -u-Simulated, no dams
Vertical temperature profiles at RM 129-- Simulated with 1995 conditions Temperature in deg C 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
- E *~10- *.15- 20-
25-
-4-Simrulated, w Mi damns -uSiulated, no-damns
Figure 5.3 Vertical Temperature profiles at (a) RM 108 on August 10, and (b) RM 129 on August 13. Meteorological and inflow data as for 1995. Profiles are for simulations with and without dams.
40 5.4 Conclusions
In free-flowing conditions, the stretch of Lower Snake River from its confluence with Clearwater River and the present location of Lower Granite Dam appears to have less thermal stratification than when impounded. Over the span of a year, water surface temperatures do not change significantly going from impounded to free-flowing conditions. However, in the summer, water surface temperatures are higher by almost a degree (Celsius) in impounded vs. unimpounded conditions. In contrast, there is a higher minimum temperature in unimpounded compared to impounded conditions. In late summer (August), when thermal stratification is at its maximum, the minimum temperature in the river is 1.6'C higher at RM 129 and 3.9*C higher at RM 108 than for when Lower Granite Dam is in place. Note that in the free-flowing river scenario, cold-water releases from Dworshak Dam are still assumed to occur, as in 1995.
It may be premature to conclude that the 1-4*C temperature increase at lower depths from the with-dams to the no-dams scenario is significant, given that in the verification of 1994 data, the model was more than 5*C off the mark when it came to predicting hypolimnetic temperatures. Despite this caveat, the comparison of vertical temperature profiles for both scenarios (with 1995 conditions) is useful. Firstly, the no-dams results show the same type of stratification curve as with dams. Thus, the increase in temperature at depth is not random and therefore is probably significant.
For temperatures at lower depths, the model really depends on the temperature of coldwater inflows from Dworshak Dam in its determination of hypolimnetic temperature. The fact that the model returned higher hypolimnion temperatures for the no-dams scenario using the same coldwater releases for both no-dams and with-dams scenarios indicates that mixing is much more significant with dams removed. The inference to be made is not that temperatures at the bottom will increase by 1-4*C when the dams are removed, but that heat absorbed by the water body will be much more uniformly distributed in the water column.
These simulations indicate that the surface temperatures will decrease in the no-dam scenario, but the temperatures at depth will increase. The temperature changes going from impounded to free-flowing conditions are small, but significant. The conditions used in both cases (with-dams and no-dams) are identical, thus the fact that there is a disparity in the temperatures in the two cases is qualitatively important even if this disparity is inaccurate in
41 magnitude. The implication of this result is that while dam removal may assist salmon populations that live mainly in the upper layers of the water column, the dam breaching option may also adversely impact fish in the bottom layers.
42 6.0 Discussion and Recommendations
There are several dimensions to the way salmon species choose their habitat in the Lower Snake River. For example, it has been observed that subyearling chinook prefer shorelines in spring, where they remain until increasing temperatures force them to seek cooler waters (Curet, 1993). Some of the main considerations for salmon in determining the optimal habitat are water temperature, dissolved oxygen content, and cover from predators (Coutant, 1999). These factors are rarely complementary. For instance, high dissolved oxygen levels are found at the surface. However, in summer, water surface temperatures are much too high for salmon. Thus, a compromise must be reached between the two needs.
The analysis in this thesis only considers the temperature issue. While the simulations have over-predicted thermal stratification, they show relative differences between stratification in impounded and free-flowing conditions. As indicated in Section 5.4, such stratification effects may be important in determining the effects of dam removal on habitats of Lower Snake River fish. With more accurate data and more detailed calibration, the model can be used to predict thermal stratification much more accurately. Stratification may be important because it creates depths of different temperatures that salmon may seek refuge in. Although juveniles tend to stay at the surface regardless of temperature (Coutant, 1999), adults may vary their habitat depths if there is a substantial temperature advantage.
This thesis has shown that stratification, while possibly over-predicted, is significant. Water surface temperatures tend to change little with or without dams because they are determined more by the ambient temperatures and solar heating than water temperatures at depth. To look at the issue from the point of view of the salmon, this means that dam removal will not hold much advantage if the fish tend to stay at the surface despite the high temperatures there. On the other hand, Lower Snake River salmon have adapted somewhat to their transformed habitat since the construction of the four dams. There is every reason to expect them to take advantage of the stratification effect in the river, or even adapt to higher temperatures. In the case of dam removal, the stratification advantage may be reduced because temperatures at the bottom of the river will be higher than with the dams in place.
43 A further step to take would be to compare the 1-D model with the 2-D model. While water temperatures at the surface appear to be about the same for the no-dams scenario using either model (Perkins and Richmond, 1999), this does not necessarily validate the 1 -D model, or even the 2-D model. A detailed comparison of the two is important because it would probe the current assumptions about Lower Snake River, both currently, and with the dams removed. Lower Snake presents a difficult problem because no one can really predict how the river will change when the dams are removed.
Finally, a scale model of the river, or select portions of it, should be made in order to investigate hydrology changes when dams are removed. Of course, conditions such as meteorology will be impossible to simulate in a laboratory setting. One way to overcome these problems may be to simulate the water budget variation in the actual system.
44 Chapter 1
1. USACE, 1999. Draft Environmental Impact Statement and Feasibility Study for Lower Snake River, United States Army Corps of Engineers, December 1999. 2. Yearsley, John, 1999. Columbia River Temperature Assessment: Simulation Methods, United States Environmental Protection Agency Region 10, February 1999. 3. Perkins, William A., and Richmond, Marshall C., 1999. Long-term, One-Dimensional Simulation of Lower Snake River Temperatures for Current and Unimpounded Conditions: Draft Report. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, August 1999.
Chapter 2
1. J.E. Edinger, 2000. http://www.jeeai.con/ 2. Cole, Thomas M., and Buchak, Edward M., 1995. CE-QUAL-W2: A Two-Dimensional, Laterally Averaged, Hydrodynamic and Water Quality Model, Version 2.0, USACE, June 1995. 3. USGS, 2000. http://www.mesc.usgs.gov/projects/shasta-lake.htm 4. Cornell, 2000. http://www.utilities.cornell.edu/EIS/Thermal.htm 5. USGS Water, 2000. http://waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis-w 6. Streamnet, 2000. ftp://www.streamnet.org/pub/streamnet/Crbtdata
Chapter 3 1. J.E. Edinger, 2000. http://www.jeeai.com/ 2. Streamnet, 2000. ftp://www.streamnet.org/pub/streamnet/Crbtdata 3. USGS, 2000. http://waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis-w 4. USACE, 2000. http://www.nwd-wc.usace.army.mil/ftppub/data request/ 5. NOAA, 1993. Nautical Chart 18548, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce & U.S Department of the Interior, June 1993.
Chapter 4 1. http://www.nww.usace.army.mil/html/pub/pi/navigation/lwrgran.htm) 2. http://www.nwd-wc.usace.army.mil/ftppub/data request/ 3. Climatic Atlas of the United States, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, reprinted 1983.
Chapter 5
1. USACE, 1997. http://www.nww.usace.army.mil/html/offices/pl/pf/scs/natriver.htm
Chapter 6
1. Curet, 1993. Habitat Use, Food Habits and the Influence of Predation on Subyearling Chinook Salmon in Lower Granite and little Goose Reservoirs, Washington, Thomas S. Curet, M.S. Thesis, University of Idaho, December 1993. 2. Coutant, 1999. Perspectives on Temperature in the Pacific Northwest's Fresh Waters, Charles C. Coutant, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1999.
45 3. Perkins, William A., and Richmond, Marshall C., 1999. Long-term, One-Dimensional Simulation of Lower Snake River Temperatures for Current and Unimpounded Conditions: Draft Report. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, August 1999.
Appendix A
1. Cole, Thomas M., and Buchak, Edward M., 1995. CE-QUAL-W2: A Two-Dimensional, Laterally Averaged, Hydrodynamic and Water Quality Model, Version 2.0, USACE, June 1995.
Appendix B
1. NCDC, 2000. http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ 2. Brennan, T.S., Lehmann, A.K., O'Dell, I., Tungate, A.M., Water Resources Data, Idaho, Water Year 1998 U.S. Department of the Interior, 1998.
Appendix C
1. NOAA, 1993. Nautical Chart 18548, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce and U.S. Department of the Interior, June 1993.
46 The following is an excerpt from the User Manual for CE-QUAL-W2, Version 2, by Tom Cole and Edward M. Buchak, June 1995. It discusses the equations behind the model. Only portions pertinent to the case of Lower Granite Reservoir are included.
Fundamental Equations
CE-QUAL-W2 uses the laterally averaged equations of fluid motion derived from the three di- mensional equations (Edinger and Buchak, 1975). They consist of six equations and six un- knowns. The equations are: Horizontal Momentum
a BAx--aU aUB , aUUB + aWUB _ 1 BP +a + Bx (A-1) at 8x az p ax 8x dz where
U = longitudinal, laterally averaged velocity, m sec' B = waterbody width, m t = time, sec x = longitudinal Cartesian coordinate: x is along the lake centerline at the water surface, positive to the right z = vertical Cartesian coordinate: z is positive downward W = vertical, laterally averaged velocity, m sec-' p = density, kg m P = pressure, N m 2 = longitudinal momentum dispersion coefficient, m2 sec- T = shear stress per unit mass resulting from the vertical gradient of the horizontal velocity, U, mz sec2
The first term represents the time rate of change of horizontal momentum, and the second and third terms are the horizontal and vertical advection of momentum. The first term on the right- hand side (RHS) of equation (A-1) is the force imposed by the horizontal pressure gradient. The second term on the RHS is the horizontal dispersion of momentum, and the third term is the force due to shear stress.
47 Constituent Transport
a aBD a BD az (A-2) aB + aBB , WBGD _ '8-x/ _ z az / = qB + S,B (A2 at ax az ax az where
(D = laterally averaged constituent concentration, g m D, = longitudinal temperature and constituent dispersion coefficient, m2 sec' D, = vertical temperature and constituent dispersion coefficient, m2 secI q, = lateral inflow or outflow mass flow rate of constituent per unit volume, g Mr3 sec' S, = kinetics source/sink term for constituent concentrations, g tn4 sec'
Each constituent has a balance as in equation (A-) with specific source and sink terms. The first term in equation (A-1) represents the time rate of change of constituent concentration and the second and third terms are the horizontal and vertical advection of constituents. The fourth and fifth terms are the horizontal and vertical diffusion of constituents. The first term on the RHS is the lateral inflow/outflow of constituents, and the second term represents kinetic source/sink rates for constituents. Free Water Surface Elevation
aB i a h _1_ = - fUBdz - fqBdz at x (A-3) where
B7 = time and spatially varying surface width, m = free water surface location, m h = total depth, m q = lateral boundary inflow or outflow, m3 sec'
48 BP =zpg (A-4) az where
2 g = acceleration due to gravity, m sec Continuity aUB 8WB3 + =qB (A-5) 8x B
Equation of State
p = f(TI,,@.MIA,) (A-6) where
f(TA-Ds,AD) = density function dependent upon temperature, total dissolved solids or salinity, and suspended solids
The six equations result in six unknowns:
1. free water surface elevation, il 2. pressure, P 3. horizontal velocity, U 4. vertical velocity, W 5. constituent concentration, D 6. density, p
Lateral averaging eliminates the lateral momentum balance, lateral velocity, and Coriolis acceleration. The solution of the six equations for the six unknowns forms the basic model structure.
49 This section contains information about the locations at which data were collected, copies of data that were used, and sources of all data. Data here does not include bathymetric cross-sections, which can be found in Appendix C.
B.1 Locations
B.1.1 Meteorological Stations
Lewiston Nez Perce County Airport, Idaho - USGS Station 24149
Latitude/Longitude: 46022'N / 117 001'W Elevation: 437.7m (1435.7') above sea level
"Lewiston is located at the confluence of the Snake and Clearwater Rivers at an elevation of 738 feet above mean sea level. Lower Granite Lake extends from the confluence of the two rivers, 32 miles downstream in the Snake River channel, to Lower Granite Dam. The valley is rather narrow with a range of hills to the north sloping abruptly to about 2,000 feet above the valley floor. To the south the terrain rises more gradually to a more or less flat bench about 700 feet above the valley. The Weather Office is located on the bench at an elevation of 1,413 feet above sea level and about 2 miles south of Lewiston. Although Lewiston is at about the same latitude as Duluth, Minnesota, the climate, especially in the wintertime, is comparatively very mild. This mildness can be explained by its location with respect to the effects of Pacific air masses from the west and by the sheltering effects of the mountains that surround the valley in almost every direction.
Considerable variations in the climate are to be found within relatively short distances from the valley itself. On the prairies surrounding the valley, winter temperatures are much lower and the precipitation is normally almost double that recorded in the valley and at the airport location.
Precipitation normally amounts to about 13 inches annually, which is rather evenly distributed through the year except for the months of July and August, which are characterized by infrequent thunderstorms that usually drop only small amounts of rain. Records show that several times during these two months not more than a trace of rain has been recorded and at times not even a trace. The thunderstorms on the prairie are, at times, accompanied by heavy hail and windstorms. Snowfall in the valley averages about 18 inches during the year, concentrated mostly in the three months of December, January, and February, but in the higher country surrounding the valley the snowfall is much heavier. Most of the precipitation reaching this vicinity results from strong invasions of moist air from the North Pacific source region. Greatest amounts of both rain and snow occur when this moist air is overrunning a weak front that has become stationary along an east-west line a short distance south of the area.
Temperatures show a wide range from more than 115 degrees to less than -20 degrees. Many winters have gone by without a temperature of zero being recorded in the valley, but the prairie sections usually experience lower temperatures. The
50 summers experience hot and dry periods with as many as 10 consecutive days with afternoon temperatures reaching 100 degrees or more. Considerable cooling after sunset makes the nights very comfortable. Cold waves occur when arctic air, originating in the Yukon Territory, moves southward. Such cold waves are relatively infrequent when compared to the number of arctic outbreaks east of the continental divide in Montana only a short distance away.
Winds are light, usually prevailing from the east, with occasional stronger winds accompanying the well-developed frontal systems from the west.
Relative humidity averages about 70 percent during the winter months and gradually lowers to about 40 percent during July and August.
The growing season of approximately 200 days in this part of the country, makes conditions favorable for the growing of many types of fruits, vegetables, and berries."
--- from National Climatic Data Center web-site (NCDC, 2000)
Yakima Weather Station - USGS Station 24243
Latitude/Longitude: 46034'N / 120033'W Elevation: 324.3m (1063.7') above sea level
"Yakima is located in a small east-west valley in the upper (northwestern) part of the Yakima Valley. Local topography is complex with a number of minor valleys and ridges giving a local relief of as much as 1,000 feet. This complex topography results in marked variations in air drainage, winds, and low temperatures within short distances.
The climate of the Yakima Valley is relatively mild and dry. It has characteristics of both maritime and continental climates, modified by the Cascade and the Rocky Mountains, respectively. Summers are dry and rather hot, and winters cool with only light snowfall. The maritime influence is strongest in winter when the prevailing westerlies are the strongest and most steady. The Selkirk and Rocky Mountains in British Columbia and Idaho shield the area from most of the very cold air masses that sweep down from Canada into the Great Plains and eastern United States. Sometimes a strong polar high pressure area over western Canada will occur at the same time that a low pressure area covers the southwestern United States. On these occasions, the cold arctic air will pour through the passes and down the river valleys of British Columbia, bringing very cold temperatures to Yakima. However, over one-half of the winters remain above zero.
The modifying influence of the Pacific Ocean is much less in summer. Afternoons are hot, but the dry air results in a rapid temperature fall after sunset, and nights are pleasantly cool with summertime low temperatures, usually in the 50s. Spells of 4 to 11 days of 100 degrees or more have occurred. The length of the growing season varies depending on the immediate topography and the crop grown. Temperatures below 32 degrees are infrequent during the period from mid-May through September. Temperatures below 40 degrees during July and August have occurred in about half of the years.
Precipitation follows the pattern of a West Coast marine climate with the typical late fall and early winter high. However, since Yakima lies in the rain shadow of the Cascades, total amounts are small. The three months, November to January, total
51 nearly half of the annual fall. Late June, July, and August are very dry.
Irrigation is necessary for nearly all crops. Ample water supplies are available from the snowmelt in the Cascade Mountains which is collected in storage reservoirs for summer use.
Snowfall in the Yakima area is light, averaging 20 to 25 inches.
Summers are sunny, with about 85 percent of the possible sunshine. Winters are generally cloudy, with only a third of the possible sunshine.
Winds are mostly light, averaging about 7 mph for the year, being somewhat stronger in late spring and weaker in winter. Speeds of 30 to 35 mph are reached at least once in about half the months and speeds over 40 mph occur in about I out of 5 months. The most common wind direction in downtown Yakima is northwest, while at the airport the wind is from the west in winter and the west-northwest in summer."
--- from National Climatic Data Center web-site
B.1.2 Flow Gauge Stations
Table B.1 Characteristics of Flow Gauge Stations Station Latitude Longitude County Basin Drainage Datum (ft. Number name Area above msl) (miles2) 13342500 46026'55" 116049'35" Nez Perce Clearwater 9570 770.49 13334300 46005'50" 116058'36" Asotin Lower 92960 807 Snake- Asotin
Note:
Snake River near Anatone, WA Outflows are measured at Lower Granite Dam by he US Army Corps of Engineers. The outflow is generally the sum of the spill and the generator water use.
52 0 10 20 30 MILES
0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS
Figure B.1 Locations of streamflow and water quality gauge stations in north-central Idaho.Source: Brennan et al
B.1.3 Temperature Measurement Locations
Clearwater River at Orofino
STATION LOCATION: In Orofino at river mile 44.6 at gauging station on right bank. SOURCE OF DATA: USGS, Washington District, Pasco, WA
53 Snake River near Anatone, WA
STATION LOCATION: at river mile 167.2 at gauging station on left bank, 7.8 mi. east of Anatone. DATA SOURCE: USGS, Washington District, Pasco, WA.
Lower Granite Dam TDG Forebay (used for verification of model)
STATION LOCATION: River mile 107.5 on outside of wall to navigational lock upstream of spillway SOURCE OF DATA: US Army Corps of Engineers Pacific Division Office, data collected by Walla Walla District Office.
B.2 Data
Bathymetry file (with-dams)
Lower Granite Reservoir bathymetry
Segment length [DLX] 1000.0 1300.0 1300.0 1300.0 2400.0 2200.0 4300.0 1600.0 1600.0 1600.0 1600.0 1600.0 1600.0 1600.0 1600.0 3200.0 400.0 1100.0 1600.0 1600.0 1600.0 1600.0 1600.0 1600.0 1600.0 1600.0 1600.0 1600.0 1600.0 1600.0 800.0 1000.0
Water surface elevation [ELWS] 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51 224.51
Segment orientation [PHIO] 5.60 5.60 5.60 4.10 4.97 5.20 4.36 5.22 0.07 0.02 5.50 5.52 0.09 0.28 5.95 5.95 5.79 5.79 5.32 5.27 5.39 4.82 5.04 5.90 5.45 5.45 6.20 0.17 5.48 4.78 5.24 5.24
Layer height [H] 1.0 2.0 2.0 [.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 [.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0
Segment 1 - branch 1 upstream boundary 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.
Segment 2 - branch 1 0. 394. 385. 377. 370. 363. 346. 292. 215. 116. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.
Segment 3 - branch 1 0. 394. 385. 377. 370. 363. 346. 292. 215. 116. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.
Segment 4 - branch 1 0. 394. 385. 377. 370. 363. 346. 292. 215. 116. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.
Segment 5 - branch 1 0. 432. 424. 416. 412. 406. 400. 376. 186. 143. 79. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.
54 Segment 6 - branch 1 0. 535. 465. 350. 287. 271. 263. 235. 200. 162. 129. 108. 81. 38. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.
Segment 7 - branch 1 0. 516. 475. 432. 394. 364. 297. 265. 257. 246. 235. 220. 199. 175. 143. 107. 52. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. Segment 8 - branch 1 0. 478. 461. 445. 430. 414. 387. 359. 341. 322. 316. 304. 290. 272. 239. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.
Segment 9 - branch 1 0. 452. 440. 424. 414. 413. 411. 393. 369. 342. 322. 306. 290. 275. 159. 123. 92. 46. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. Segment 10 - branch 1 0. 493. 458. 430. 425. 414. 401. 381. 365. 348. 342. 326. 309. 281. 232. 130. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. Segment 11 - branch 1 0. 528. 481. 443. 423. 410. 386. 348. 322. 297. 274. 259. 238. 213. 174. 113. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. Segment 12 - branch 1 0. 496. 493. 487. 484. 481. 477. 458. 435. 407. 381. 359. 333. 301. 267. 212. 159. 93. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. Segment 13 - branch 1 0. 486. 459. 443. 436. 429. 422. 413. 401. 374. 316. 275. 219. 67. 65. 62. 58. 52. 41. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. Segment 14 - branch 1 0. 457. 436. 422. 413. 405. 392. 372. 364. 355. 342. 328. 302. 241. 101. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. Segment 15 - branch 1 0. 476. 469. 460. 450. 431. 389. 360. 343. 329. 316. 309. 299. 287. 276. 266. 254. 243. 229. 216. 191. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.
Segment 16 - branch 1 0. 410. 393. 380. 369. 362. 350. 331. 312. 292. 276. 268. 257. 248. 238. 231. 221. 214. 206. 196. 180. 151. 120. 83. 31. 0. 0. 0. 0.
Segment 17 - branch 1 0. 405. 395. 387. 358. 352. 343. 333. 320. 308. 299. 293. 287. 277. 272. 267. 265. 260. 255. 248. 229. 152. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. Segment 18 - branch 1 0. 608. 594. 583. 575. 569. 554. 519. 463. 406. 358. 335. 308. 285. 269. 258. 248. 242. 235. 227. 208. 123. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.
Segment 19 - branch 1 0. 602. 573. 554. 538. 519. 494. 463. 429. 398. 377. 362. 348. 337. 327. 321. 315. 312. 306. 300. 288. 242. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.
Segment 20 - branch 1 0. 692. 681. 673. 667. 662. 654. 638. 623. 612. 600. 590. 579. 565. 538. 335. 323. 310. 296. 283. 256. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.
Segment 21 - branch 1 0. 528. 523. 519. 514. 509. 497. 490. 483. 478. 472. 470. 465. 459. 449. 319. 317. 316. 310. 304. 286. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.
55 Segment 22 - branch 1 0. 655. 643. 638. 630. 626. 614. 580. 526. 468. 429. 394. 369. 348. 321. 290. 271. 251. 232. 207. 166. 112. 54. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. Segment 23 - branch 1 0. 564. 554. 545. 539. 536. 530. 507. 474. 439. 414. 397. 378. 367. 355. 345. 339. 332. 325. 313. 290. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. Segment 24 - branch 1 0. 642. 635. 631. 627. 625. 619. 606. 592. 577. 565. 554. 540. 523. 508. 488. 469. 450. 435. 408. 358. 204. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. Segment 25 - branch 1 0. 471. 458. 451. 446. 442. 435. 420. 404. 387. 372. 364. 352. 341. 330. 319. 307. 294. 281. 268. 238. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. Segment 26 - branch 1 0. 542. 533. 528. 523. 517. 506. 490. 474. 455. 439. 430. 420. 409. 397. 383. 370. 352. 339. 322. 291. 246. 206. 159. 113. 55. 0. 0. 0. Segment 27 - branch 1 0. 771. 755. 721. 712. 710. 707. 686. 655. 621. 598. 583. 567. 519. 514. 429. 381. 348. 300. 262. 190. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. Segment 28 - branch 1 0. 704. 700. 694. 692. 688. 685. 673. 663. 654. 644. 638. 627. 613. 542. 500. 481. 458. 437. 415. 362. 215. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. Segment 29 - branch 1 0. 771. 751. 744. 739. 737. 729. 722. 717. 707. 702. 695. 688. 678. 663. 646. 624. 598. 576. 554. 512. 317. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. Segment 30 - branch 1 0. 873. 861. 854. 849. 844. 837. 815. 785. 759. 737. 715. 695. 676. 651. 634. 620. 598. 576. 556. 505. 351. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. Segment 31 - branch 1 0. 905. 890. 871. 859. 846. 827. 810. 795. 780. 771. 763. 756. 746. 737. 727. 715. 698. 678. 663. 632. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. Segment 32 - branch 1 downstream boundary 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.
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Spalding, ID (on Clearwater River) (a) 1993 Clearwater Inflows (Branch 2) - 1993 JDAY Qtr 1.00000093.39000 2.00000089.99400 3.00000088.01300 4.00000087.16400 5.00000099.05000 6.000000231.4940 7.00000089.42800 8.00000075.84400 9.00000081.78700 10.0000082.35300 11.00000297.1500 12.00000325.4500 13.00000291.4900 14.0000090.84300 15.00000114.0490 16.0000099.89900 17.0000096.78600 18.0000093.39000 19.0000090.27700 20.00000103.5780 21.0000098.76700 22.0000099.89900 23.00000100.1820 24.0000098.20100 25.0000096.78600 26.00000101.5970 27.00000116.0300 28.00000117.1620 29.00000115.7470 30.00000113.2000 31.00000109.2380 32.00000104.9930 33.00000104.4270 34.0000099.61600 35.0000098.76700 36.0000098.48400 37.0000099.05000 38.00000101.8800 39.00000105.8420 40.00000107.2570 41.00000110.3700 42.00000120.8410 43.00000127.6330 44.00000134.1420 45.00000134.9910 46.00000132.7270 47.00000118.8600 48.00000179.4220 49.00000154.8010 50.0000099.89900 51.00000119.1430 52.00000116.5960 53.00000111.5020 54.00000104.9930 55.00000101.3140 56.0000099.33300 57.0000095.37100 58.0000091.97500 59.0000093.10700 60.0000094.80500 61.0000096.50300 62.0000097.06900 63.0000098.20100 64.00000104.9930 65.00000142.3490 66.00000193.5720 67.00000230.6450 71 Ci 000000000000000000loliN 0000000000000000000O 000000000000000000000o00000000000000000000000 nq m H m~ wO - in N- 0 H m H m N- m mO wO N H %.D - mw CO 0r Mn NO ms i m O 'IV 0 (N mO r- -4 N MOM 0 MO0 Ln Lfn M H -m H -4 -n M -# W r- H:I rO (N (N Ki H l~ (N wO H- 0 W in) IT m (N H 0 (N m H 0D 1-1 M'C H H M~ N- '. 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N- in co CO) -i 0 N- in c N- CO N- (N CO CO H H H- -1 CO) CO 0 m m H CO CO CO w w CO k.0 N- 0 N in in N- CO co CO Hi H H4 H H4 H CO CO H H H H H1 H H H4 H- H H H H H1 H HHi -In Iql m ' KT l ' o$ -v -;v ii T n in q R41' T ,j 41 in in m n min '.0 '0 in in w. w. w. w (N (N (N N H H (N n (N m y ' tin l-ZI m inz l 00 00 0 D 00 D 00000000000000000000C) 0(D ) 0 0 D 00 0 D 00 000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 CO CO 0 HD(NC) in C) ND CO COC DC )C DnC )( C DC DC )C l DC 0 H (N k' in '.0 N; CO COO HV ( k' E '.0 N CO CO 00 0 00 0 H- H H H H H; Hq H HC H (- (N (N (N HN N (N W- (N00 H H H H- H H H H- H H H4 H H- H- H H- H- H- HA H- H- H- Hl H- H- HA Hq HA H- H4 H H H H H H H1 W. .0 N- N- N- N- N- N N N NN COCO CO CO CO CO CO COCO O O CO C COCO CO CO CO CO COMH H H H H H H- H- H H- H H1 P P H P P H P P H P P H P P H p H H p H H P LN N) t N) NJ N) K) m) N) N)i N)i N)i Ni Ni Ni N) Ni Ni P p V- FH P H P P H P p p p p P p- H P p H- H p p p H p p p M~ K) Ili N)i N) ~iti N) Ili N)i N)i - .3 'i -1 CO COl~ CO~ CO COC OCOC OUnU ,U U ,U U ,U tip P) p PH P P P P PcH H )=CC))D: 0000000000 UU U , ,UU U , ,CWC O OCOC C O O -. i-] 'j-J - 1 -3 Eli N)j~ N) ltl N) "KN N ) 0 w -j CO u, WA N) Hl O0 CO 003 C )WN ,C 3C n P LO tJ Hl 0D W 00 -3J CO Ul 4.: 10LO)MNU U, Co -1 3) uO o, 1.-) ") p 0: ko CO -3 a) U, 0 Wi"PC)w0 . nO N) - 0 w 00 -j CO U, w ") P 0 w 00 -. 3 CO U, 9b A N) H 00 to D D D D D ': ; C:)0000;0;D;D0000000000;D000D*C D D; C:);D D D D ) D D;Z (:: ; (:: 000000000000000000000000000000;D000000;0000000000000;00000;0;000;0;0D0:00 D ) C C C C 000000C 000C00CD 0000) 00) 000(00C) 000CDC)00C 000)0D0) 00C 000) 000000000)00000 0)0C000C0C)0000000C)C)00C0000000) 00C0C0000C0(00C00C)00D0C0000D C)0 0 C0000C00000 C 0C 000C0000000000C) 00C0000(0C)0 D C)0)0)0000D00000CDC)0D0D0000)000000D00000000000(0000C0C00)00000)0000000000C00)0 0( 0000D000D C)0 000D ) 000C0000C00C0C)0 )0)00C0C 000C)00D0C0000D0)000(0C 000000C 00000)00000DC0000C0C,00000C)(DC00000)C0(DC000C000C00DC0000C0(DCDC)0 -. 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N U, H U, CO <3 U, U, ") CO U, L U, W 0 CO 0 H <3 CO " U, U, U, -,I H i~ U, 0. 00 -3 C) N) H -3 -3 -3 H H -3j 000000000000DOOOCO(C)CD)COOCCOOO000000000 OM00000O -3- CO U N)"OCC)O 000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000D 00 0 00 C 00 a0 0C)C) 00000000000000000000C 0 C 0 00 0C)0 00 C)0 MNNNHHN Nwm-OMNIIHODOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO)OOOOOOOOOOOOO C~o-OOOOO OOO00OOOOOOOOOHiOOOOOOO 0 ol w m w U-r~(N(N(NH N-NN)a)N)N m) %D Hi w 00N ( m~(Nd * * 0 1 H)00 N a m 00 ' (N N 00 (N N 00- a) maw 00 0 w) 00 H In mf 00 w 0 H 00 (N w) 00H (N w) 000OO w 0 -V N -I w (Na (N 000000 -; H Iz (N if m 0 H (N H 0N H1 000 I'l 00H w) N- N 0 m N-Ho00 00 411 w) 0In H H wn m H wn N H m~ H In In w) o (N o mn N m) m) -z 0 H 0 w) m) m) N m) N- m m m m~w) m N H , j a m ) w) n w n 0 m m N- 00o m N-N- -;r a) N- a) H m H In m~ w N- a) N (N (N N- w H 4Inw(N w o,4 if) a);4i H I - - - - * - - * - - * - ' - - * - ' ' '~n ' " ' ' N N * ' * -N - *N * - - ' - - - - "M - - - - -n o m~ o N H ~o mm N -c * aNNHHHHH0HwMOONno(N mm oyHNHOOOO m omO mmNNHNwo H m mwmw In;3 ri m (N (N rn) (N H H H- H H- i H ) H 000 a) a wn Ino N H 0: H In u-n -j un rm H a) a)o) a) N I- Wn Wn L .4 ( N (N (N H H 000 H C C 0 H a) 00 N CA N 0 a) In r( N H 0 a) a) N NH 0 a) (N (Y) a)CNaY) 000000000000000000000ODOCDCDC000000000000 000 00000 000000 000000 0000000000 000000000000000000OOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0000OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0000000000000000000000 m ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I InIn In In) In In) In) In Ini In In I;3 'v In In I;n I~ zIn In Nn Nf Nn Nn Nn Nn N) Nn Nn N a) a) wa -[ -r-r -r -C ) 00 OD 0 ) OD 00 OD a) a) a) ) a) a)00o000000a)0H (N N (N N (N N (N (N (N NN N (N N (N (N (N N N N (N N N (N N N N (N (N N (N (N (N (N (N (N (N (N (N (N (N (N N (N (N (N N (N (N N N N N N N (N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N m) m mmmmm m~Ol m m m L nL nL nL nL n4-4 .A .A .4-I.LJ L. ) LAJ U) J J LAJ LI) U)J UJ J) U) W) tU )U )U )U U )U )U )U ) ) ) ) Ui w) ) ) ) H))U)U-H C) C) C) CO 0C( CD CD , U, U0 C) CD (D U, U, U, C) C) C ) UZ) 0) U:)0CD0C ) C) C) CD CD CD 0) CD ND CD 0 C 0 CD 0 C (D D CD C) HD H) HD H) HD HDC , C) C) C) H C 0 C) (D C.) C U, 0 U) ) H 0 UCD J CD U, 0 U) N) H 0 0, C) C) D ) U, 0 U) ) H 0 ,CD 0 C 0, D 0) C) HD 0 (D C) -) C U, CD U )H WO MOW M -) -)J W 00 00 00 %.0U, U, W , , U, H H H H- H W U, U, H H H H Hl H- Hl 00 C) U C) -J 00 0O 00 00 W, UO U, 0O 00 W, 00 00 00 00 00 1,0 t U, CO -,] H --J CO CO) NJ) O-J W, Hl H N) LO CO) %.U C 000 CO CO) CO 00 H Hl H H- 0 U, U) W, W) -1 - CO -- j H w) H CO CO0 CO CO mw -- l CO N.) 0 w) -W U) 0- W U, H U, W) N) 0 U, 4 U, -J N) U, N) CO N) U, - CO ) 0O CO U) P U, D U) 0 M -3 W 0 CO A. w H CO 0-_jO CO -m -j w U, N) CO -3 U, A. U, U, 0 CO -.3 w -3 U, m 0 CO U, N) H CO H 0)0 U, N) -3 -3] N) CO)0 H 0. COD ) H CO N) CO U, 0 U, N) -3 U, Ln U,- U) U, H U, -. 3 ") 0O CO U,0 00 ) 0 00 0D0 00C)000 000 , ) C O CO UaC)0WM 00 N) U, CO 19N WU 0C ) D0C )C) CO 030000000000000000 00CD00 00000W00W0W0000000000000000000000000000000W0W0000 Appendix C This appendix contains cross-sectional information about the reservoir. The cross-sections were derived from a Nautical Chart produced by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association in June 1993 (NOAA, 1993). All values are in feet; X-axis values describe reservoir widths and Y-axis values describe depths. RM 137 0 100 200 300 400 500 0 50 100 150 200 M RM 135.8 0 100 200 300 400 500 0 .7 50 100 150 200 RM 134.3 0 200 400 600 800 0 50 100 1 50 200 250 RM 132.2 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 50 ~ - - - 100 150 200 250 76 RM 129.2 0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 RM 128.2 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 50 100 150 200 250 RM 127.5 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 50- 200 250 77 RM 125.5 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 . . 200 300 RM +124.5 0 100 200 300 400 500 0 50 100 150 200 250 78 RM 122 0 100 200 300 400 500 10 100. 200 300 400 RM 121 0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 RM 119.5 0 200 400 600 800 0 100 200- 300 400 M 79 RM 117.5 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 :200 :300 400 RM 116.5 0 200 400 600 800 0 100 200 300 400 ... RM 115.5 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 - 400 80 RM 113.5 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 1 400 RM 112.5 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 RM 111.5 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 100 - - - - 200 - -- 300- 81 RM 110.5 0 200 400 600 800 0 100 200 300 400 RM 109.5 0 200 400 600 800 1000 100 200 300 400 RM 108.5 0 200 400 600 800 1000 100 200 300 400 82