SoV 3.1 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

1 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1. Implementing an EAF ...... 1 1.2. Brief History of the Fisheries in Angola ...... 3 1.3. The Angolan Fishery for Sardinella and Horse Mackerel – Historical Data ...... 5 1.4. Report Development Methodology ...... 10 2. ANGOLAN ARTISANAL FISHERIES ...... 12 3. INSTITUTIONAL DIMENSIONS OF THE ANGOLAN FISHERIES ...... 16 3.1. Access/Use right ...... 19 3.2. Participation of Fishers and Fish Workers and Community Level Institutions ...... 20 3.3. Interactions between Different Policies ...... 22 3.4. Support Centers for Artisanal Fisheries ...... 24 4. FISHERIES DATA ...... 26 4.1. Benguela Province ...... 30 4.2. Namibe Province ...... 40 4.3. Luanda Province ...... 62 5. CONCLUSIONS ...... 71 6. REFERENCES ...... 75

i Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

List of Tables Table 1: Estimates of biomass (‘000 tons) of pelagic fish Type 1, mainly sardinella, as estimated from the R/V DR. Fridtjof Nansen surveys in Angolan waters...... 6 Table 2: Estimates of biomass of Cunene horse mackerel as estimated from the R/V DR. Fridtjof Nansen Surveys in Angola (‘000 tons)...... 8 Table 3: Biomass estimates of Cape horse mackerel from the surveys in Angola (‘000 tons). .... 9 Table 4: TACs for the main pelagic species (tons)...... 10 Table 5: Total Allowable Catch (in tons) for 2003 to 2009 for horse mackerel and sardinella. .. 17 Table 6: Total Allowable Catch (in tons) for 2010 to 2015 for horse mackerel and sardinella. .. 18 Table 7: Allowed import of horse mackerel (in tons) from 2010 to 2015...... 19 Table 8: Fishing communities in Luanda, Benguela and Namibe provinces...... 21 Table 9: Total catches (tons) by Province from 1996 to 2010...... 27 Table 10: Total catches (Kg) of sardinella and horse mackerel, Luanda, Benguela and Namibe provinces in different years...... 27 Table 11: Total catches (Kg) for different fishing gears in Angola coast in 2010...... 28 Table 12: Fish biomass (tons) for coast regions for 2013...... 28 Table 13: Number of employees in 2014 in Benguela province in the fisheries sector...... 30 Table 14: Horse mackerel and sardinella total catches in Benguela province from 2013 to 2015...... 31 Table 15: Total catches in Benguela province in different fishing methods ...... 32 Table 16: Total catches in Namibe province, for horse mackerel and sardinella in different fishing communities...... 40 Table 17: Different fisheries and gear used in Tômbwa, according to recognized sector...... 47 Table 18: Stressors for the fish industry in Tômbwa...... 57

List of Photos Photo 1: Fisheries Technology Department (left), located near one of the busiest fish harbours of Benguela town (right)...... 30 Photo 2: Industrial seine net (left) and artisanal mesh net (right), each techniques target different set of fish...... 37 Photo 3: Namibe’s town fishing harbour, located next to the commercial harbour, where all artisanal fishermen in town dock their boats to offload their catch...... 49 Photo 4: Pinda Market. The biggest fish trading market in Namibe, where fresh, salted and dried horse mackerel, sardinella and all other fish catch are sold...... 49

ii Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Photo 5: Tômbwa fishing harbour in construction, to be concluded in 2016...... 50 Photo 6: Sample of horse mackerel to be processed, collected by CIP...... 50 Photo 7: Dourado, Lda. headquarters in Tômbwa, with fish salting and drying conditions being created for the local fishermen...... 51 Photo 8: Dourado market in Tômbwa (1), located right next to Tômbwa’s main artisanal fisheries docking area (B). This market is being rehabilitated to provide a sheltered and hygienic place for women to sell fresh and processed fish, including mackerel (C & D)...... 52 Photo 9: General layout of a fish freezing company in Tômbwa. Fish catch is sucked straight from the cargo hold into the automatic mattresses (A → B → C) where it is manually sorted by type and size. Catch intended to be frozen is then pre-frozen and kept in small containers by type (D) before transferred to the main -18ºC container...... 53 Photo 10: Empessul’s main freezing container. It’s almost emptiness represents the low catches during 2015. Recently it has only been composed of sardinella...... 54

iii Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

1. INTRODUCTION

The Benguela Current Commission (BCC) is coordinating the ECOFISH project, a joint research effort that is expected to modernise and improve the management of key marine fisheries in Angola, Namibia and South Africa.

ECOFISH is focused on the fisheries for hake, horse mackerel and sardinella – three fish stocks considered most important for securing the prosperity of the fishing industries of Angola, Namibia and South Africa, and the livelihoods of fishers and fish workers.

The ultimate goal of ECOFISH is to help the three countries to implement an ecosystem approach to managing marine fisheries. Angola, Namibia and South Africa committed themselves to introducing an ecosystem approach to fisheries management at the World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg in 2002.

The ECOFISH project will help them to fulfil this pledge. The European Union has provided a grant of 1.5 million Euros to fund the ECOFISH project over four years (2011 to 2015). The ECOFISH consortium is made up of scientists and fisheries managers in Angola, Namibia and South Africa and a team of specialists from the Technical University of Denmark. Scientists from the universities of Cape Town and Stellenbosch are also participating in the initiative.

The project focuses on three work packages, namely i) stock assessment in the BCC region, ii) Data based scientific knowledge and iii) shareholder knowledge and acceptance. This report is the Angolan contribution to work package 3.

1.1. Implementing an EAF

The Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries (EAF) management is a relatively new research and management paradigm (FAO 2003), which has emerged as a response to the failure

1 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment to manage the world’s fisheries in a sustainable manner (Pitcher et al. 1998; Pauly et al. 2002). EAF refers to a holistic approach to fisheries management that emphasizes the importance of integrating both human and ecological aspects into fisheries governance (Garcia et al. 2003).

In southern Africa a regional EAF project was launched in 2004, under the auspices of the Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem Programme. Notwithstanding the commitment by signatory nations at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) to implement an EAF by 2012 (Garcia and Cochrane 2005), the process of putting EAF into practice is challenging (Paterson & Petersen 2010). One of the reasons why the move towards EAF is difficult is that this approach demands a rethinking of fisheries management. Traditionally fisheries management has assumed that the productivity of fish populations was largely independent of the physical environment and social ecological changes (Paterson et al 2014).

In this old paradigm, fisheries science assumed that the recruitment of new fish could be predicted based on the size of the adult population and that the size of a fish population could be manipulated through fishing pressure. Consequently, for close to 100 years fisheries management has been guided by scientific advice and focused on regulating fishing pressure, e.g. the number of boats, the size of fishing nets and the setting of a total allowable catch (Pauly et al 2002; Bavington 2009). However, the collapse of many of the world’s most important fisheries such as the Atlantic cod or the Peruvian anchovy clearly attests that this approach has not been successful (Daw and Gray 2005; Degnbol 2003; Finlayson 1994).

One aspect, which is becoming increasingly clear, is that the sole reliance of traditional fisheries management on scientific knowledge is problematic (e.g. Jarre et al. 2008; Paterson et al. 2014; Paterson & Kainge 2014). Fishers themselves are a tremendous knowledge resource that has the potential to vastly improve EAF. Increasing attention is thus being given by researchers to fishers’ knowledge in order to provide fisheries

2 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment management with additional ecological information (e.g. Johannes & Neis 2007, Paterson & Kainge 2014), to improve fisheries scientists’ understanding of fishing effort (e.g. Neis et al. 1999, Paterson & Kainge 2014) and fish population dynamics (Stephenson et al 1999), and to improve collaboration between scientists, managers and industry (e.g. Lane & Stephenson 1999, Lane & Stephenson 2000, Jentoft 2000, Daw 2008).

1.2. Brief History of the Fisheries in Angola

In Angola commercial fishing for small pelagic fishes started in the 1950s with the objective of contributing to the development of the fish meal industry. Fishing was mainly done by small boats of 20-30 m length, operating mainly in the area from Cunene river mouth and along the Namibe province. The increase in the catches of small pelagic fishes was observed between the mid-60s and mid-70s and it was due to the introduction of improved fishing technology. In this period the total annual catch reached more than 300,000 tons and in the period 1972-1973 even higher catches, of around 500,000 tons, were reported.

Some years after independence (1976-1977), a significant increase in the number of purse seiners operating along the Angolan coast was reported. Factory ships that processed the fish onboard supported the fishery. The catches in the years 1980 to 1985 were in the order of 400,000 tons. From then on, although there were no significant variations in the fishing efforts, a general decrease in catches from the two fleets was observed with a steeper decrease for the foreign fleet. The biomass estimates from surveys in the same period also indicated a decrease in the stock.

The Ministry of Fisheries hence decided to introduce some management measures and to decrease gradually the number of boats, principally the foreign vessels. From 1987 to 1990, a small increase in catch was report for the national fleet, with a catch of around

3 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

100,000 tons in 1990 whereas a significant decrease could be observed in the foreign catch for the same period.

The decrease in the foreign fleet was not completely compensated for by an increase in the national fleet because of the insufficient national capacity both in terms of equipment and technology as well as in human resources.

The increase in national catches came as a result of the introduction of a new "orientation" in the Government Policy aiming to strengthen the capacity of the national fishing companies. In the same period, the establishment of several companies, some national and some joint ventures, was made a priority in the Government Policy.

In the period 1990 to 1995, an increase in biomass of small pelagic species was reported, which could be an indication of possible stock recovery. In the last two years (1995 and 1996) a decrease in total catch was observed, probably as a result of the adverse climatic conditions registered in this period. During these years the small pelagic resources were affected by the El Niño phenomenon which occurred on the Angolan coast, and which lead to an abnormal distribution of these species. Episodic warming events in the southeast South Atlantic occurring in the northern regions of Benguela current system have been linked to enhanced rainfall in Angola and Namibia, and occasionally, other parts of southern Africa (Rouault et al. 2003).

The use of the Angolan catch data in the assessment models for the small pelagic species is unreliable because of the problems associated with the collection of these data. The past data collection system for the fishery did not give a "true" picture of the landings and species composition of the catches. Effort has been made by the Ministry of Fisheries to resolve this problem and hence in 1995 the Direcção Nacional de Pesca do Ministério das Pescas (DNP) established a system for the collection of catch information. In 1996 DNP initiated a program for the "reorganisation" of this sector including

4 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment collection of catch and effort data and the introduction of inspectors onboard all vessels operating in Angolan waters.

1.3. The Angolan Fishery for Sardinella and Horse Mackerel – Historical Data

In terms of fisheries resources community, Angolan coast comprises two types of fauna: one that is influenced by the Angola Warm Current – northern and central regions - and the other by the Benguela Cold Current – Southern region.

The transition zone is located between the latitudes of 11o and 15o. The northern and central regions are characterized by a greater diversity of the resources and less abundance of small pelagic whereas the higher abundance of small pelagic and lower diversity of resources in the southern region. Therefore the southern zone is marked by its higher productivity due to the upwelling associated to the Benguela Cold Current as compared to northern region. The distribution of the fishery resources is mainly influenced by depth, temperature and bottom type (Bianchi 1992; INIP 2013).

Many scientific studies in Angola represent useful baseline or good indicators for any occurrence in this system and also provide a useful reference for the future monitoring of the marine biodiversity patterns. Time series studies provide a description of the structure, the spatial as well as the bathymetric distribution of pelagic and demersal fishes on the shelf and slope ecosystems off Angola.

The most important exploitable marine resources in Angola include the Cape and Cunene horse mackerel. Sardinella is also fished in parallel with horse mackerel. Demersal species from the Sparidae (includes breams), Scianidae (includes drums) and Merllucidae (includes most hake species) families are also caught.

Four species represent the most important components of the small pelagic fish in Angola: Flat sardinella (Sardinella maderensis), Round sardinella (Sardinella aurita),

5 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Cunene horse mackerel (Trachurus trecae) and Cape horse mackerel (Trachurus capensis).

Sardinellas The two species of sardinella are distributed along the coast and probably constitute a resource which is shared with Congo and Gabon. A decrease in biomass as estimated from the surveys was observed in the period 1985 to 1989, the biomass decreasing from an average of 345,000 tons in 1985 to an average of 230,000 tons in 1989 (Table 1). The increase in biomass registered from 1994 onwards could be an indication of a recuperation of this stock attributed to the effort restrictions introduced in the fishery in 1990. The increase in biomass is principally an increase in S. maderensis, while S. aurita was observed less frequently in the catches.

Fluctuations in biomass which were observed for the years 1995 and 1996 could have been caused by the abnormal environmental conditions in these years, with abnormally high surface temperatures and low salinity. These abnormal conditions caused a dispersion of sardinella, which made it difficult to detect it with the acoustic instruments.

Table 1: Estimates of biomass (‘000 tons) of pelagic fish Type 1, mainly sardinella, as estimated from the R/V DR. Fridtjof Nansen surveys in Angolan waters.

Survey Cunene-Benguela Benguela-Luanda Luanda-Cabinda Total (No/year) 1/85 25 220 80 325 2/85 110 190 180 480 3/85 0 70 190 260 4/85 0 200 110 310 1/86 10 140 110 260 2/86 10 130 130 270 1/89 40 200 60 300 2/89 20 40 130 190 3/89 40 100 60 200

6 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Survey Cunene-Benguela Benguela-Luanda Luanda-Cabinda Total (No/year) 1/91 + 180 120 300 2/91 + 70 154 224 1/92 + 120 161 281 1/94 * 410 100 510 2/94 * 245 290 535 1/95 * 140 24 164 2/95 + 277 297 574 1/96 49 175 70 294 2/96 + 130 233 363 1/97 + 195 300 495 * Not surveyed + Observed, but no estimation attempted because of low recordings

Cunene horse mackerel Actually, Cunene horse mackerel has been adopted a more costal distribution, with low acoustic densities bellow shelf break at depths > 100 m. The species has perform a daily vertical migration by day, tending to concentrate in dense schools near the seabed. At night, they moved into the pelagic zone, dispersing into widespread scattering layers (Vaz Velho et al 2009). The differences in acoustic density between day and night may be related to the lower packing density by night. This vertical behaviour makes the species to be target by the bottom trawl fleet (demersal behaviour) during the day and purse-seine during the night (pelagic behaviour).

Cunene horse mackerel (T. trecae) is distributed along the whole coast. A small decrease in biomass of T. trecae was observed for the period 1985 to 1991, from an average of 230,000 tons in 1985 to 200,000 tons in 1991. These are very low values as compared to previous estimates made in 1982 by a Soviet Union vessel. From 1994 onwards, an increase in biomass from less than 300,000 tons to 427,000 tons can be observed with the exception of the survey undertaken in March 1995 in which it was not possible to estimate the biomass (Table 2). This may be due, as for sardinella, to the adverse

7 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment environmental conditions observed in 1995. A migration of this species offshore and outside the normal distribution area of the species was observed, which made it difficult to detect with the acoustic instruments.

Table 2: Estimates of biomass of Cunene horse mackerel as estimated from the R/V DR. Fridtjof Nansen Surveys in Angola (‘000 tons).

Survey Cunene-Benguela Benguela-Luanda Luanda-Cabinda Total (No/year) 1/85 30 195 40 265 2/85 50 90 40 180 4/85 & 1/86 100 125 20 245 1/89 35 55 40 130 3/89 170 40 35 245 1/91 100 80 20 200 2/91 100 70 30 200 1/92 98 86 80 264 1/94 * 238 1 - 2/94 * 130 120 - 1/95 * * 84 - 2/95 70 160 110 340 1/96 286 214 6 506 2/96 140 157 63 360 1/97 234 55 138 427 * Not surveyed

The seasonal migration pattern for this species is not as clear as for sardinella, but the main concentrations have been observed in the area between Luanda and Benguela with the exceptions of the surveys in February 96 and 97. In general, a mixture of different cohorts has been observed along the coast with major occurrences of juveniles in the region between Benguela and Cunene for all surveys. This might indicate that there is an area of growth close to the frontal zone between the warm Angola current and the cold Benguela current, which is a zone rich in nutrients.

8 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Cape horse mackerel The distribution of Cape horse mackerel (T. capensis) is limited to the Benguela system, and is a resource shared with Namibia. An increase in biomass, with some fluctuations within the period, was observed for this species from an average of 184,000 tons in 1985 to an average of 203,000 tons in 1991. The biomass estimated in the May/June survey was 310,000 tons (Table 3). In 1994, the whole area of distribution of this species was not covered. From August 1996 to April 1997 a decrease in biomass from 63,000 tons to 23,000 tons was observed.

Table 3: Biomass estimates of Cape horse mackerel from the surveys in Angola (‘000 tons).

Survey Cunene-Benguela Survey Cunene-Benguela (No/year) (No/year) 1/85 170 1/91 310 2/85 75 2/91 95 3/85 220 1/94 * 4/85 270 2/94 * 1/86 40 1/95 * 2/86 10 2/95 63 1/89 125 1/96 0 2/89 135 2/96 42 3/89 240 1/97 23 * Not surveyed

According to an FAO Fisheries Report1 based on data provided by IIP (Instituto de Investigação Pesqueira) the pelagic fish make up 80% of the total fish landed in Angola. Data on the fish landing provided by the Artisanal Fisheries Institute from 1997 indicated that the annual production from artisanal fisheries was of approximately 30,000 tons/year.

1 FAO Fisheries Report No. 618 – Report on the Workshop on the Small Pelagic Resources of Angola, Congo and Gabon. Luanda, Angola, 3-7 November 1997, 149p. Cochrane. K.L. and Tandstad. M. (eds).

9 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

According to IIP (Cochrane & Tandstad 1997) the Total Allowable Catch (TAC) was determined based on the biomass estimates from the surveys. It also took into account environmental aspects. For the small pelagic species, the TACs are generally estimated with the assumption that the fishing effort remains at a level for which the fishing mortality would be less than 20% of the average biomass estimated from the surveys for horse mackerel and 30% for sardinellas, assuming that growth and recruitment to the fishery are constant over the period.

Table 4 presents the TACs for the main pelagic species. As regards Cunene horse mackerel, an increase in TAC can be observed for this period due to the high biomass estimates. For sardinella, an increase in TAC can be observed for 1995. As regards Cape horse mackerel, in spite of the observed decrease in biomass, the TAC was set to 60,000 tons in 1995 and only in 1997 it was decrease by 20,000 tons.

Table 4: TACs for the main pelagic species (tons).

Year Species TAC 1995 Cunene horse mackerel 62,000 Cape horse mackerel 60,000 Sardinellas 160,000 1996 Cunene horse mackerel 68,000 Cape horse mackerel 60,000 Sardinellas 172,000 1997 Cunene horse mackerel 82,000 Cape horse mackerel 40,000 Sardinellas 160,000

1.4. Report Development Methodology

In the development of this report a number of methodologies and sources were used. Literature review and informal interviews, provincial workshops and meetings are the methods used to gather relevant information.

10 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

This report will focus mainly in the data of Luanda, Benguela and Namibe as the more important fishing communities of Cunene horse mackerel and Sardinella are located in these three provinces. In some cases, where specific information was not obtained generic information was included to set the context.

The data was obtained from different sources, mainly from previous reports of the National Institute of Fisheries Research (INIP) and the Institute of Artisanal Fisheries (IPA). A bibliographic review of other relevant sources was also conducted so as to enrich the report. All sources will be referenced in the end of the report.

The main data sources for historic data included a FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) report of the Workshop on the Small Pelagic Resources of Angola held in 2007 in Luanda and for future perspective this report draws on a Detailed Design Report produced in 2014 by IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development) for an Artisanal Fisheries and Aquaculture Project in Angola.

Complete field and workshop reports from the visits made to Namibe, Benguela and Luanda are presented as appendices and are to be considered as reliable data for each province. Those reports will focus on the provincial fishing institutions (Luanda, Benguela and Namibe) point of views and data, mainly towards horse mackerel and sardinella fishing situation in the region. Over 40 people were contacted and interviewed as part of the data generation process. This included representative from government institutions, fishing associations and cooperatives, private sector and fishermen.

There are some limitations in the data received particularly related to the fact that the information from the different provinces does not follow the same approach and reporting methodology. For this reason it is not possible to compare the date from the different provinces.

11 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

2. ANGOLAN ARTISANAL FISHERIES

In Angola, inland fisheries and small-scale fish farming are thought to represent a vast and largely untapped potential opportunity to support local economic development in terms of fighting poverty, reduction of food insecurity and the generation of employment (IFAD 2014). The current National Development Plan’s (NDP) policy in support of the sector emphasises increased competitiveness and development of industrial and artisanal sub-sectors on a sustainable basis. This is to be done through:

 achieving an increase in sustainable production;  investment in infrastructure and conservation of fish products; and  development of aquaculture.

The Anti-Poverty Strategy (Estratégia de Combate à Pobreza – ECP) recognizes the development of marine and continental fish products as a key component of the sector with an emphasis on strengthening of production capacity of the continental/artisanal fish production.

Similarly, the National Strategy on Food Security and Nutrition (Estratégia Nacional de Segurança Alimentar e Nutrição – ENSAN) recognizes the significance of the fisheries sector in contributing to improved quality of life for the population through increased incomes and food security. The Strategy outlines the following objectives for the sector:

 sustainable increase in the development of the resources;  improved well-being of the population through increased, but sustainable, harvesting of the resource. This would be achieved by increasing the artisanal fishing fleet through supportive policies and public investment aimed at restoration of existing and construction of new infrastructure; and  creation and maintenance of conservation, distribution and commercialization fish networks.

12 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Angola’s inland fishing activities comprise exclusively of artisanal fisheries (either commercial or subsistence), with no semi-industrial fisheries. The majority of the catch is made up of a few species, mainly tilapia and catfish. Inland fishing areas include small to medium size artificial and natural lakes, rivers and extensive floodplains; there are no major water bodies.

Fishing technology is dominated by a relatively small number of fishing gears, the most common being gill nets (redes de emalhar), hand-lines (linha de mão), cast nets (tarrafa), traps (covo or gaiola), and small-mesh seines, often operated by women. The great majority of fish craft used in inland waters are dugout canoes, made from tree trunks, and small planked boats (chatas) of 3 to 4.5 metres in length operated either with oars or poles (during the dry season). No census exists for the sub-sector so there is no reliable estimate of the numbers of fishers and boats. Fishers are considered to be one of the most vulnerable groups in Angola’s rural population.

Comparatively, the state of aquaculture is much less developed than inland capture fisheries. In Angola, aquaculture development started well before independence but there is little evidence that it grew beyond its initial rudimentary nature. During the war that followed the colonial period, much of the infrastructure that existed was destroyed. Despite a renewed interest in the sub-sector following the war, the effects of the war impeded its further development.

At present, the sub-sector is dominated by a few small-scale family operations (aquicultura comunal) but in areas close to Luanda, small private companies are more typical. Although production figures are not known, it is estimated that commercial farms may produce some tens of tons of fish a year while family fish farming may account for only a few tons of fish per year. Commercialization of products from family ponds seems almost non-existent as all fish produced is consumed either by the pond owner and/or sold to the neighbours.

13 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Regardless of the source of fish, fish technology (i.e. equipment used and practices applied in handling and processing fish) is very basic. Fish are gutted often in poor conditions (i.e. with no shelter, no clean water, no waste management), then salted for drying or smoked (the latter only if the fish are in good condition) in simple drum kilns; smaller species and sizes are simply dried without salt. Only a small proportion of the catch is sold as fresh whenever transport conditions allow it to be channelled to cities (in the best cases, some ice is produced in home freezers and small ice plants in the city may also be used).

The artisanal fisheries contribute with fish of commercial value, mainly demersal species. The demand for those species has been the source of conflicts between artisanal and large fishing (semi-industrial and industrial), whose vessels tend to penetrate the area reserved for artisanal fishing (area of 4 nautical miles).

In the last 10 years, the artisanal fishing catches have been in the order of 100,000 tons/year, which corresponds to about 30% of the total catch in the country. In 2011, the total catch of the seven coastal provinces was 102,039 tons, with Zaire province corresponding to 29.2% (the greater contribution). The highest record in this province was due to the organization of data collection and exclusive artisanal fisheries. However, in 2012 the catches have declined dramatically with estimates of around 60,151 tons. Benguela province reported to be the holder of a higher percentage corresponding to 29%. We should refer that this reduction in catches may have been due to a low intensity seen in the data collection in some provinces, as well as the large number of vessels paralyzed by lack of maintenance.

There are about 50,000 fishermen in Artisanal Fishery. This number represents individuals directly involved in fishing and excludes the processing and/or manufacturing women, helpers and/or intermediaries. In fact, the total number can reach around 70,000 people. From these data, we conclude that artisanal fishing has a

14 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment considerable hand labour, both directly and indirectly. There are women who find forms of employment and sustenance of their families related to this fishery: some sell fresh fish and other are involved in the transportation and processing of fish (salting and drying).

As the semi-industrial and industrial fishing, artisanal fisheries needs permits to be exercised, including the right and fishing license, whose rates vary according to the capacity of each vessel. For this reason, we can say that the fisheries sector contributes funds to the state budget with GDP around 2.5%, making it the 4th sector in this regard, in addition it contributes to feed the Angolan population and to employ a considerable amount of people.

In Africa, the artisanal fishing plays a vital role in society in terms of food security, poverty reduction and promotion of nutrition. The importance of artisanal fisheries is related to the large number of people involved in it compared to industrial fishing, despite having a lower production level, but high quality.

15 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

3. INSTITUTIONAL DIMENSIONS OF THE ANGOLAN FISHERIES

In 2010 the Benguela Current Commission (BCC) in collaboration with the FAO launched a project to investigate the human dimensions of fisheries management in the region. A key conclusion of the project was that in all three countries available data on human dimensions are fragmented and insufficient. In Angola, in accordance with the country’s focus on large‐scale fisheries, data collection by the Ministry of Fisheries’ institutions as INIP and IPA has been difficult to access.

In this chapter we strive to compliment and contextualize the available data within our own research findings in an attempt to present a more complete picture of the human dimensions of the Angolan fisheries, mainly for pelagic sardinella and Cunene horse mackerel. Where possible information is provided in detail and it is mostly based on legislation.

The State institutions responsible for the protection of the environment and of the natural resources are governed by the new Constitution of the Republic of Angola, approved on the 5th of February 2010, which defines the environmental rights in its Article 39. This Article states that every citizen has the right to live on a healthy and unpolluted environment, as well as the duty to defend and preserve it.

Therefore, the State must adopt the necessary actions to protect the environment, and the flora and fauna species throughout the entire national territory, to maintain the ecological equilibrium, to define the appropriate location of the economic activities, and to guarantee the rational utilization, and exploration of all natural resources, ensuring the sustainable development, and respecting the future generations, and preserving the different species.

In Angola, the Law on Biological Aquatic Resources (LBAR - Law n.º 6-A/04 of October 8) addresses the sustainable conservation and renewal policies of aquatic biological

16 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment resources, especially those involved in the planning of fisheries and protection of resources in order to integrate fishing in marine and inland waters.

In Resolution n.º 9/06 of February 6 general fisheries in Angola were assessed and showed fluctuations caused by different factors. Total Allowable Catch (TAC) is revised annually, according to the fish resources evaluation. This enable to adjust the fisheries to the stocks of the species in the Angolan coast. Table 5 summarizes the Total Allowable Catch for horse mackerel and sardinella from 2003 to 2009. While for the horse mackerel the TAC has been decreasing the TAC for sardinella as increased from 120,000 tons in 2003 to 500,000 tons in 2009.

Table 5: Total Allowable Catch (in tons) for 2003 to 2009 for horse mackerel and sardinella.

Species / Year 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Horse mackerel 40,000 40,000 40,000 24,000 33,000 33,000 15,000 Sardinella 120,000 120,000 120,000 168,000 205,000 500,000 500,000

Since 2010 a Presidential Decree (PD) is published on an annual basis on the sustainable conservation and renewal policies of aquatic biological resources. It states appropriate regulatory measures for its use and responsible exploitation, on the need to ensure the protection and conservation of some endangered species sustainability, as well as their habitats. For each year is established the quota system according to the TAC, prioritizing companies with processing facilities on land.

The sum of catch quotas to be allocated shall not exceed the TAC provided for in article for the respective year. Table 6 states the TACs from 2010 to 2015 for horse mackerel and sardinella and respective legal framework. This situation denotes a different scenario when compared to Table 5 as the TAC for horse mackerel increased while the TAC for sardinella has decreased substantially.

17 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Table 6: Total Allowable Catch (in tons) for 2010 to 2015 for horse mackerel and sardinella. Legal framework PD No. PD No. PD No. PD No. PD No. PD No. 120/10 of 43/11 of 317/11 of 4/13 of 15/14 of 28/15 of July 2 March 7 December January 3 January 10 January 13 30 Species /Year 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Horse mackerel 0 15,000 15,000 15,000 55,000 55,000 Sardinella 250,000 250,000 150,000 150,000 150,000 150,000

For the horse mackerel fishing, the data indicated that since the beginning of the 1970s the biomass of these resources was estimated at about 700,000 tons. From 1997 to 2003 there was a decrease in both biomass as in reported catches.

According to Resolution n.º 9/06 of February 6, since 2006 some measures were implemented to reduce the fishing effort of this kind. These measures were mainly related to determination of authorized fishing gear, permitted fishing zones, authorized fishing areas, minimum mesh size (60mm), quota system according to the TAC set annually, conducting annual research surveys to assess the resource state, introduction of logbooks and mandatory installation of EMC on all vessels over 15 meters. In 2010, according to Presidential Decree no. 120/10 of July 2 the horse mackerel fishing was prohibited (Article 13). From 2011 to 2013 the TAC set on the 15,000 tons and for 2014 and 2015 it was set on 55,000 tons.

To face the situation resulting on the closing period for horse mackerel, the government has allowed its importation to compensate for the lack of internal catch. There are annual decrees that authorizes the importation of horse mackerel on conditions for exemption from customs duties since 2010. The annual amount is set to 90,000 tons since the first Presidential Legislative Decree (PLD) of 2010. Table 7 illustrates the respective legal framework from 2010 to 2015. The same amount has been set for 2016.

18 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Table 7: Allowed import of horse mackerel (in tons) from 2010 to 2015. Legal PLD No. PLD No. PD No. PD No. PD No. PD No. framework 4/10 of 1/11 of 319/11 of 2/13 of 13/14 of 26/15 of July 1 March 4 December 30 January 3 January 9 January 12

Year 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Allowed 90,000 90,000 90,000 90,000 90,000 90,000 import

The case of sardinella appears to be the opposite, being an under-exploited resource. Still, even with the possibility for increased catches, there were also some measures defined to sustainable fishery. Those measures follow the same logic as in the case of horse mackerel, and also include keeping the area to protect juveniles free of bottom trawling in the south area: from 13o to 17o latitudes.

For purse-seine fishery, a recommendation was made to license no more than ninety vessels with specific tonnage thresholds, namely 84 vessel with up to 250 tons and 6 vessels with up tonnage between 250 and 800.

3.1. Access/Use right

In terms of ownership of fishing rights, in accordance with Article 31 of LBAR, for Angola it is established the following:

1. Fishing rights can be assigned to all citizens, individual or collective, national or foreign, which meet the requirements of this law and concerning legislation. 2. Commercial fishing rights are assigned strictly to citizens, individual or collective with competence and technical capacity for the type of fishing intended to undertake and fulfil other requirements predicted in this law and protocols approved by the Cabinet. 3. Fishing rights for artisanal fishery are only allowed to Angolan people.

19 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Artisanal fishing is carried out along the coastline, up to 4 miles (under Presidential Decree No. 28/15, Article 12), as long as the fishing vessels have the security and navigation conditions for the purpose.

The minimum mesh sizes permitted are set for various species and fishing gear (under Presidential Decree No. 28/15; Article 4). For purse-seine fishing is 25-30mm and for demersal fishing species is 80mm.

In 2015, for purse-seine fishing ninety vessels at most were licensed, with the following capabilities (under Presidential Decree No. 28/15, Article 10):

a) 84 vessels with a gross registered tonnage (GRT) or less to 250 tons and with a holding capacity equal to or less than 120m3. b) 6 vessels with a gross registered tonnage (GRT) of more than 250 tons and less than 800 tons with a holding capacity equivalent to 120m3.

3.2. Participation of Fishers and Fish Workers and Community Level Institutions

Of the total catch in Angola, about 35 – 40% results from the artisanal fishing subsector. This subsector includes more than 5,000 fishing boats and 50,000 direct jobs. It is estimated that employs more than 85,000 people (direct and indirect jobs). Only about 20% of artisanal vessels in operation are motorized.

According to the census of the Institute of Artisanal Fishing (IPA), there are 188 fishing communities in Angola in 34 locations. For the year 2010, the provinces of Zaire, Benguela and Luanda displayed the higher catches. Total production of artisanal fisheries was around 102,000 tons.

Apart from distinguishing recreational fisheries and scientific research fisheries, the LABR also defines four types of fisheries, i.e. subsistence, artisanal, semi-industrial and

20 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment industrial fisheries. Different regulations apply to the different categories. Subsistence fishers are classified as those who fish for non-commercial purposes, including for family consumption.

According to Article 1.55, artisans are classified as those who fish for commercial purposes and whose boats are 14 metres or less in length. Artisanal fishing vessels can be propelled by sails, paddles or engines, and fishers can use equipment ranging from hand lines to gill nets and entangling nets. Semi-industrial boats can be up to 20 metres long, while all vessels in excess of 20 metres are classified as industrial fishing vessels. According to the law, semi-industrial and industrial fishing cannot take place in the first four nautical miles from the shore. This area is reserved for small-scale fishers, including those who fish for recreational and research purposes, subsistence fishers, and artisans. As part of measures implemented for monitoring, control and surveillance, the fisheries law makes provision for community observers. These observers are appointed as monitors in areas reserved for subsistence and artisanal fisheries.

Data collected on catches and fishing effort are recorded in ARTFISH database. According to these data it was found that during 2012 there was a decrease of 11% of marine fisheries catch volume over the previous year (Plano de Desenvolvimento da Pesca Artesanal, 2013).

As previously mentioned, the most important fishing communities for horse mackerel and sardinella are in the provinces of Luanda, Benguela and Namibe. In total, there are 95 fishing communities in these provinces (see Table 8 below).

Table 8: Fishing communities in Luanda, Benguela and Namibe provinces. Province List of fishing communities Luanda Luanda – Chicalla I e II, Casa Lisboa, Lello, Salga, Ponta e Boa Vista. 28 Cacuaco – Cacuaco Sede, Otanganga, B.do Bengo, Sarico, Praia de São Tiago, Salga e Bairro dos Pescadores.

21 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Province List of fishing communities Belas – Mabunda, Areia Branca, Prior, Praia Amélia, Corimba, Benfica, Miradouro da Lua, Ramiro, Palmeirinhas e Buraco. Kissama – Cabo Ledo, Sobe Desce, Sangano e Barra do Kwanza. Benguela Lobito Municipality: Praia do Chamury, da Chimbala, Egipto Praia Sede, do Munry, da 53 Cuhula, Praia Grande, do Binge, do Tchiundy, Hanha do Norte, da Jomba, do Lobito-Velho, da Restinga, do Compão, da Cabaia. Catumbela Municipality: Praia Bebe, Praia da Cachiva e Catumbela Praia. Benguela Municipality: Praia da Damba-Maria, do Kawango, o Kapiandalo, do Quioche, da Goa, do Kasseque Marítimo, do Santo António e da Caota. Baía Farta Municipality: Praia da Baía Farta Sede, da Vitula, da Senga, da Macaca, do Chamume, do Calombolo, do Tchiome, do Gengo, da Tenda Grande, da Tenda Pequena, do Saco, do Farol, do Cuio, da Tchituca, do Tchihave, do Noto, do Nhime, da Lua, da Equimina, da Baía dos Elefantes, da Limagem, da Bimba, da Cajulhana, do Morro do Galo, do Meva, do Canono, dos Pássaros e da Catara. Namibe Namibe – Porto Pesqueiro, Lucira, Inamangando, Carunjamba, Saco Mar, Praia Amélia e 14 Mucuio. Tômbwa – Tômbwa Sede, Rocha Magalhães, Cabo Negro, Pinda, Praia do Fundo, Pontana e Praia de Banho. Source: Field and Workshop Reports (Holísticos, 2015).

At provincial level some of the fishing communities are organized in fishing co- operatives or associations which have been partially supported by IPA. The establishment of such institutions has led to a growth in fisheries co-operatives since 2000. These institutions represent not only a way for poor and disadvantage people to have access to resources and funds from government and donors but also as a way of engaging its members into a better resource management as well as launch coastal conservation initiatives.

3.3. Interactions between Different Policies

The Government’s Anti-poverty Strategy (ECP) has identified a number of direct and indirect factors contributing to food insecurity. It also identifies the main factors

22 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment contributing to the country’s poverty. The National Strategy for Food and Nutrition Security (ENSAN), one of the other key strategies in the country’s poverty reduction efforts, recognizes the significance of the fisheries sector in contributing to improved quality of life for the population and its role in contributing to increased incomes and improved food and nutrition security.

The National Development Plan’s (NDP) policy in support of the sector puts emphasis on increased competitiveness and development of industrial and artisanal sub-sectors on a sustainable basis. This is expected to contribute to reduced poverty and to improved food and nutritional security. Key priorities include: (i) achieving an increase in sustainable production; (ii) investment in infrastructure and conservation of fish products; and (iii) development of aquaculture. In light of the above, there are a number of projects aimed at addressing some of the key multidimensional factors of poverty. These planned interventions include:

 direct interventions in the inland fisheries sector, including artisanal capture fisheries and fish farming as well as strengthening of marketing practices and infrastructure; and  supporting community development planning (improved health, child and adult education, increasing functional skills and participation in local planning).

According to the Development Plan for the Artisanal Fisheries (2013) regarding institutional cooperation, the Ministry of Fisheries (in the name of the Institute of Artisanal Fishing) should promote collaboration with other Ministries as Ministry of Economy, Ministry of Construction, Ministry of Justice, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Energy and Water, Ministry of Education and Ministry of Territorial Administration. This collaboration should occur to support the development and improvement of living standards of the communities, mainly in terms of infrastructures (Plano de Desenvolvimento da Pesca Artesanal, 2013).

23 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Each Ministry can contribute with something, specifically:

 Ministry of Economy: approval of the Legal Framework of Cooperatives and coordination for financing and promoting entrepreneurship.  Ministry of Health: improving the network of Primary Health Care Centres in traditional fishing communities and support the projects of telemedicine.  Ministry of Territorial Administration: plans to decentralize and finance municipal administrations and local projects.  Ministry of Construction: improve access roads to artisanal fishing communities.  Ministry of Energy and Water: improve water and energy distribution in artisanal fishing communities.  Ministry of Justice: census of the inhabitants of artisanal fishing communities and allocation of their ID books.  Ministry of Education: improve basic schools in artisanal fishing communities in terms of numbers and approachability; improve distance learning, particularly in technical aspects.

In terms of strategy, Angola Fisheries needs to promote entrepreneurship, associations and cooperatives in the artisanal fisheries sector through the creation of institutional, financial and empowering communities. The Institute of Artisanal Fishing ought to introduce mechanisms of communication among the various entities that are stakeholders in the process as: Local Council, Association of Local Cooperatives and Cooperatives. The Institute of Artisanal Fishing must be present in the forums of these institutions to make valuable contributions (Plano de Desenvolvimento da Pesca Artesanal, 2013).

3.4. Support Centers for Artisanal Fisheries

Each community is in a different stage of organization, also according with its fishing relevance for the area. The Development Plan of IPA intends to improve the

24 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment communities mainly in terms of infrastructures that will support the fishing activities. There are called “Support Centres for Artisanal Fisheries” and could be very useful for the community. These should include the following structures:

 Conservation chamber  Ice Factory  Fuel pump  Store with fishing equipment  Workshop for repairing and maintenance of boats and boat’s engines  Area and means to process the fish  Area for training  Wholesale fish marketing

The development plan also consider the implementation of “mini-centres” to support the artisanal fisheries and those should include:

 Conservation chamber  Ice Factory  Fuel pump  Store with fishing equipment

The idea is that the bigger centres should be supplemented with smaller infrastructures which can be distributed to other communities at a lower cost, the “mini-centres”. (Plano de Desenvolvimento da Pesca Artesanal, 2013).

In terms of building support centres to artisanal fisheries three centres have been established (Buraco, Kikombo and Damba Maria) and are already being implemented 7 more for a total of 10 centres.

25 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

4. FISHERIES DATA

The Institute of Artisanal Fisheries provided a comprehensive document from 2010 that presents some data up to 2010 regarding all fishing provinces of Angola, which allowed to have some background information of fisheries in Angola (Relatório Técnico n.º 16, 2010).

During the field work and workshops in Benguela, Luanda and Namibe provinces some digital documents were made available to the consultants. This made possible to compile some information on these data. It is important to mention that most of these documents have no references of the sources, making really difficult to confirm their reliability.

Field Reports were made for each visit in Luanda, Benguela and Namibe and the collected information will also be considered in this report. In conclusion, this chapter will present the data mainly concerning Luanda, Benguela and Namibe and also the general data for artisanal fishing in Angola.

From IPA and INIP technical reports we could have a clue on fluctuations total catches in Angola since 1996 from all the coastal provinces (Table 9), total catches of horse mackerel and sardinella in the three mentioned provinces (Table 10), total catches (for different fishing gears in Angola coast in 2010 (Table 11) and fish biomass for coast regions for 2013 (Table 12).

26 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment Table 9: Total catches (tons) by Province from 1996 to 2010. Province 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Cabinda 7.914 1.328 1.419 1.098 1.466 4.813 3.760 3.759 Zaire - 459 660 952 2.169 2.238 6.288 6.286 Bengo 2.156 892 523 781 2.188 7.048 2.032 1.299 Luanda 12.529 6.885 5.093 6.159 8.938 9.768 24.022 7.996 Kwanza Sul 4.169 2.793 2.441 2.174 2.918 6.573 6.623 12.751 Benguela 8.648 12.260 6.888 7.345 11.933 9.113 46.560 29.354 Namibe 3.512 5.307 9.041 9.448 10.278 10.863 36.343 29.607 Total 38.928 29.924 26.065 27.957 39.890 50.416 125.628 91.052 Province 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Cabinda 89.98 2.914 3.386 6.038 9.443 3.397 4.550 Zaire 15.810 9.776 7.150 9.357 6.835 25.382 29.824 Bengo 2.079 882 6.344 7.356 7.887 8.461 12.406 Luanda 14.376 3.146 14.679 21.215 22.691 12.036 21.779 Kwanza Sul 12.407 6.463 11.436 9.246 20.224 3.958 5.735 Benguela 23.925 28.335 28.494 28.984 21.639 23.954 22.485 Namibe 27.364 25.468 16.090 21.732 16.457 19.631 5.259 Total 104.959 76.984 87.580 103.928 105.176 96.819 102.038 Source: Relatório Técnico nº 16, 2010.

Table 10: Total catches (Kg) of sardinella and horse mackerel, Luanda, Benguela and Namibe provinces in different years. Year Province Horse mackerel Sardinella 2010* Luanda 846,780 534,692 Benguela 964,067 862,624 Namibe 285,736 24,587 2012 Luanda 1,007,449 695,961 Benguela 548,709 753,957 Namibe 101,590 25,851 2013 Luanda 1,172,196 ------Benguela 24,562 3,263,662 Namibe 167,996 84,979 2014 Luanda 1,172,196 375,732 Benguela 1,224,564 3,263,662 Namibe 167,996 34,979 Source: *Data from “Relatório Técnico n.º 16 IPA, 2010; Data from doc ECOFISH_carapau sardinha, 2015

27 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Table 11: Total catches (Kg) for different fishing gears in Angola coast in 2010. Fishing gear Total % Line 23,083,213 23 Gillnetting 52,320,445 51 Purse-seine 26,634,726 26 Total 102,038,384 100 Source: Relatório Técnico n.º 16, 2010.

Table 12: Fish biomass (tons) for coast regions for 2013. Season Species North Centre South Total region region region (Tons) Rainy season Cunene horse mackerel 15,000 62,000 60,000 137,000 Cape mackerel - - 7,000 7,000 Sardinnela 117,000 222,000 226,000 565,000 Other pelagic species 76,000 29,000 105,000 Dry season Cunene horse mackerel 52,000 117,000 88,300 257,300 Cape mackerel - - 37,500 37,500 Sardinnela 179,000 295,100 9,800 483,900 Other pelagic species 157,000 101,000 44,500 302,500 Source: Relatório Anual INIP_geral 2, 2013.

On a recent cruise conducted in the cold season in 2015 aboard of the R/V Dr. Fridtjof Nansen it showed a continuous distribution of sardinella with medium and high densities of the Congo River mouth to the southern city of Benguela. The low densities were recorded in the area of Luanda, Kwanza-Sul and north of Lobito. Figure 1 below shows the density of sardinella along the Angolan coast.

28 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Figure 1: Distribution of Sardinella sp. along the Angolan coast.

The results of the same cruise for the Cunene horse mackerel in the northern region (between the Congo River and Ambriz and south of Luanda and Ambriz), unlike the past ten years, showed a continuous distribution with low, medium and high densities. In the center (between Luanda and Benguela) was also solid with small areas of high densities from Sumbe to Lobito. In the southern region, the distribution was continuous with medium and high density between Namibe and Cunene river mouth (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: Distribution of Trachurus sp. along the Angolan coast.

29 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

4.1. Benguela Province

Fisheries Investigation Centre (CIP) includes a department named Fisheries Technology that controls the quality of all the catch from semi-industrial and industrial vessels. They monitor the catch from production until it reaches the final consumer, using samples they collect from the different fishing companies. Mainly, they conduct organoleptic analysis to assure fish condition for freezing as well as level of freshness to and size that should comply with the legal requirements. This department is located near one of the busiest fish harbours in Benguela town (Photo 1).

Photo 1: Fisheries Technology Department (left), located near one of the busiest fish harbours of Benguela town (right).

The Provincial Directorate of Fisheries established under the Executive Decree No. 10/09 of February 3, approves the organic statute of the Provincial Government of Benguela and Municipal Administrations. Data from 2014 indicated that this Directorate had 39 employees. However, the different institutions in Benguela dealing with the fisheries sector employed 114 people.

Table 13: Number of employees in 2014 in Benguela province in the fisheries sector. SENIOR STAFF

INSTITUTIONS MEN WOMEN TOTAL MEN WOMEN TOTAL

DPPB 31 8 39 6 1 7

30 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

SENIOR STAFF

INSTITUTIONS MEN WOMEN TOTAL MEN WOMEN TOTAL

CRIM 32 13 45 6 3 9

IPA 11 4 15 - - -

INAIPIT 6 4 10 2 1 3

INFOPESCA 1 1 2 1 1

FADEPA 3 - 3 -

SUBTOTAL 84 30 114 15 5 20

TOTAL 114 20

Source: Benguela Fisheries, 2014.

CIP Benguela reports presented statistics for aquatic biological resources for 2015, especially for the most harvested species, among which are the sardinella (S. aurita and S. maderensis) and horse mackerel (Trachurus trecae) captured by purse-seine fishing. In Benguela there were some procedures to measure the fish stock. The individuals were measured, weighed and evaluated their gender. These reports also gather some water parameters measured by the fixed station and meteorological data of Benguela station.

Regarding horse mackerel and sardinella, only data from 2013 up to September 2015 was possible to be obtained (Table 14).

Table 14: Horse mackerel and sardinella total catches in Benguela province from 2013 to 2015. Total catches (tons) Species 2013* 2014** Horse mackerel 1,489 50,972

Sardinella 3,805 19,493 Source: *data from field work "Capturas ate 2014" **data from field work "relatorio anual do sector 2014_benguela"

Other data that were available concerning fishing in Benguela province, about total fishing in the province for the years 2013 and 2014 (Table 15).

31 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Table 15: Total catches in Benguela province in different fishing methods Total catches (tons) Year Industrial Semi-industrial Artisanal Total fishing fishing fishing 2013 16,533 40,896 15,157 72,587 2014 22,876 43,195 14,969 81,040

As shown above the total yearly catch of horse mackerel in Benguela has gradually increased over the past years, and such trend tends to continue in the years to come. This is, however, linked to a progressive enlargement of the fishing fleet (increased fishing effort) and not on the improvement of the horse mackerel stock and banks, as it has been evidently decreasing in the past decade.

Fishing Communities and Vessels There are 53 fishing communities in Benguela: Egipto Praia being the Northernmost and Equimina the Southernmost. Baía Farta is considered the fishing centre of the province. The community is mainly composed of fishermen (artisanal, semi-industrial and industrial) and hence depend greatly on the fish stock health, especially of the horse mackerel and the sardinella. The majority of the fishing vessels and boats registered in Benguela operate around this town and most of the fishing related industries (frozen fish, fish flour, dried and salted fish facilities) are located within it.

There are 649 semi-industrial and industrial vessels registered in Benguela, as well as over 4,000 artisanal fishermen (with boats less than 13m of length) in the province. Of these latest, only 700 possess motorized boats, of which 3 are allowed/registered to fish pelagic species, including horse mackerel and sardinella, using seine techniques. Nevertheless, many others risk fishing large schools of horse mackerel and sardinella illegally, threatening their own lives: two boats surround a school with one seine net and start approaching each other to trap the fish. However, sometimes such schools are too

32 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment large for their boats (especially if not motorized) and drag them, being hazardous for the fishermen.

Gender Women are a very important part of the fishing industry in Benguela. Previously, their participation was restricted to processing fish (salting and drying) caught by artisanal fishermen and selling it in the markets. However, today, they have a much more active involvement in this industry and some believe they are key to the maintenance of production. Nowadays, they have overcome the number of men working in the fisheries department in some areas and work in many different sectors within.

Fishing Techniques Vessels that use purse seine, semi-seine and other seine techniques for fishing represent 99% of the semi-industrial and industrial fleet in this province. The majority of the catch (around 95% of the total catch) is composed of horse mackerel (70%) and sardinella (25%), these two being the main source of income. They are also considered drivers of the fisheries of all other species in the market, especially the demersal ones caught by artisanal fishermen.

Fishing Consumption and Infrastructure Horse mackerel and sardinella caught in Benguela are consumed internally (population in general, restaurants and fish flour industries), sent to other provinces (mainly in the East) or even exported (almost exclusively to Congo). Within the province, there is an elevated search of these two species essentially due to higher availability and lower prices in the market compared to all other species caught (especially demersal fish caught by artisanal fishermen). Both sardinella and horse mackerel are primarily marketed as frozen fish to other provinces and to Congo, but horse mackerel can also be sent commercialized salted or dried, though in very low percentages. It is said that the hygienic conditions of processing do not meet the standard requirements for

33 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment exportation to more rigorous countries (e.g. other austral/southern Africa and European countries), but some companies are trying to improve this issue to increase exportation.

Through time, frozen horse mackerel and sardinella have gained more exporting importance than salted or dried. Such shift in the preferred market is mainly due to:

 Salting and drying fish has higher production costs than freezing. To consider that for every tonne of dried fish, 3 tons of fresh fish have to be used (dehydration and exclusion of guts and head). With freezing, only about 1% of total biomass is lost. Additionally, salting and drying has to be done manually, over a certain period of time (3-4 different steps) and much more care is involved in the handling to assure the final product quality. Freezing is a one step process, with minimal handling needed and can be conducted immediately after sorting the catch.

 Better roadway and access to remote areas. Nowadays, fresh/frozen fish can reach previously inaccessible areas without losing quality, whereas in the past it was not possible and only salted and dried fish could be transported between provinces (less perishable). With increased and improvement of existing roadway, much less salted and dried fish is demanded from further areas.

 Apparent shift in consumer preference. Whether it is due to changes in diet preferences or simply the possibility of obtaining relatively fresh instead of processed fish, there has been a shift over the demand from eastern provinces. Continuously more frozen fish is required instead of processed products.

Currently, there is only one fish flour factory functional in the province, originated in Namibia and located in Baía Farta. However, considering the decrease in the fish stock over the past decade, strict containment measures have been applied for its functioning. One of which imposes the exclusive use of sardinella surplus. Considering that 1 tonne

34 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment of fish flour requires 6 tonnes of raw fish material, this measure alone has significantly decreased production and revenue is slowly decreasing accordingly. It is a common belief that such factory is now not economically viable and will close sooner than expected.

Main Challenges In 2015 alone two more industrial vessels have been added to the fishing fleet, each with a cargo capacity of 250 tons. This add is rather controversial as ship-owners fiercely defend that ships this size, combined with its technology and cargo capacity, are a major threat to fish stocks nationwide. According to the ship-owner association, fishing effort should be prioritized to 60-70 tons capacity semi-industrial vessels and shared between multiple entrepreneurs, to avoid overexploitation and fisheries monopoly respectively.

With the continuous decrease in the horse mackerel stock and increase in the fishing effort, the market price of this species has risen considerably over the past years. This is particularly factual during the closed fishing season (May to August), where it is only possible to acquire imported horse mackerel. Such elevated prices rise even further during the first months of allowable catch, as the market is still short on fresh horse mackerel. In the current year (2015), the prices were still considerably high two months after the fishing season for this species had opened, as very low quantities of it had still only been caught. The amplified prices of horse mackerel have created a recent expansion of the market of sardinella throughout the province, especially in the last 5 years.

Such increase in the demand of sardinella, due to lower market prices, has resulted in a more intensive fishery over this species, decreasing its stock. This is currently concerning ship-owners since for the first time in history, fishermen did not catch sardinella for a couple of months in 2015. Additionally, there is no closed season for this species, meaning they are caught all year round. Between February and April mostly juvenile individuals of sardinella are caught, which concerns fishermen, as this is not sustainable

35 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment for the stock in the long-term. Hence, they suggest regulation for the fisheries of this species to be developed, including closing it in March/April, to allow the stock to slightly recover on a yearly basis.

Fishermen blame the decrease in the horse mackerel stock to not only overexploitation but to environment changes. Oxygen level, temperature, salinity and fresh water input have greatly fluctuated over the past decade, with impacts over breeding, nursing, sexual maturity and distribution of species like horse mackerel. In regards to overexploitation, these men do not foresee any positive changes in the near future, as the current management measures implemented by authorities do not seem to cope with the problem.

In Namibe, exceeding stock is given away to the population, when there is no room for processing/conserving within the big companies’ facilities. However, in Benguela that does not happen, as freezing capacities are much higher than in Namibe. Additionally, when the stock is too high, no matter the species, the vessels stay docked until more stocking is available. Moreover, no company or vessel particularly targets any species.

The larger the vessel, the higher is its fishing technology (eliminating competition with smaller vessels), the less fishing effort it needs to place to catch fish, the higher is its cargo capacity and the less it employs local people (on board and in land). According to the participants, large industrial vessels not only do not benefit the population (does not target internal market) and the economy (low employment for nationals and unfair competition for semi-industrial fisheries), but also are a risk to the fish stocks of the country and should be considered a major concern for the long term fisheries by the responsible authorities.

Tax evasion is still a matter of concern for law enforcement entities. Fish quantity estimation is a major problem on a national scale and large quantities of bulk catch become very difficult to control and keep track of. Though fisheries inspectors regularly

36 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment catch malefactors, great improvement on supervision and inspection of catch has still to take place to allow a more effective control of the problem. Fisheries inspection departments struggle the most with transhipment of fish from overflowed industrial and semi-industrial vessels to smaller artisanal boats, when quotas are exceeded. At the moment, it is practically impossible to solve this issue and great quantities of fish (i.e. horse mackerel) are still not being accounted for in the national statistics system as well as not taxed. Additionally, wrongdoers are not properly punished and such actions are perpetuated.

Artisanal fisheries (line and mesh) is much more selective than semi-industrial and industrial (Photo 2), targeting primarily demersal fish and using mainly sardinella as bait. Sardinella are, thus, the basis of productivity for the artisanal fisheries in the province.

Photo 2: Industrial seine net (left) and artisanal mesh net (right), each techniques target different set of fish.

Though a decrease in the sardinella stock (and consequent lower availability in the market with increased prices) is harmful for this type of fisheries, the decrease in the horse mackerel population has the opposite effect. Demersal fish is considerably more expensive than horse mackerel, hence with a lower overall demand (including processed fish – salted and dried). As such, lower horse mackerel catches (e.g. closed seasons) limit its availability in the market, shooting up its prices and allowing fairer competition with the demersal species. In addition, during periods of low catches of horse mackerel, demersal species are also exported to Congo (or taken to other provinces) as a

37 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment replacement, increasing the demand of these species. In summary, availability and market prices of horse mackerel and sardinella have a direct influence over the artisanal practices and the income of artisanal fishermen.

According to the participants semi-industrial and industrial ship-owners, fishing activities of this scale have been greatly hindered over the past decade due a number of factors, some of which listed below. All considered, the evolution and state of this practice is at stake if no measures are taken to address these issues:

 Maintenance of equipment. The economic instability Angola is currently going through makes it almost impossible to pay suppliers of parts and services abroad. This is destabilizing normal functioning of vessels and equipment, hence affecting productivity of certain companies. Great effort should be put, by private or public entities, to create internal access to goods and services related to fishing gear.

 Decrease in fish stock. Though sardinella stock health is considered acceptable on the short-term, there are no positive perspectives on the health of the horse mackerel stock for the next years if the fishing approach remains as it is currently. Considering this latest species constitutes the majority of the catch, fishermen foresee difficult times ahead to maintain their activities.

 Unfair quotas. Large high tech industrial vessels have a clear advantage over smaller, more conservative ones. This creates an unstable and unfair competition, which leads ship-owners to believe an imbalance in the future. Moreover, the cargo capacity of such large vessels facilitates quotas to be exceeded and taxes to be evaded. Hence, greater attention should be given to review the quotas and establish better inspection and punishment for those who do not comply with it.

38 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

 Poor management of resources. From allowance of very large vessels, to ineffective inspection of catch. Considering the poor health of the stock of the main species, severe management measures should be set in place to preserve the marine resources and transform fisheries into a sustainable practice.

39 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

4.2. Namibe Province

With over 420 km of coastline, Namibe is the largest coastal province of Angola with rich variety and diversity of fisheries. Thus, the fishing industry is more developed and apparently more organized. We could gather information for sardinella (S. aurita and S. maderensis) and horse mackerel (Trachurus trecae) from 2010 to September 2015 for approximately 42 vessels (depending on the year). The available data is very elucidative and reflects the relative organization towards the other provinces (Table 16).

Table 16: Total catches in Namibe province, for horse mackerel and sardinella in different fishing communities.

Company Vessel Species Total Catches (Kg) 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

PESTRAN ABROTEA horse mackerel 59,460 89,040 163,406 30,577 92,230

sardinella 421,793 146,373 156,895 89,030 51,590 42,090

AI SANTOS CACIMBO II horse mackerel 19,145 254,335 494,349 538,720 564,271 503,455

sardinella 535,220 183,960 88,620 37,415 35,210 47,330

RIO BERO horse mackerel 191,959 102,690 71,772 126,771 33,915

sardinella 116,270 107,755 89,155 24,815 48,160 34,345

SICOPAL CARUNJAMBA I horse mackerel 350,933 209,338 354,028 273,639 222,656

sardinella 495,691 488,920 1,110,554 657,741 790,713 496,288

CARUNJAMBA III horse mackerel 109,492 483,695 613,229 247,310

sardinella 338,349 396,941 730,214 391,961

NAMIBE III horse mackerel 4,200 102,530 114,604 404,257 237,507 177,095

sardinella 876,422 753,954 1,879,328 1,719,449 1,530,891 1,461,492

PRINCIPE ONDAS horse mackerel 254,310 45,882 145,169 16,555 62,355

sardinella 687,400 304,055 432,063 115,465 595 1,225

CAÇULA horse mackerel 8,120 16,681

sardinella 123,920 13,597 41,547

MARIPESCA CARUJAMBA V horse mackerel 1,015 272,954 217,764 181,530 35,718 62,378

sardinella 570,005 683,146 357,891 22,435 27,528 41,860

DOURADO CARUNJAMBA IV horse mackerel 39,785 6,438 71,490 230,211 137,508 322,500

sardinella 94,225 101,730 124,245 15,000 119,979 6,360

DOURADO horse mackerel 22,555 132,685 98,405 211,510 137,508 0

Sardinella 525,125 95,360 177,360 31,860 22,490 0

ANA VANY SODEMAR Horse mackerel 13,910 76,535 4,350 0

Sardinella 53,660 2,555 6,175 700

40 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Company Vessel Species Total Catches (Kg) 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

CALIRA Horse mackerel 4,060 23,475

Sardinella 10,570 56,745

MARES VIVAS COROCA II Horse mackerel 130,731 149,507 167,880 200,747 101,566

Sardinella 203,084 37,605 54,562 92,370 66,405 62,395

SAL DO SOL DELLY Horse mackerel 66,555 34,585 30,550 8,785 0

Sardinella 99,980 124,880 93,515 11,725 0

ABRUNHOSA DONA Horse mackerel 195,245 147,642 221,352 178,043 271,826

ASSUNÇÃO Sardinella 45,540 5,630 12,195 16,750 14,630 10,150

RJ. R. FLAMINGO Horse mackerel 991,710

INDUSTRIAL Sardinella 7,031,870 3,096,500 661,720

RIO MEWA Horse mackerel 292,880 108,070

Sardinella 111,610 1,358,650 3,744,500 1,646,410

EMPESUL DON MARCO Horse mackerel 282,900 107,530

Sardinella 141,600 5,108,240 7,638,780

NEMO Horse mackerel 178,640 231,260 151,560

Sardinella 3,268,930 6,342,200 4,732,570

MORGENSTER Horse mackerel 400,080 464,240 643,000 64,381

Sardinella 2,767,220 7,935,890 3,660,820 2,257,830 3,522,499

MAR SUL FORÇA DO Horse mackerel 22,330 73,010 38,025 19,875 45,300 39,900

HOMEM Sardinella 212,335 81,162 82,565 16,870 103,550 13,165

LUCIMAR NAMIBE I Horse mackerel 24,416 265,920 145,248 153,444 209,249 100,015

Sardinella 474,435 248,714 154,072 270,168 46,304 43,360

SOCO- NAMIBE II Horse mackerel 679,420 250,145 123,435 97,360 48,464 190,113

TOMBWA Sardinella 7,500 846,829 421,065 145,670 237,130 141,820

EMSALSECA NAMIBE IV Horse mackerel 75,780 95,690 156,545 44,030 6,527

Sardinella 976,295 416,305 251,820 126,595 81,405 134,600

SIPROMAR NAMIBE V Horse mackerel 26,179 90,134 35,146

Sardinella 796,295 397,879 415,869 10,800

CAT-SA PELÁGICO 4 Horse mackerel 900 182,196 209,359 64,744 369,105

Sardinella 597,565 33,000 206,749 91,000 25,500

SAGROPEC CUROCA I Horse mackerel 217,715 111,019 153,765 7,770 89,920

Sardinella 345,888 257,405 206,385 66,395 7,745 74,455

VIDA PESCA SÃO JORGE Horse mackerel 1,575 1,291 16,031 10,745

Sardinella 56,465 17,045 37,570 13,790

SEALINE PRO WESS Horse mackerel 943,791 426,120

Sardinella 2,224,020 1,833,680

ADVANCE Horse mackerel 496,170 1,717,330 381,690

Sardinella 5,454,284 2,774,380 3,870,470

DESERT JEWEL Horse mackerel 621,467

41 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Company Vessel Species Total Catches (Kg) 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Sardinella 0

PESTÔMBWA ATLANTIC Horse mackerel

HARVESTER Sardinella 8,128,420

EDIPESCA PELÁGICO 1 Horse mackerel

Sardinella 60,145

MUNDO PELÁGICO 7 Horse mackerel

VERDE Sardinella 3,600

CHARLENE Horse mackerel 1,042

Sardinella 235,460

ANTONIE W II Horse mackerel 1,463

Sardinella 1 ,861,783

TOZEL RASTERINHA Horse mackerel 3,745 126,369 79,133

Sardinella 4,630 21,870 35,840

MARIA REGINA Horse mackerel 47,676

Sardinella 20,650

BONANÇA E BONANÇA Horse mackerel 43,531

FILHOS Sardinella 29,915

SOCIPESCA SANTO Horse mackerel 3,840

ANTÓNIO Sardinella 6,944

ALCO DEMERSAL 10 Horse mackerel

Sardinella

TOTAL Horse mackerel 816,271 3,121,260 3,063,285 6,332,495 7,562,701 4,404,419

Sardinella 25,366,141 11,349,404 16,433,430 22,872,737 24,056,419 22,900,554

Since 2007, the Fisheries Research Centre has developed annual Reports with a summary of the fishing situation in Namibe province. This report highlights the following issues:

 Tidal observations in Namibe Port Area.  Seawater parameters, such as salinity, temperature, oxygen and chlorophyll-a.  Satellite images data for sea currents.  Results of surveys in fishing communities to evaluate conditions in fish processing.  Biological sampling of fish (Sardinella aurita, S. maderensis, Trachurus trecae and Scomber japonicus) and crab.

42 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

 Biological sampling of fish in a research vessel (Fridtjof Nansen)  Statistical data of annual catches  Other issues relevant to fishing in the province

According to IPA annual report of 2010, catches of artisanal fisheries from the years 2003 fluctuated between 90 and 105 thousand tons/year. Some constraints that were registered during the last years were considered as causes of the decrease in catches, namely:

• The failure of most boats imported in 2008 and 2009, due to lack of maintenance and fish conservation conditions during fishing. • The reduction of the intervention of samplers due to non-payment of their allowances from the IPA.

According to IPA Namibe the most reported problems by fishermen are:

• Constant and permanent presence of semi-industrial and industrial fishing boats in areas reserved for artisanal fishing, dragging the materials and equipment of artisanal fishermen, thereby breaching the fishing regulations. Therefore, it is urgent that National Monitoring Service for Fisheries and Aquaculture takes appropriate preventive measures. • The delay of construction works of the Artisanal Fisheries Support Centres in most provinces has been contributing to the high cost of products supporting fishing activities including ice, fuel and lubricants in fishing communities. Thus, these products reach higher prices to fishermen, reducing their chances to undertake regular fishing. • Those in charge of cooperatives do not provide appropriate support to the samplers that collect statistical data on fish landing sites.

43 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Fishing Communities and Vessels The province of Namibe has around 2,496 fishermen and 70% of the population depends directly or indirectly from fisheries. Artisanal fisheries in this province is more than 65% of the national fishing. The fish market, in addition to feeding the province also provides fish to neighbouring provinces.

As in other coastal provinces, there are cooperatives but with little organization. So, Namibe has around 90 registered cooperatives of small-scale fishing, 40 of them are legalized, 20 are “pre-cooperatives” and 30 are not legalized. These cooperatives have 1,721 members divided by three zones: central (Namibe) with 915, north (Lucira) with 287 and south (Tômbwa) with 519 people, respectively.

These cooperatives have benefited from state support through the Program of Support to Artisanal Fisheries which began in 2003. In order to promote fishing activity in the province, the following items were distributed: 25 modern vessels, 40 internal motors and 40 fishing outboard motors.

There are 12 main fisheries based communities in total along the coast of Namibe, Lucira being the furthest North and Tômbwa the furthest South. These are 100% dependant on the fish stocks and are greatly affected during periods of low catch. Both semi- industrial fishermen and the population in general struggle to stay atop between May and August, when fishing horse mackerel is forbidden and the densities of sardinella are extremely low.

Though artisanal fishermen catch bigger and more commercially valuable fish, they usually do not consume it. They rather sell it and buy horse mackerel or sardinella caught by the bigger vessels, which is cheaper and allows for other goods to be bought simultaneously. Additionally, sardinella are used as bait for demersal species, and with no sardinella in the market (or with increased prices), the activity becomes at stake.

44 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

There are only 8 main horse mackerel banks (large fish stocks that maintain the fish population) in the province. The size and range of these banks is very poorly known, not enabling a proper management and sustainable exploration of the resource. These banks are referred as:

 Maremoto (Tômbwa);  Golfo;  Banco Amélia;  Altia;  Lucira;  Bentiaba.

Gender Through the years, women have increasingly been an important factor to sustain fisheries. In the beginning, they were only responsible for processing and selling fish, mainly caught by their husbands or other relatives. In previous years, however, they seem to have taken a more controlling position over the sector. In the past decades, with the decay in fisheries, many men preferred to explore other sectors to survive and sustain their families. That is when women took over and some ship-owners mention that they are the ones running the business and enabling them to continue fishing.

Fishing Techniques Horse mackerel and sardinella are mainly caught by semi-industrial vessels using seine and semi-seine techniques (around 98% of the total catch). Though these two species encompass the majority of the catch, commercial fisheries of this scale is usually not species orientated. There is only one company (Empessul, Lda.) with a vessel that targets sardinella (14m of length), with headquarters in Tômbwa. Otherwise, sardinella are more frequently caught in Benguela.

45 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Most of the horse mackerel and sardinella captured along the province are drained to other eastern and central provinces of the country. A smaller percentage is sold to local fish flour companies and only a very small percentage is sold locally to restaurants and population in general.

In 2009 the stock of mackerel decreased significantly, shooting up the prices and concerning related institutions and environmentalists. From then on, the government has imposed closing seasons for fishing horse mackerel, determined yearly according to the catch of the previous years. Each year, a Management Measures for Fisheries (Marine and Continental) and Aquiculture is published, providing guidelines for this activity (with specific articles to mackerel and sardinella).

In 2010, fishing mackerel was completely forbidden for the entire year, hence called the grey year (0 mackerel) by the semi-industrial and industrial fishermen. The stock of the species has from then on slightly increased, but has never reached the same yield as before 2009. In 2015, similarly to 2014, the closing season for mackerel was of 4 months (May – August), however fishermen are still very concerned as only in October they started catching horse mackerel, and in very low percentages.

The Total Allowable Catch (TAC) of horse mackerel is also set on a yearly basis, according to the Management Measures for Fisheries (Marine and Continental) and Aquiculture established by the Ministry of fisheries. It is set as a percentage of the general TAC (considering all species caught). Over the past 2 years, TAC for horse mackerel has increased significantly in comparison with previous years: 15,000 tons until 2013 and 55,000 tons from 2014 (15% of the combined TAC) (Gestão das Pescarias de 2014 - http://www.scm.gov.ao/diploma_texto.php?diplomaID=118851). The TAC for sardinella has maintained steady for the past years, set at 150,000 tons.

During the closing periods, and to assure that the market prices of horse mackerel do not shoot up, the government has allowed the importation of this species to

46 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment compensate for the lack of internal catch. Since 2013, around 90,000 tons of mackerel per years are allowed to be imported to Angola during this period.

According to Raemaekers & Sowman (2015) different fisheries and gear used in Tômbwa (in Namibe province), according to sector, are illustrated below (Table 17). Currently, artisanal fishery comprises several different fisheries which employ different gear types, with small-motorized vessels called “chatas” venturing up to 5–10 nm offshore and along the coast. A chata normally can carry between 3 to 5 people depending on the weather conditions. The fishing activity usually consists of day and/or night trips, but generally these do not last longer than 10–15 hours.

Table 17: Different fisheries and gear used in Tômbwa, according to recognized sector. Sector Semi-industrial Artisanal Artisanal Artisanal Subsistence fishery fishery fishery fishery fishery

Type of Purse seine Small wooden Smaller Shore-based Shore-based vessels deckboats vessels (chatas) polystyrene targeting small with or without rafts (bimbas) pelagics (only outboard 5–10 left) engines (40 hp) Gear used Purse seine Handline (pesca Handline Beach seine, Handline ligna) with one vessel Gillnet (emelhar) to take net out Traps (gaioles) (banda or arujta no praia) Source: FAO Report by Raemaekers & Sowman (2015).

However, it is important to note that during the data collection no subsistence fishers were present, nor beach-seine fishers, raft fishers or local buyers from the artisanal fishery (usually women from the community working individually).

47 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Fishing Consumption and Infrastructure Experienced fishermen show their concern on the amount of mackerel not only allowed to be caught but also available for so (stock health). As stated by such fishermen, in 1996 mackerel constituted around 70% of the total catch. Nowadays it only reaches a maximum of 20%, with other species increasingly gaining more importance commercially. As an example, until 1996 a fleet of 12 semi-industrial vessels of 24m of length, with a cargo hold capacity of 100-120 tons, was able to catch around 500,000 tons of fish in a year. Nowadays, the same fleet can only viably catch a maximum of 30,000 tons in the same period of time.

There are no closed periods for fishing sardinella. However, the catch of this species also decreases during the cold months (May to August). The population of sardinella has considerably decreased over the past years as seen by the total catch of this species. 2015 was perhaps the lowest it has been over the past decade, concerning not only the semi-industrial fishermen but also the population in general as it is the most affordable fish in the market, hence the most important for the local population. The market of sardinella has decreased to a point that many fish flour producing facilities in Tômbwa have closed their doors for lack of enough feedstock. Many boats and vessels are docked (production is not enough to compensate costs) and production units ceased to function.

All main fisheries companies have their own harbour attached to their facilities, where the catch is directly offloaded to their sorting and selection system. Additionally, the artisanal fishermen (very few of which use seine techniques) dock in designated fishing harbours (Photo 3), to offload and sell their catch to re-sellers. In Namibe, this small port is located next to the Commercial Port and to the provinces’ main fish trading market (Pinda Market – Photo 4).

48 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Photo 3: Namibe’s town fishing harbour, located next to the commercial harbour, where all artisanal fishermen in town dock their boats to offload their catch.

Photo 4: Pinda Market. The biggest fish trading market in Namibe, where fresh, salted and dried horse mackerel, sardinella and all other fish catch are sold.

Though none have physical infrastructures to support this activity, a new fishing port is being built in Tômbwa (Photo 5) and appears to include several related infrastructures to facilitate docking of artisanal, semi-industrial and industrial vessels, as well as to facilitate inspection by the authorities. It includes areas for artisanal (2,5m deep), semi- industrial (5m deep) and industrial (7,5m deep) vessels to dock. The wharf is 450m long and possesses a ramp to aid and lift smaller boats and facilitate offload.

49 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Photo 5: Tômbwa fishing harbour in construction, to be concluded in 2016.

Each vessel has to possess a fishing license with a designated port to dock, renewable every 10 months. Each vessel that docks (in private or in the public harbours) is inspected and its catch documented by workers of the Directorate of Fisheries for Inspection. Therefore, this Directorate possesses all information of the catch of horse mackerel and sardinella (and all other species caught) over the past 5 years. This includes list of vessels, typology of fisheries of each (artisanal, semi-industrial and industrial) and amount of each species caught (daily, monthly and yearly). All infrastructures related to fisheries within the province are equally inspected in regulated timeframes. One inspector of said Directorate is to be on board of those vessels that remain at sea for over 24 h. Control of quality is conducted by CIP Namibe: a sample of each catch is collected and a series of parameters analysed to determine if the catch complies with law requirements, is fresh enough for consumption or if there are any issues that could become hazardous for its introduction in the market (Photo 6).

Photo 6: Sample of horse mackerel to be processed, collected by CIP.

50 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

The fleet in Namibe is mainly composed of national companies and vessels. Only 3 registered vessels are chartered: 1 designated to crab and other crustaceans, and the other 2 specialized in purse seine fisheries (including horse mackerel and sardinella). These are industrial vessels that by themselves make up to 70% of all total catch in the coast of the province.

In artisanal fisheries, sardinella compose the majority of the catch. It is said that in every 40t of fish caught, 10-20 tons will be of sardinella and only 1t horse mackerel. There is only one private company, in partnership with the government, set to aid artisanal fisheries in the fish transformation (salting and drying). This is still being installed (meant to be inaugurated in November 2015) (Photo 7), with headquarters in Tômbwa, right next to the Dourado Market (with capacity for 20 sellers) (Photo 8), to be managed by the same company (Dourado, Lda.).

Photo 7: Dourado, Lda. headquarters in Tômbwa, with fish salting and drying conditions being created for the local fishermen.

51 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

A B

C D

Photo 8: Dourado market in Tômbwa (1), located right next to Tômbwa’s main artisanal fisheries docking area (B). This market is being rehabilitated to provide a sheltered and hygienic place for women to sell fresh and processed fish, including mackerel (C & D).

It has capacity for 15 ladies to work simultaneously, expecting to be able to produce around 5 tons of dried and salted fish daily. It will have its own private vessels, but will mainly function in cooperation with regional fishermen to support their activities. It includes PVC tanks for salting, plastic greenhouse structures for drying in hygienic conditions, drying storage rooms, freezing chambers only for short-term conservation and support to local fishermen and vessels for both in line and pelagic (seine) fisheries.

The numbers provided by Empessul, Lda. enable a general comprehension of the extent of fisheries in this part of the country and the production/transformation overall

52 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment scheme. This is the only company in Tômbwa (the main fishing town in Namibe) specialized in freezing fish (Photo 9).

A B

C D

Photo 9: General layout of a fish freezing company in Tômbwa. Fish catch is sucked straight from the cargo hold into the automatic mattresses (A → B → C) where it is manually sorted by type and size. Catch intended to be frozen is then pre-frozen and kept in small containers by type (D) before transferred to the main -18ºC container.

Its fleet comprises 5 industrial vessels and a smaller semi-industrial vessel, 14m long that targets sardinella. In a full working day, it receives around 500 kg of fish an hour, sorted and divided manually by species and size, with the aid of an automatic mat. Between 500 – 900 tons are sorted every day.

When the season is right, of 500 tons of fish caught everyday around 90 tons are sardinella and horse mackerel. It has a total storage capacity of 500 tons, which is hardly ever close to full capacity because fish is sold/sent to other provinces much faster than they can store for long periods of time. At the time of the visit to their facilities, only sardinella where being caught and processed (Photo 10). They are kept at -18oC.

53 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Photo 10: Empessul’s main freezing container. It’s almost emptiness represents the low catches during 2015. Recently it has only been composed of sardinella.

Main Challenges There are many challenges on the state of the stocks for the next decade, especially in what concerns the species here emphasized. Seine fishermen stated that they now have to go further North, sometimes out of Namibe, to be able to catch enough fish to maintain their business. Some vessels reach as North as Sumbe. These have direct influence over the production costs, selling price and income. This, associated with the drastic decrease in the fishing stocks since 1996, has resulted in at least 40% of the existing fishing companies to be technically bankrupt, most of which with closed doors. Considering fishing is the main source of income in the province, this has negative influence over the employment rate of the province: from 12,000 – 15,000 people working in fisheries in 1996 to around 1,000 nowadays. Experienced semi-industrial fishermen blame such decrease in the fish yield to:

o Increase in industrial vessels. New industrial vessels work with high tech technology, including sonars that allow fish schools to be found right away. That has greatly increased the catch and significantly decreased the fishing effort (less effort for more fish). It also resulted in quotas to not be respected and almost impossible to control. In addition, industrial vessels tend to deplete the entire fish school, increasing the fishing effort for the semi-industrial fleet and making it almost impossible to compete with. To put it in perspective, 20 semi-

54 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

industrial vessels can catch around 20,000 tons of horse mackerel per year, whilst 6 industrial vessels can catch around 25,000 tons of the species in the same period of time. o Allowance of trawling. Before independence, trawling was not allowed in any part of the coast. After independence, Spanish and Russian fleets were allowed to trawl in key areas of important species, like the horse mackerel. The catches from these vessels were very poorly regulated and inspected. The main target was the hake, and all bycatch was discarded. Some witnessed around 500 kg of horse mackerel being discarded every day. Fishermen from then that are still active today believe that the consequences were catastrophic for the fish yield in the next decades. Though only in 1996 those involved started realizing the devastating effects of the combined negative pressures over the fishing stock, it is from 1975 that things started to change (with the introduction of trawling vessels). Additionally, a program for “Experimental Fishing” has been approved and set in motion earlier this year (2015), and included trawling on areas of known horse mackerel existence and catching around 50,000 tons of this species alone over the period of 3 months. Fishermen are blaming this event as the main reason for the current late recovery of horse mackerel and sardinella. o Increase in the seal population. Seals seem to prefer small pelagic fish in their diet, with horse mackerel appearing to be one of the favourite species. Over the past decade, there has been a significant increase in the seal population in Namibe. Considering the recent decrease in the Namibian seal population, some believe that they have shifted their geographic habitat to Angola fleeing from the hunting pressure in Namibia. The increase in these animals is considered competition for the fish catch, as they decrease the fish schools considerably (one seal has to consume around 30kg of fish daily), simultaneously threatening the natural stocks. Additionally, when applying a seine net, the seals tend to eat much of the catch before the net can be raised

55 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

again. Some ship-owners refer to hundreds of seals sometimes attacking their catch without them being able to react. There is the need for international cooperation between Angola, South Africa and Namibia to manage the seal problem and decrease the pressure these animals are creating over the Angolan fish stocks. o Climate change. It is now much more difficult to keep track of season changes. The dry (cold) season appears to be extended much longer than previously, starting earlier and/or ending later. Considering this is the low season for fishing, the impact over the overall fishing activity is greater. Water temperature fluctuations, turbidity and currents have also shown signs of instability over the past years. o Poor management of the biological resources. The allowance of high capacity industrial vessels and occasional trawlers is an indicator that better policies should be set in place to manage fisheries in the country, before horse mackerel and the sardinella disappear like other species in the past (the crevalle jack has disappeared from Namibe a while ago, true sardinella have not been caught for over 5 years and anchovies disappeared around the independence years). More acknowledged quotas should be implemented for each vessel, and the not compliance of such measures should result in far more serious consequences than the ones seen today, as only a small fee has to be paid for those who cross these quotas. To comply with these severe and limited quotas, many companies will certainly choose smaller, more sustainable vessels. o Behavioural changes (i.e. horse mackerel). It appears that key species, like the horse mackerel, have changed their ecological behaviour through time. Though this is an empirical observation, it is stated that this species has increasingly preferred deeper waters and is more frequently found closer to the coast (deep pockets closer to shore than open ocean). Another important difference is that

56 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

in the 80’s this species was much more abundant during the dry (cold) season and much scarcer during the wet (hot) season: this is completely the opposite now. They seem to reach sexual maturity much faster (smaller length) than before, as bigger individuals started disappearing from the populations.

According to Raemaekers & Sowman (2015) there are a number of stressors under the categories ecological, socio-economic and management/governance which are illustrated in Table 18). Within the ecological category, lower fish abundance and an increase in the number of seals were highlighted as the main challenges. Participants argued that the seals eat the fishers’ catch, especially when the fishers are deploying gillnets (see below). Although the fishers have been using gillnets since at least the 1990s, only more recently have the seals become a problem and prevented many from using the nets (Raemaekers & Sowman, 2015).

Participants struggled to differentiate between the socio-economic and governance challenges, but identified lack of finance and gear for all aspects of fishing as their major challenge. They mentioned that the price for fish had remained the same over the last ten years but that the fuel price had increased. Several fishers also mentioned the general lack of employment, housing and social support structures such as secondary schooling and pension grants (Raemaekers & Sowman, 2015).

Table 18: Stressors for the fish industry in Tômbwa. Ecological Socio-economic Ecological Socio-economic Ecological Socio-economic Governance Governance Governance Less fish than in past Lack of employment Lack of housing development More seals Lack of credit/financing Need for communication with fishers and boat owners Climatic changes Lack of engines and fuel No pension fund (temperature, wind and currents)

57 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Ecological Socio-economic Ecological Socio-economic Ecological Socio-economic Governance Governance Governance Air pollution (dust) Lack of schooling, especially secondary schooling Desertification Lack of transport facilities Freshwater influx from Lack of salt rivers brings grass and Lack of refrigeration on debris, which in turn board and at landing sites affects fish gear, but it can Lack of adequate fishing also improve catches as it equipment attracts more shrimp Source: FAO Report by Raemaekers & Sowman (2015).

Proposed Solutions A few possible solutions to improve fishing activity were obtained from participants included the following:

o No professional career in fisheries. Over the past decades, fisheries have been seen as a secondary career, chosen only by those with no or poor education, with no other professional option in life. Nowadays there is still some discrimination over this sector, as it is not considered worthy of those with higher education. Staff should be trained in different areas related to fisheries (i.e. crew members, maintenance, masters of fisheries, etc.). Training should be mainly aimed at high school graduates that compose the majority of the technicians that work in the sector. There should be a better link between the different institutions associated with fisheries to assure different levels of education to people interested. To consider also the need to allure technicians with higher education to the sector, by providing them better working conditions than the existing ones.

58 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment o Poor inspection of the catch. There are still thousands of tons of fish that are not taxed and are sent to the market without inspection. These are sold at much lower prices in the informal market and are hence favoured by the population, who disregard “legal fish”, putting some fishing companies in danger of bankrupting at times. Inspecting authorities should be much stricter and set worse consequences for those who not only break quotas but also dodge taxes. Improvement in this issue would also have a great positive influence over local economic status, as greater taxes would come from it. o Lack of basic supplies. There are periods where fuel and water are scarce in the province. Bigger companies possess their own storing tanks and can keep running for long periods of time. However, small entrepreneurs and artisanal fishermen are disabled to continue activities when such shortage happens. Such situation creates working inequality within the sector, favouring larger companies over smaller ones. o Fish flour industry and over capacitated freezing industries. Both require a rather bigger fishing effort to keep running, forcing the need to operate much bigger vessels (i.e. industrial vessels with high technology). Considering a freezing company with a daily capacity of 70 tons is not sustainable in Namibe from an economic and environmental point of view, the current instalment of one with 200 tons of capacity, current happening, is alarming. There are over 20 fish flour producers within Namibe and others being installed at the moment. These all target sardinella and other small pelagic, and the consequences might be drastic, either economically (bankruptcy for lack of feedstock) or environmentally (increased fish effort and catches). In total, it is possible that this industry burns down around 500 tons of sardinella per day that could be otherwise consumed. Better and stricter supervision and follow up by local authorities should be considered.

59 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment o Fishermen associations should be better heard. All of the most experienced fishermen are part of these associations and could greatly contribute to a more sustainable approach to fisheries if considering during the decision making processes, assuring the health and recovery of the stock for a longer period, hence reassuring the fishing sector for longer. For these members, it is clear that many projects are being approved without proper knowledge of regional fishing nuances, and that could have catastrophic consequences in the future. o Inexperienced fishermen tend to overexploit more. Nowadays, to increase production, purse seine nets are collected much more aggressively than in previous years. During the process, tons of fish end up dying and discarded with no further usage, depleting the fish stocks much faster. Moreover, if fishermen were more united, some other vessels could leverage from this discarded fish and improve sustainability, both economic and environmental. As competition increases in the sector, it is important to remember newcomers and industrial fleet owners that the majority of fishing companies/individuals in Namibe depend on the horse mackerel and sardinella to continue afloat and integrated management is the key to assure that this resource continues existing and is viable in the long term. A network between all fishermen and associated governmental institutions is perhaps a solution to create a strategy for communication. o Poor promotion of horizontal economic growth rather than vertical. The fishing industry is now almost monopolized by industrial fleets and big corporations, as conditions are still harsh for small companies and singular vessels to keep up. If greater emphasis is given to this issue and better conditions were created to the smaller entrepreneurs, there would definitely be more economic stability and greater local employment. A set of regulations should be imposed to even out the effort-catch ratio, allowing smaller companies to fairly compete with the high tech big companies. For example, an

60 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

industrial vessel not only catches more fish with less effort, but employs mainly foreign crew members, devaluing local employment. In the same context, large freezing companies employ much less workers and requires more fishing effort than several small companies. o Fishing concessions and licenses are national and not regional. All vessels are authorized to fish anywhere along the coast of the country. A fishing fleet with headquarters in Namibe can go all the way to Kwanza Sul to fish (or further North) and vice-versa. This means that all fleets around the country can concentrate in one particular region if need be, without considering the fish stock capacities and not allowing them to properly recover. For example, all vessels in Namibe, even with a set docking harbour elsewhere, can fish in Tômbwa. This will cause a much greater pressure over the fishing stocks, resulting in much faster depletion of such resources than if each where given a particular area to exploit within the province according to the distribution of resources. A rotatory system of exploitation could also be considered to assure fairness between the vessels. o Licenses do not consider bathymetry allowances. Species like horse mackerel are not only moving closer to the coast but going deeper in the water column. This is possible because the bathymetry along the coast of Namibe is very peculiar, allowing deep pockets to be found close to the coast (e.g. the bay of Namibe can reach 600 m in its deepest point). Licenses only consider the allowed distance from the coast. Entities do not consider the fact that the distribution of certain species depends on other factors, and establishing only a given distance and not a minimum depth, for example, can be very hazardous for species like the horse mackerel. o There is an urgent need to reassess regulations. Considering all the issues stated above, new regulations should be proposed. Fishermen believe that this

61 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

might be the only way to reduce overexploitation and save the marine resources, with particular concern over the stocks of horse mackerel and sardinella that have shown signs of endangerment. These new regulations should address:

. Technical restrictions according to the size and capacity of the vessels; . Establishment of fair and inviolable quotas to assure evenness between vessels of different types; . Determine bathymetry in addition to the distance to the coast when providing licenses, acknowledging more parameters are crucial for the distribution of fish and successful fisheries; . Establishment of fishing grounds in the license, to reduce regional overexploitation. Every vessel should be assigned a fishing ground for a given period of month, in a rotatory basis, considering the regional fishing yield and distribution of fish along the coast; . Increased inspection and tighter surveillance of the catch, including aspects like trespass of fish from big vessels to smaller vessels on sea, to avoid paying the over-quota fees.

Regarding education, the majority of children in scholar age attend school. In smaller communities, like in Tômbwa, it is compulsory and parents can be punished if their children are not enrolled. Attendance to high school is still a problem, as there are not enough positions in the few existing, and there are age preferences to the only available vacancies. A new generation of better educated fishermen is starting to arise, but there is still a lot of discrimination towards the art of fisheries: educated men are supposed to occupy “big and better” positions and not become “mere fishermen”. Better working conditions have to be given to allure higher educated individuals and more value has to be given this sector.

4.3. Luanda Province

62 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

As the fishing political and economic centre of the country, it is served by two artisanal fishing infrastructures, one located on Cape Island in the rehabilitation phase and another nearing completion in the community of Buraco. There are other infrastructures for small scale fishing in the area of Sarico and Barra do Bengo, in the municipality of Cacuaco, which are directly managed by cooperatives of artisanal fisheries.

Luanda has more than 10,000 fishermen and a fleet of about 1,600 vessels of all kinds. There are 38 artisanal fisheries cooperatives registered at the Institute for Development of Artisanal Fisheries and Aquaculture (IDPAA). Luanda employs the largest number of people in processes related to fishing and fish trading.

Luanda is still considered the area of the largest trade of fishery products giving it to its inhabitants economic potential and family income that is dedicated to fishing activities. Luanda is currently the centre of the political and administrative activities of artisanal fishing, so the related institutions and fishermen in isolation or organized in cooperatives are in full operation.

Fishing Techniques and Vessels Along the country, around 95% of the registered fishing boats are associated to artisanal fisheries. Artisanal fishermen mainly use line and mesh techniques for their catch, hence targeting mostly demersal fish. In Luanda, only a few artisanal fishermen are authorized to use mini-seine techniques. These present adapted equipment for such activity, which allow them to adequately use this technique without risking their lives. Along the province, sardinella are much more frequently caught than horse mackerel by such prepared mini-seine artisanal boats.

Though sardinella and horse mackerel are not the main catch for artisanal fishermen, their productivity, subsequent final income and livelihoods are greatly influenced by the state of the market of these two species. For line and mesh users, sardinella are the

63 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment main bait used and its availability in the informal market define their overall productivity. Moreover, the prices practiced in said market will determine the production cost of their catch, hence their final income. On the other hand, sardinella and horse mackerel are greatly cheaper than the demersal species fishermen tend to catch. As such, artisanal fishermen usually sell their catch and consume sardinella and horse mackerel, to allow other goods to be purchased simultaneously.

For those artisanal vessels allowed to conduct seine fisheries, transhipment of horse mackerel from bigger vessels is still a very common practice. Semi-industrial and industrial vessels that exceed their fishing quotas, especially of horse mackerel, transfer part of their catch to small artisanal fishing boats to avoid paying the fees established by law. Because some artisanal boats are licensed to catch horse mackerel, it is at the moment impossible to determine whether their catch of the day comes in fact from their fishing effort or from transhipment. It is only sometimes suspicious because of the amount of horse mackerel offloaded from their boats when they dock, as mini-seine allows for only a small number of fish to be caught. Many different inspection measures have to be updated and improved for this problem to be controlled.

Over the past year, there has been increasingly more industrial vessels allowed fishing in the Angolan waters, increasing the amount of horse mackerel brought into markets and keepings its prices relatively down throughout the year (except on closed fishing seasons, where horse mackerel has to be imported). However, vessels these big with such increased cargo capacity for little effort rise concerns over entities that are more acknowledge over fisheries. Lower effort for more fish might mean faster depletion of fish stocks, not enabling sustainable fisheries and adequate management of resources on the long term. This is a negative factor over the population of already affected species, such as the horse mackerel.

In Luanda, greater emphasis, willpower and investment are being given into the aquaculture of horse mackerel. Authorities involved strongly believe in the possibility of

64 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment repopulating this species in key areas to assure not only its upkeep in the long term, as well as the likelihood of the improvement of its stock for greater catch and more stable markets.

In a recent study (Raemaekers & Sowman, 2015) selected two areas, namely Barra do Dande in Bengo and Cacuaco in Luanda to better understanding the livelihood and fishing activities in such areas. For example in Cacuaco, about 980 men are involved in harvesting marine resources using canoes, chatas and catrongas, and about 151 women are engaged in post-harvest activities. There are also a number of women who own boats and employ crew.

Main Challenges Some considerations regarding the state of this activity in the province (and in the country) are as follows:

 Currently, public tendering for the construction of appropriate facilities for the reproduction, nursery and fattening of horse mackerel is open. Affordability, effectiveness and reliability are the key factors weighted;

 After contracts have been assigned and signed, the beginning of the construction of facilities is expected to start later in the year (2015), going through for a full year. The company selected for this step is to assure conclusion of the infrastructures in a year’s time;

 A pool for the first trial experiences has already been built. This pool possesses all the basic known requirements for the survival of different marine species in captivity. In addition, rudimentary conditions for the reproduction with captive horse mackerel individuals are equally set. This has been built in advance to allow trained staff to practice and gain more experience on the aquaculture of this

65 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

particular species of horse mackerel before the industrial scale infrastructures are ready, late 2016.

 Breeding individuals of horse mackerel are already being sought for. A vessel, to be operational in December, is being prepared for a trip offshore to collect a few horse mackerel individuals of specific size and with specific fitness parameters. The first individuals chosen are to be used for practice and experience gain before the full scale project initiates;

 Several institutions and countries around the world have been creating partnerships with different entities in Angola to provide expertise on the matter. Such cooperation includes training of technicians, introduction to best practices and share of knowledge on aquaculture. Qualified members of said institutions have already been trained and are to practice the culture of horse mackerel in captivity as soon as reproducers are obtained. To emphasize South Korea and Norway as the main countries assisting on this specific project;

 Statistic data indicates that the survival rate of larvae of this particular species of horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus) is as high as 99%. This indicates a very low rate of success, coupled with numerous uncertainties on the specific parameters and factors to be considered for the multiple steps of breeding, nursing and fattening individuals of this species. Recent training provided for the technicians involved, in South Korea, is additionally meant to clarify these individuals on the nuances to be acknowledge during these 3 phases, to maximize the possibility of success of the project.

According to Raemaekers & Sowman (2015) a number of key stressors were identified through a workshop process attended by 17 participants (12 male and 5 female), comprising artisanal fishers, boat owners and fishworkers, including women engaged in buying, cleaning, cooking, salting and selling fish.

66 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

The three key stressors to emerge during the workshop process were:

 (i) difficult to access credit under the socio-economic category;  (ii) less fish available under the ecological category; and  (iii) lack of support from government under the management/governance category.

Other stressors that also ranked high include lack of consultation by government with fishing communities (7) and lack of basic infrastructure (5). This latter issue was further reinforced by a group of women that arrived early on day two of the workshop to share their concerns. In particular, the lack of space and shelter (e.g. canvas) on the beach to be able to clean, salt and prepare fish was a problem, especially when it rained. Other stressors identified by participants under the ecological category were that the sea is warmer, rougher and there are more storms, there are stronger currents and there is more wind. Pollution of the marine environment was also highlighted as a problem (Raemaekers & Sowman, 2015:68).

The workshop participants also identified the four key environmental stressors, namely (i) less fish; (ii) sea warming; (iii) strong currents and winds; and (iv) marine pollution. More details on participant’s perceptions are listed below (extracted from Raemaekers & Sowman, 2015:68-69):

 Less fish: the reduction in fish catches is contributing to increased levels of poverty in the community as well as loss of motivation among fishers. Local fishers and fishworkers are struggling to pay back loans and becoming indebted to boat owners and buyers. Women in particular are struggling, as there is not enough fish to buy, and they have had to resort to cooking and selling food. The impacts of a reduction in fish catches permeate the entire local economy. This impact was rated high. Fishers blamed the reduced catches on the presence of

67 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

the industrial boats in the artisanal fishing zones, use of banda banda nets, and fishers from elsewhere moving to Cacuaco or fishing in their waters. They also attributed the reduced catches to climate change, but were uncertain about the causal link. They noted that the sea is warming and the currents and winds seem to be stronger. However, there was no sense of over what period of time this change had been observed.

 Sea warming: The second environmental stressor/change noted was that the sea is becoming warmer. Fishers spoke of the water temperatures being higher than previously and that fish die at sea whereas before they lasted longer. Now, it is necessary to take ice to sea. (This could also be linked to the fact that fishers now have to go farther out to sea to find the fish). They rated this impact high and attributed the warmer seawater to global warming. Linked to the above is their perception that currents and winds are becoming stronger. Sometimes the winds are too strong, and fishers cannot go to sea or reach the fishing grounds. This is happening more frequently now than in the past. If the fishers go out and do not catch fish, they lose money, as they have to pay for petrol. Sometimes, the sea is so rough that fishers risk losing their nets. The fishers also rated this impact high. They attributed stronger currents and winds to increased temperatures, which they attributed to global temperature increases.

 Marine pollution: Fishers were concerned about the increase in marine pollution, which they said affected water quality and the fish (they move away) and also had an impact on their health. Discarded and lost nets in the ocean also posed a danger to fish and other mammals. They claimed that the pollution was caused by the diesel, oil and other chemicals on board the industrial boats, and the leaks and spills that occurred. They were also concerned about the impact of oil, lead, rust and other metals from abandoned ships along the coast. This impact was rated medium.

68 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

To overcome the identified key environmental stressors the participants have proposed the following coping mechanisms (extracted from Raemaekers & Sowman, 2015:69):

 Less fish: Less fish means that fishers have had to look for other jobs, which is not easy as there are very limited livelihoods opportunities outside the fishing sector. Even finding casual work is difficult. Previously, fishers had backyard gardens, but now the town has become crowded and few people have space for gardens. Some fishworkers set up a stall or kitchen and sell cooked food. Basically, they have to survive on what they have. Sometimes, they go out to sea in rowboats (to save fuel costs) to try and harvest fish. The participants indicated that they were used to being poor. They wanted to develop mariculture but did not have the expertise or equipment. The other environmental changes identified above – sea warming and stronger currents – also resulted in people catching less fish and so the coping mechanisms listed above were similar, although fishers did say that they would share boats to help each other (the boat would go out twice a day).

 Marine pollution: There are some local initiatives funded by local or national government (although participants were not sure about this) and some local companies to clean up the beaches and marine environment. This provides some ad hoc employment for unemployed youth, although very limited. The fishers do not benefit from these opportunities. However, they noted that these initiatives were sporadic and there was no coordination among government and companies funding the programme. Basically, fishers have not been proactive in terms.

These coping mechanisms are very similar to the ones being implemented in other regions of Angola. The proposed adaptation strategies include:

 Better organization among fishers required;

69 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

 Strengthen the cooperative structure;  Convert to bigger boats – semi industrial;  Investigate development of aquaculture and mariculture;  Improve compliance with regulations regarding banda banda (beach seine) and harvesting undersized sardinha;  Awareness raising and capacity development;  Improve communication with government.

In overall “fishers supported the suggestion that becoming more organized and joining a fisher association or cooperative would provide a form of support, especially during difficult times. In particular, they felt that greater attention needed to be given to strengthening the cooperatives in the area and encouraging all fishers to become members, as these structures could provide support in terms of access to equipment and information. However, incentives would be required in order to convince fishers to join” (Raemaekers & Sowman, 2015:70).

70 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

5. CONCLUSIONS

This report comprises part of a larger study that aims to develop a new framework for EAF in the Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem (BCLME). In the context of this larger project and with respect to two commercial fisheries in Angola, namely Cunene horse mackerel (Trachurus trecae) and sardinella (Sardinella maderensis and Sardinella aurita) this report provides an historical background of distribution of such species along the whole coast. Where information is available the report focuses on three provinces, namely Benguela and Namibe (which seem to be the more productive ones) and Luanda (which has more consumers).

The report also illustrates the fluctuations in biomass based on a number of surveys and presents the evolution of the Total Allowable Catches (TACs) for the species discussed in this report. The evolution of TACs depicts variations along the past twenty years. The trend indicated in the report shows while between 2003 and 2009 the TAC for horse mackerel decreased substantially the TAC for sardinella has increased. However between 2010 and 2015 the situation was the opposite as while the TAC for horse mackerel increased the TAC for sardinella has decreased as it became an over-exploited resource. This has resulted in approving legislation for the import of horse mackerel with an annual quota of 90,000 tons. It also provides information on the catches made by artisanal and commercial fisheries.

The importance of adequate legislation is emphasized in the report, particularly through the Law on Biological Aquatic Resources and a number of enabling legislation which is approved on an annual basis on the sustainable conservation and renewal policies of aquatic biological resources. This legislation also focused on aspects such as access and fishing use rights, participation of fish workers and community level institutions and the interactions made possible between different policies.

71 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

The fisheries data was obtained through a series of workshops, meetings and literature review particularly reports from INIP, IPA and FAO. These sources also proved to be valuable as they enabled a better understanding of stakeholders’ knowledge in the fisheries management process. It was confirmed that they view in three different ways, namely:

a) through the development of indicators for the human dimension of the fishery with specific focus on user value and employment, particularly with regards to artisanal fisheries; b) through the development of a multi-criteria decision support tool based on these indicators while understanding the basic needs of the artisanal fisheries; c) through an analysis of fishers’ ecological knowledge, which varied according to the region.

The outcomes of this report indicate a number of challenges faced by the fishermen to be address in the coming years so as to enable a wide-spread implementation of the Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries. Although the number and location of fishing communities varies in the three assessed provinces, the techniques and vessels used are very similar.

The main challenges presented by the participants included the overexploitation of the resource as well as environmental changes. This is mostly due to deficient law enforcement and current management practices. Other challenge being faced by the fishermen are the lack of infrastructure such as fish and fish flour processing plants, freezing and docking facilities as well as access to credit. On the other hand artisanal fisheries indicated that they have reduced catches due to the size of their vessels and equipment and technology. Artisanal fisheries (line and mesh) is much more selective than semi-industrial and industrial, targeting primarily demersal fish and using mainly sardinella as bait.

72 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

In summary the main factors that have been hindering the fishing activities include:

• Maintenance of equipment. The economic instability Angola is currently going through makes it almost impossible to pay suppliers of parts and services abroad. This is destabilizing normal functioning of vessels and equipment, hence affecting productivity of certain companies.

• Decrease in fish stock. Though sardinella stock health is considered acceptable on the short-term, there are no positive perspectives on the health of the horse mackerel stock for the next years if the fishing approach remains as it is currently.

• Unfair quotas. Large high tech industrial vessels have a clear advantage over smaller, more conservative ones. This creates an unstable and unfair competition, which leads ship-owners to believe an imbalance in the future. Moreover, the cargo capacity of such large vessels facilitates quotas to be exceeded and taxes to be evaded.

• Increase in industrial vessels. New industrial vessels work with high tech technology, including sonars that allow fish schools to be found right away.

• Poor management of biological resources. From allowance of very large vessels, to ineffective inspection of catch. Considering the poor health of the stock of the main species, severe management measures should be set in place to preserve the marine resources and transform fisheries into a sustainable practice.

• Allowance of trawling. The catches from these vessels were very poorly regulated and inspected. The main target was the hake, and all bycatch was discarded. Some witnessed around 500 kg of horse mackerel being discarded every day.

• Increase in the seal population. Seals seem to prefer small pelagic fish in their diet, with horse mackerel appearing to be one of the favourite species.

73 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

• Climate change. It is now much more difficult to keep track of season changes. The dry (cold) season appears to be extended much longer than previously, starting earlier and/or ending later.

• Behavioural changes (i.e. horse mackerel). It appears that key species, like the horse mackerel, have changed their ecological behaviour through time.

There are a number of proposed solutions for the above mentioned challenges which are in line with the EAF. It seems to be important to invest in the human capital through different training and capacity building programs while enforcing the existing legislation. On the other hand, the establishment and strengthening of fishermen associations could lead to a sustainable management of the fisheries. All of the most experienced fishermen are part of these associations and could greatly contribute to a more sustainable approach to fisheries if considering during the decision making processes, assuring the health and recovery of the stock for a longer period, hence reassuring the fishing sector for longer.

74 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

6. REFERENCES

Barbara Paterson, Kelsey Draper & Astrid Jarre (2015) Evidence based management recommendations for the Namibian Hake Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment (Ecofish WP3: Incorporation of stakeholders’ knowledge in data collection and analysis). Marine Research Institut, University of Cape Town.

Bavington DLY. 2009. Creating manageable cod fisheries in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. Mast 7: 99‐121.

Bianchi, G. 1992. Demersal assemblages of the continental shelf and upper slope of ngola. Institute of Marine Research, Division for International Development Programmes, PO Box 1870, Nordnes, N-5024, Bergen, Norway.

Cochrane, K.L. & Tandstad, M. (eds). 1997. Congo and Gabon. Luanda, Angola, 3-7 November 1997, 149p.

Daw, T. 2008. How fishers count. Engaging with fishers’ knowledge in fisheries science and management. PhD thesis, Newcastle University.

Daw, T. & Gray, T. 2005. Fisheries science and sustainability in international policy: a study of failure in the European Union's Common Fisheries Policy. Marine Policy 29(3): 189-197.

Degnbol, P. 2003. Science and the user perspective: The gap co‐management must address. In Wilson, D.C, Nielsen JR, Degnbol, P. (eds.). The Fisheries Co‐management Experience: Accomplishments, Challenges and Prospects. Dordrecht: Kluwer.

Direcção Provincial das Pescas de Benguela. 2015. Relatório Anual do Sector das Pescas de 2014.

75 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

FAO Fisheries Report No. 618 – Report on the Workshop on the Small Pelagic Resources of Angola, Congo and Gabon. Luanda, Angola, 3-7 November 1997, 149p. Cochrane. K.L. and Tandstad. M. (eds).

FAO Fisheries Report. 2015. Community-level socio-ecological vulnerability Assessments in the Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem. Serge Raemaekers & Merle Sowman. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Circular No. 1110. Rome, Italy,

Finlayson AC. 1994. Fishing for Truth: A Sociological Analysis of Northern Cod Stock Assessments from 1977-1990. St. Johns NL: ISER Books.

Garcia, S.M. & Cochrane, K.L. 2005. Ecosystem approach to fisheries: a review of implementation guidelines. ICES Journal of Marine Science 62: 311–318.

Garcia SM, ZerbiA, Aliaume C, Do Chi T, Lasserre G. 2003. The ecosystem approach to fisheries. Issues, terminology, principles, institutional foundations, implementation and outlook. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 443. Rome: FAO. 71 p.

Governo de Angola. 2006a. Plano de Ordenamento de Pescas e da Agricultura 2006 – 2010 (Resolução 9/06 de 6 de Fevereiro). Governo de Angola. Luanda.

Governo de Angola. 2006b. Lei dos Recursos Biológicos Aquáticos (Lei 6-A/04 de 8 de Outubro). Governo de Angola. Luanda.

Governo de Angola. 2010. Medidas de gestão das pescarias marinhas, da pesca continental e da aquicultura para o ano de 2010 (Decreto presidencial n.º 120/10 de 2 de Julho). Governo de Angola. Luanda.

76 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Governo de Angola. 2011. Medidas reguladoras adequadas para acesso e exploração de modo responsável dos recursos biológicos aquáticos (Decreto Presidencial n.º 43/11 de 7 de Março). Governo de Angola. Luanda.

Governo de Angola. 2011. Medidas reguladoras adequadas para acesso e exploração de modo responsável dos recursos biológicos aquáticos (Decreto Presidencial n.º 317/11 de 30 de Dezembro). Governo de Angola. Luanda.

Governo de Angola. 2013. Medidas reguladoras adequadas para acesso e exploração de modo responsável dos recursos biológicos aquáticos (Decreto Presidencial n.º 4/13 de 3 de Janeiro). Governo de Angola. Luanda.

Governo de Angola. 2014. Medidas reguladoras adequadas para acesso e exploração de modo responsável dos recursos biológicos aquáticos (Decreto Presidencial n.º 15/14 de 10 de Janeiro). Governo de Angola. Luanda.

Governo de Angola. 2015. Medidas de Gestão de Pescarias Marinhas, da Pesca Continental e da Aquicultura para o Ano de 2015 (Decreto Presidencial n.º 28/15 de 13 de Janeiro). Governo de Angola. Luanda.

Holísticos. 2013. Environmental and Social Characterization to Determine the Coastal Sensitivity of the Areas between Cabinda and Kwanza Sul (Quicombo).

Holísticos. 2014. Environmental and Social Characterization to Determine the Coastal Sensitivity of the Areas between Luanda and Namibe.

Instituto de Pesca Artesanal e Aquicultura (IDPAA). 2010. Relatório Técnico nº15, sobre o Controlo Estatístico das Capturas e do Esforço de Pesca do Subsector Artesanal. Ministério das Pescas. Luanda, Angola.

77 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

IDPAA. 2010. Institute for Development of Artisanal Fishing and Aquaculture (IDPAA). Statistical control of Captures and Effort in Artisanal Fisheries. Technical Report no. 15. Angola.

IDPAA. 2012a. Artisanal Fisheries in Cabinda and Namibe Luanda Report. Angola.

IDPAA. 2012b. Institute for Development of Artisanal Fishing and Aquaculture (IDPAA). Artisanal Fisheries and Fisheries Resources in Namibe Province. Angola

IDPAA. 2013. Dados das Capturas da Pesca Artesanal entras as Províncias de Cabinda e Namibe, Instituto de Desenvolvimento da Pesca Artesanal. Ministério das Pescas. Luanda, Angola.

IDPAA. 2013. Institute for Development of Artisanal Fishing and Aquaculture (IDPAA). Fisheries Development Plan. Angola.

IDPAA. 2014. Benguela Provincial Representation of Institute for Development of Artisanal Fishing and Aquaculture (IDPAA). Main species catches during the year 2013. Angola. (Document photographed during field work).

IDPAA. 2015a. Benguela Provincial Representation of Institute for Development of Artisanal Fishing and Aquaculture (IDPAA). Main species catches during the year 2014. Angola. (Document photographed during field work).

IDPAA. 2015b. Institute for Development of Artisanal Fishing and Aquaculture (IDPAA). Total communities and catches of horse mackerel and sardines in Benguela, Luanda and Namibe. Angola.

78 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

INIP (2007 - 2014) Namibe Fisheries Research Center of National Fisheries Research Institute (INIP). Annual bulletins of Fisheries Research in Namibe Province from 2007 to 2014. Angola.

INIP (2012) National Fisheries Research Institute (INIP). Report for Blocks 20 and 21. Angola.

INIP (2014) National Fisheries Research Institute (INIP). Activities report for 2013. Angola.

Jarre, A., Paterson, B., Moloney, C.L., Miller, D.C.M., Field, J.G., Starfield, A.M. 2008 Knowledge‐based systems as decision support tools in an ecosystem approach to fisheries: Comparing a fuzzy-logic and a rule‐based approach. Progress in Oceanography 79: 390–400.

Jentoft, S. 2000. Legitimacy and disappointment in fisheries management. Marine Policy 24(2): 141-148.

Johannes, R.E. & Neis, B. 2005. The value of anecdote. Pages 41‐58 in Haggan N, Neis B, and Baird IG, editors. Fishers’ knowledge in fisheries science and management. Paris: UNESCO.

Lane, D.E. & Stephenson, R.L. 1999. Fisheries-‐‐management science: a framework for the implementation of fisheries-management systems. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 56:1059–1066.

Lane, D.E. & Stephenson, R.L. 2000. Institutional arrangements for fisheries: alternate structures and impediments to change. Marine Policy 24: 385‐393.

79 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Neis B, FeltL, Haedrich R.L, & Schneider, D.C. 1999a. An interdisciplinary methodology for collecting and integrating fishers' ecological knowledge into resource management. In Newell and Ommer R (eds) Fishing places, fishing people: issues and traditions in Canadian small-scale fisheries, 217‐238. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 73pp.

Neis B, Schneider DC, Felt L, Haedrich RL, Fischer J, & Hutchings JA. 1999b. Fisheries assessment: what can be learned from interviewing resource users? Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 56(10): 1949‐1963.

Paterson, B. & Petersen, S. 2010. EAF Implementation in Southern Africa: lessons learnt. Marine Policy, 34: 276‐292.

Paterson, B., & Kainge, P. 2014. Rebuilding the Namibian hake fishery: a case for collaboration between 74 scientists and fishermen. Ecology and Society, 19(2): 49.

Paterson B, Sowman M, Raemaekers S, Russel D, Nkosi L, Draper, K, Willemse N (eds) 2014a. Strengthening the Human Dimension of an Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management in the BCC region. FINAL REPORT of FAO‐BCC Project EAF 09/12. Windhoek: Benguela Current Commission.

Paterson, B., van Zyl, M., Jarre, A., & Green, L. 2014b. Science, fishers' knowledge and Namibia's fishing industry. In Cooper B and Morrell R (eds.) Africa--‐Centred Knowledges: Crossing Fields and Worlds, Woodbridge: James Currey.

Paterson, B. Draper, K. & Jarre, A. 2015. Evidence based management recommendations for the Namibian Hake Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment (Ecofish WP3: Incorporation of stakeholders’ knowledge in data collection and analysis). Marine Research Institute, University of Cape Town.

80 Evidence based management recommendations for the Angolan Horse Mackerel and Sardinella Fishery with special emphasis on use value and employment

Pauly, D., Christensen, V., Guénette, S., Pitcher, T.J., Sumaila, R., Walters, C.J., Watson, R. & Zeller, D. 2002. Towards sustainability in world fisheries. Nature, 418: 689-695. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature01017

Pitcher T.J., Hart, P.J.B. & Pauly, D. (Eds.). 1998. Reinventing Fisheries Management. London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Rouault, M., P. Florenchie, N. Fauchereau, and C. J. C. Reason, 2003: South East tropical Atlantic warm events and southern African rainfall. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 8009, doi:10.1029/202GL014840.

Shannon, L.V. 1985. The Benguela Ecosystem, I., Evolution of the Benguela, physical features and processes. Oceanography and Marine Biology, 23, 105-182.

Shannon, L.V., A.J. Boyd, G.B. Brundrit & J. Taunton-Clark, 1986: On the existence of an El Nino-type phenomenon in the Benguela system. Journal of Marine Research, 44, 495- 520.

Stephenson, R.L., Rodman, K., Aldous D.G. & Lane, D.E. 1999. An in-season approach to management under uncertainty: the case of the SW Nova Scotia herring fishery. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 56: 1005–1013.

81