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CONNECTICUT STATE LIBRARY

Urn ) 3 iM/fx HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT

History o£

Transportation in Connecticut

PART X. I*35 - 1850

Hartford, Connecticut 1937 CONNECTICUT STATE PLANNING BOARD

Members

William L. Slate, Chairman Director, Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station

Joseph VV. Alsop Chairman, Public Utilities Commission

Arthur L. Clark Superintendent, Pish and Game Commission

Maurice R. Davie Professor of Sociology, Yale University

John J. Egan Secretary, Connecticut Federation of Labor

Austin P. Hawes State Forester, Park and Forest Commission

Edward Ingraham President, Ingraham Manufacturing Company

William P. Ladd Adjutant General

John A. MacDonald Commissioner, State Highway Department

Stanley H. Osborn Commissioner, State Health Department

Sanford H. Wadhams Director, State Water Commission

P. Perry Close Director

Joseph T; Woodruff Consultant, National Resources Committee

Office

Room 432, State Office Building Hartford, Connecticut PREFACE

This historical outline of the progressive development of transportation in Connecticut by waterway, highway, railway and airway drawn from many sources represents an effort to furnish the background necessary for a readier interpretation of the Connecticut Statutes relating to transportation.

The History falls rather naturally into two parts.

Part One covering the simpler waterway and turnpike era; and

Part Two the more complex period since the advent of the railroad, - a period of just over one hundred years, - which in addition to the railroad has seen the development of the horse car, trolley, bieyele?automobile and airplane.

The text is fully referenced in both parts to notes found at the end of the work, and there is added bibliography on the subject.

The compilers desire to express their appreciation to William B. Goodwin of Hartford for much original information relative to stage coach operations in the 1880s and to the staff of the State Library for efficient assistance cheerfully rendered at all times.

Theodore P. Moser

H. Jackson Tippet Part I.

CONTENTS

Eage No.

Travel and Transportation by Land

The earliest ways; trodden pathsj travel by horseback 1635-1700. 1

The later colonial period; the first wagon routes and the coming of the stage coaches 1700-1775. 6

The period of the revolutionary war and realization of the vital need for better lines of communication 1776-1781. 11

The post-war decade; the birth of a nation promoted unprecedented development in interstate travel. 13

The era of turnpikes; state-operated toll gates and bridges, slow but steady progress in pro- vision of more and better roads 1793-1353. 15

Reference Notes

Bibliography TRAVEL and TRANSPORTATION by LAND.

THE EARLIEST WAYS, 1655 » 1708.

At the time of the establishment of the first settlements various parts of the territory now known as Connecticut were connected by trails which were made and used by the Indians and formed a considerable network of criss-crossing routes• They ware in general indirect, narrow, twisted and circuitous. They sought the high ground, avoided the swamps and led to the easiest fords across 1 streams. It is believed by some that these trails formed the basis of the paths and roads which were later developed by the 2 Colonists but this may well be doubted because of the general plan which the layout of the towns followed. The Indian trails probably served to lead the settlers to desirable sites for the establishment of their homes but were of little value as transport- 3 ation routes because of their general characteristics.

In the earliest records are found references to the "trodden paths" which were way4 s worn down by the movement of human be- ings and their animals. To get a picture of these and the town roads which followed it is necessary to consider the layout of a typical Connecticut town. Around a central green or broad main street were the home lots and a meeting house conveniently located.

Beyond these were the meadows, pastures and woodlands• Strips of the meadows were allotted to the owners of the home lots as their own, but the rest was usually common land. Paths or roads to these places were laid out so that one could go to and from them and his home lot without trespassing on another's land. It will be seen at once that this arrangement did not contemplate an expanding community or development along any definite plan. The layout of the nine squares of the original New Haven colony appears to be a striking exception. But there were newcomers and as it was necessary to grant them land, it had to be that lying beyond that already granted. In time home lots were established at considerable distances from the center, to reach which for either market or meeting, required those people to cross land previously allotted* Thus conflicts of interest arose since the first comers did not wish to have their lands divided by highways. Official action in establishing routes was often long delayed, and even when highways were ordered laid out by the town authorities re- sistance was met by fences, bars or gates where the roads crossed private land. People used the roads but the obstructions remained. Fences were climbed, bars removed and replaced, gates opened and closed with each passing. Such conditions were toler- ated for many years, continuing in some parts until well into the eighteenth century.

There was also extreme reluctance on the part of landowners to give up any right or privilege for any public benefit, unless at the same time such loss was to result in an immediate 6 gain of some sort by way of compensation for the detriment. To- wards the roads the general feeling was one of resentment, a feel- • ing that the roads encroached on one's own land and produced no 7 especial good to the abutting land owner.

At first, except for the main street, the town roads 8 were little more than crude paths. Through usage they became gradually broader and some of them attained a width of five or 99 six rods. The majority were only partly cleared and still encumbered with stumps, fallen trees, stones and boulders•

Not infrequently they were used as dumping grounds for refuse.

If any earth or stones in a road were needed by an adjacent land owner, he showed no hesitancy in taking them regardless 10 of the holes left by such action.

Until 1699 the entire burden of laying out, construct- ing and maintaining highways was placed upon the town, but little interest was displayed1 1i n providing satisfactory connecting routes through the township• In that year, however, the duty of lay- 12 ing out through routes was placed upon the County Courts• These• 13 roads were known as the country roads or King's Highways. They were no more than a wide path cut through the forest with little or no attempt at surface improvement. They were much worse than the town roads and at certain seasons impassable. There was nothing resembling a cooperative spirit between the towns and no sense of any obligation to 14provid e the traveling public with suitable highway facilities. Two other factors also worked against any great improvement of the through routes at this time.

The first was the fact that most of the early settlements were on bodies of navigable water, which made it easier to go from one to the other by boat, than to build a road through rough 15 woodland. The other was the general policy of England to oppose intercolonial intercourse. With the settlements near the water, trade was encouraged between them and England direct, thus drawing the profits to the home market. The purpose of a colony, it was felt, was to produce raw material to be fabricated in England, a part of which was then sent back to be exchanged for more raw

- 3 - 16 products•

Where the highways crossed the smaller streams bridges,

of a sort, were constructed. They were mainly huge logs and

tree trunks resting on either bank poorly secured. The bridges were frequently washed away by the spring freshets. Where it

oould be done, the rivers were forded in several places. Little money for bridges was available in communities where the planters 17 even complained of the cost of fences for their meadow lots.

Perries were used to c ross the larger rivers. One of the 18 earliest was Bissell's at Windsor - established around 1645.

The ferry at New London made its first appearance in 1651. It was a crude canoe hollowed from an immense tree trunk and capable

of carrying several men and animals. It was put in use so that

Governor Winthrop could go from his home on one side of the

Thames to his fields on the other, but was soon of general ser-

vice. Two years later a scow with sails and oars replaced the

original boat and this type remained as late as 1800. In 1821

a rope and windlass operated by horses furnished the motive power.

1835 saw the first attempt at a steam ferry boat, which proved

so expensive that it was abandoned and the horse boat restored.

With improvements in steamboats another steam ferry boat was

put in operation in 1849 and this type was used until the service 19 was discontinued in the early 1920s. As time went on other

• ferries were established at important points, among which were

those at Saybrook, Saugatuck, Hartford and Niantic, the latter • being a rope ferry from the beginning. A single boat at each 20 of these ferries was sufficient during the seventeenth century.

Within the towns the highways were used mainly by persons going short distances on foot and by the herds and flocks be- 21 ing moved from one place to another by the farmers. Those 22 obliged to travel greater distances usually went on horseback.

Towns along the more important routes were required to keep supplies of fresh horses for travelers who desired to change their mounts• • Provisions, stone and lumber were moved on pack animals and less often on crude farm carts. The vehicles of any sort in the colony were few indeed, the private carriages at the end of , 23 this period (1702) being probably less than a half dozen. A post service was established between New York and

Boston in 1673 and the first regular mail was delivered early in that year. It was carried by the post rider on horseback. An entire month was required for the round trip, two weeks each way.

The route followed was one which today is one of the through routes by way of New Haven and Hartford. The post rider was i obliged to make six miles per. hour and it was also his duty to guide travelers who would accompany him. This was the first mail service on the American continent and by it was established the lasting characteristic of Connecticut as a 24thoroughfar e state between two large centers without its borders. THE LATER COLONIAL PERIOD, 1703 » 1775.

There is no special reason for dividing this treatment of the colonial period at the year 1702 except that the revision of t he Acts and Laws of the Colony of Connecticut effected in this year makes it convenient to do so* Some division seemed desirable between the early and later periods* By 1700 the towns along the shore, those in the Connecticut valley, those between

New Haven and Hartford and some along the Quinebaug had been settled. The first tasks of exploration and choice of sites were accomplished. Ways of living had become established and the situation generally was ready for the growth and development of the institutional patterns which were to characterize this and later periods. The sections along the shore and between New Haven and Hartford were the parts which were to see the greatest continuous evolution in transportation facilities* Routes in some 25 other parts were popular for awhile but later became less so.

The general physical characteristics of the roads at this time, indeed down to the beginning of the Revolution, 2showe6 d little change from the conditions previously indicated. Many of the obstructions still remained and little popular interest was evi- denced in surface improvement* The people did not seem to care about travel and were littl27 e concerned with the convenience of those from other parts. The number of vehicles did not greatly increase in relation to the population* The farm wagons and a few private carriages were the only ones as before28 , no stage coaches being owned in Connecticut until after the war. In the 1760s however, stage coaches came into Connecticut from Providence 23a traveling to Norwich and Hartford. Out of state travelers complained of the roads as being the worst in the colonies but 29 local ears were deaf to such criticism.

While improvements were lacking, however, this period saw the extension of many routes inland as other localities 30 were established. The settlers were attracted by the fertility of the lands, the higher ones being especially good for grazing cattle, and by the water power possibilities which the smaller streams afforded. Also, the lands along the coast and in the

Connecticut valley had been largely preempted by this time so that these others were the only ones readily available. Trade rather than travel wa3 responsible for such highway development as took place, since it was necessary to move the farm produce and heavy goods over land to the towns on the navigable waters 31 for shipment. A few detached sections of road were improved towards the end of this period by funds raised by means of lot- 32 teries, a form of finance which had become quite popular. But here it should be noted that the appeal was more to the possibi- lity of personal gain than to public concern for the highway.

The experience with bridges during this period was often unfortunate. Erected at a cost which was usually burdensome to the towns, they were frequently damaged by flood33s and occasionally completely washed away becoming a total loss. Sometimes a town's treasury was impoverished to the extent that it would have been impossible for the town to have done the work of repair or reconstruction. In such cases until about 1730 the situation was met by certain individuals who, interested in having a bridge, undertook the task at their own labor and expense. For compensation they were granted certain sections of land held by the town which had not yet been allotted to any one. More extensive tracts were granted where those persons agreed to keep the 34 bridge in repair for a certain length of time. Another method was used in 1721 in the town of Woodstock. In consideration for his making, maintaining and keeping in good repair three certain bridges and yielding an open highway across his farm, Samuel Morris was exempted from the payment of any taxes whatsoever for the term 35 of 10 years. In 1728 a bridge was erected over the Quinebaug

River between Plainfield and Canterbury and as recompense for their labors those responsible for it were granted the right by the General Assembly to take toll from those passing for a certain period. This is believed to be the first toll bridge allowed in the state. The schedule of fares established provided for a man, horse an36d load; a single man; single horse; neat cattle, sheep and swine. This method of paying for the cost of erection and maintenance of a bridge by the collection of tolls was adopted in many other instances in the following years. The right to collect the tolls was given to the individuals responsible for the work and they were known as the proprietors of the bridge. Apparentl3y7 no accounts or supervision by the state or town were required. Where several individuals had contributed towards the work, some were 38 paid by being allowed free passage for a certain period. After

1750 when the restrictions against lotteries were relaxed, funds raised by this metho39 d were sometimes used for bridge construction ahd maintenance.

Traffic, however, considerably increased during this period®

This is best seen by the fact that many of the ferries added an-

- 8 - other boat to their service and in some instances two. Regular trips became the order of operation whereas formerly crossings 40 were made only when a customer was at hand. The growth of taverns 41 and inns at this time is further witness to the increase. . In most cases permission to bperate a public house had to be obtained 42 from the General Court. On some roads farmhouses were declared to be inns, and were required to receive all comers. The policy was to have one in every six mi]es for the convenience of those traveling. This probably accounts for the statements, of inhos- pitality contained in the descriptions of some of the inns, since the proprietors were sometimes farmers who were independent of 43 the additional income to be derived from way-farers.

Mention should be made' of Madam Knight's journey on 44 horseback from Boston to New York and return in 1704. She was » unaccompanied except for the guidance of the post rider at times 45 and the people in the towns thru which she passed. Her route was the lower route, which was not properly the shore route being

several miles inland although it went thru some of the principa4l6 towns on the coast such as New Haven, Saybrook and New London.

The intermediate points on t he shore were more easily accessible by boat than by highway. So long a trip was a considerable feat for a woman in the period and was the occasion of much surprise

and amazement in the smaller villages. Madam Knight's account

in diary form describes the route followed in 4som7 e detail and particularly the rough conditions of the road.

The earliest reference to a public service vehicle seems

to be the exclusive right granted by the General Court to Capt. John Munson of New Haven in 1717 to transport passengers and goods betweentiais city and Hartford. He was required to make the trip once a month except during the winter. The vehicle used was a crude sort of wagon and his route took him thru the towns of Wallingford, Middletown, Wetherafield and Farmington.

He was obliged to make the round trip within a week. What success attended this venture and to what extent it was operated Mt • 48 ha$ unfortunately not been discovered.

In 1772 the Browns of Boston established the first stage coach service between New York and Boston - the two great commercial centers of the colonies. At first the trip was made every two weeks but in a short time two or three trips a week- were the rule. The Revolutionary War necessitated the suspen- sion of this service. The route followed took the stage thru

New Haven and Hartford much of the way along the same line used by the first post rider a century before. Thus another block was laid in building the character of Connecticut as a thorough- 49 fare State. f

THE PERIOD of the REVOLUTIONARY WAR 9 1776 - 1781. « •

There are two points of view indicating different con-

clusions as to the effect of the Revolution upon the colonial

highways• The first is that inasmuch as the colonies were en-

gaged in the common enterprise of waging a war which required

maintaining an array, most of the time and energy available 5 i would be directed to this end, so that there would be little 50 attention given to the highways• The second claims that the roads were generally improved since they were required for troop 51 movements as the English occupied the coastal waters• There

ia probably truth in both depending on the conditions peculiar

to various localities. As far as Connecticut was concerned the

latter seems the best theory, altho the roads generally were in

such deplorable shape that even with a considerable amount of

improvement they would still be bad roads. ! An indirect and highly important consequence of the war,

however, was the break down of isolation of the colonies, and

within Connecticut to inspire closer intercourse between com-

munities. The war undoubtedly made many feel they were working

together for a common end, and the form of government adopted i after the war tended to further this feeling. When one looks at conditions existing in the period directly following the war

with its great increase in traffic, it is evident that the new

social state promoted an 52activ e interest in lines of communication and transportation.

A traveler in Connecticut in this period was the Marquis

11 de Chastellux and Ms record gives an account of the conditions i of the routes and highways. His journey took Mm across the

state over a central rout© from Newport, R* I®' thru Voluntown,

Hartford, Farmington, Litchfield and so out Into New York State 53 in the neighborhood of Fish-Kill. The Marquis was a general

In the French army and particularly concerned with the military

support given by his country to the colonies. He traveled on

< horseback while his baggage followed in a ©art which had much

difficulty in getting'through54 , occasionally breaking down due to the bad going. i

i ••

- 12 - { THE PERIOD IMMEDIATELY AFTER the REVOLUTION, 1782 - 1792.

Due to several causes much greater use was made of the

highways after the Revolution than ever before. There was a •

substantial increase in the volume of trade between the new 55 states - attributable to the loss of trade with England.

Travelers became more numerous• Delegates from the states and 56 . their attaches had to go to Congress. Soon after the war the

New York and Boston stage was resumed and other new routes were 57 undertaken. This heavier traffic soon had its effect on the 53 roads and many became virtually worn out. By this time a more

sympathetic attitude towards the highways existed. People had

come to realize they were both necessary and desirable and many 59 took an active interest in their improvement. But the service

of a few days each year which each individual, certain ones ex-

empted, was required to give towards road repairing, a method 60 which had existed for the first 160 years, was utterly inadequate.

For the time being the situation was met, as before the

war, by the lottery 5whic1 h was the usual means of raising money for highway repair. The procedure was as follows. An interested

individual or group of suoh would petition the general assembly

to permit them to conduct a lottery, the proceeds of which, after

the expenses and prizes had been deducted, would be used to put in repair certain designated stretches of road in the neighborhood 62 ' of the petitioners 1 lands. The situation was temporarily helped but by no means solved. In the first place there was no unifica-

tion to the work. Inasmuch as only relatively short sections of

13 road were affected, thru routes between towns were intermittently good and bad® Then, too, increased traffic wore the roads out faster than money could be raised to make the repairs required.

And finally, the lottery system itself fell Into disfavor. Since its success depended on voluntary popular support, the majority, after continually purchasing tickets with no result, became discouraged, so that sufficient money could no longer be raised for 63 the particular projects by this method.

The road problem was becoming serious® The towns were not able to provide for highway repairs• As much of the traffic was composed of people from other towns and other states some arrangement whereby those using the highways should pay for their maintenance was sought* In brief, the situation was ready for the turnpike era. The transition from town and lottery-supported roads to turnpikes or toll roads was not accomplished suddenly, and in such interim condition64 s existed which presented characteristics of both systems»

Before proceeding to this phase in the evolution of

Connecticut highways, however, notice should be taken of the journeys of Brissot de Warville who toured the states in 1788.

On one journey from Boston to New York he took the stage coach thru Connecticut. This w&s in August 1788. The trip at this time, being the summer, was accomplished in the relatively short period of four days. The route followed brought him into the state below Springfield, Mass., and took him thru Hartford, Wethers- field, Middletown, New Haven, Fairfield and thence into New York 65 state.

- 14 THE ERA of TURNPIKES. 1792 - 1853

Connecticut, while not the pioneer, is considered the leading state in the turnpike movement. By the end of 1§00

Connecticut had chartered 23 turnpike companies compared to

13 for New York and 9 for Massachusetts, the next two ranking 66 . states• Perhaps the extremely bad condition of Connecticut's roads noted from the beginning was as much responsible for this 66a impetus as anything. Before tracing out the development which took place, however, it seems necessary to recall certain experi- ences which the English had with the turnpike®

For centuries the practice in England had been t6o 7 require the parishes to maintain the roads within their limits. Such a burden was not heavy and t he inhabitants wanted such roads as they could support for their own convenience. Traffic from without was not so great as to noticeably increase the wear and tear.

But in the seventeenth century trade and travel developed to such an extent that highway repair was a real problem. The feeling grew that those responsible for the injury to the roads should provide for the repairs and that the local inhabitants should not be obliged6 8 to maintain the roads for the benefit of those from without.

The first English turnpike act in 1663 in the reign of

Charles II concerned the Great North Road to York and Scotland which had fallen into a bad state of repair because of heavy traffic. Under the act official s\irveyors were appointed who were to provide from the counties, road material and labor under the

- 15 highway laws to put the road into complete repair. With this done the surveyors were authorized to erect toll gates and collect tolls with which to pay for future repairs as they became necessary. In the period from 1663 to 1760, almost a century, a few other acts w^'th similar provisions for other roads were passed. Within 15 years from 1760,however, Parliament passed hundreds of acts creating turnpikes but most of these departed from the principle in the first act of Charles II. Instead of the local parishes first putting the roads in good order, a turnpike trust was created with jurisdiction over the road and with authority to borrow money on the tolls to he collected, and these borrowed funds were to be used for the initial repairs. Under this arrangement the management of roads and the collection of tolls by government appointed surveyors was no longer continued but was given into the hands of private enterprise which had taken over the road. This was usually represented by a group of landowners who were interested in improving the roads in certain districts• The turnpike trusts were granted for limited periods since it was contemplated that when the receipts from the roads had repaid the money borrowed with Interest and also put the road in good shape, the road would be turned back to the public. What the result was and how far short these expectations fell from realization will not be discussed here. What is relevant to our study of Connecticut turnpikes are the two types of organization • 69 and management which were developed.

Though the physical condition of the surfaces of Connect! cut's roads was uniformly deplorable70 , a large number of routes, however, had been laid out. The towns, which were closer to-

- 16 - gether and more densely populated than most of those in other states, were well connected with a network of highways• Thus, when a turnpike company was chartered it was almost invariably provided that it should take over a road which was formerly a • . 71 public road, put it in repair and collect tolls thereon. In several other states, on the other hand, noticeably Massachu- setts , the practice was for the company to s tar72 t from the very beginning and construct an entirely new road. Because Con- necticut turnpikes followed the lines of older roads, they do not show 73th e turnpike characteristics which are considered typical. Based on the geometrical principle that a straight line Is the shortest distance between two points the ideal turnpike was supposed to follow such a course. On the other hand the maximum rate of ascent was supposed to be no more than 5 degrees . These two policies could not always be reconciled since a straight route between centers often encountered severe hills and sometimes missed intervening towns. The straight line principle, nevertheless, was usually favored with the result that many turnpikes were cons trueted over hilly ground, thus slowing down the speed of the vehicles using them. But these engineer-

ing considerations were of importance to Connecticut only where roads were straightene74 d since the turnpikes almost always utilized an old road.

The first road in Connecticut, and indeed in New Eng-

land, to have a toll gate is generally considere75 d to be the Mohe- gan Road between New London and Norwich. This road seems to represent the transition from lottery financed highways to turnpikes. In 1789 an association was formed to improve the old road

and two years later it was authorized to further the business by a - 17 - lottery. With these funds the repairs to the road were completed. About a year later in May 1792, to provide a fund for keeping the road in order, the general assembly established a toll gate on the road and appointed commissioners who accounted for the tolls to the county court of New London County and super- vised the repairs• This road was never operated by a privately owned corporation but by the state appointed commissioners In the interest of the road. It is seen that the administration of this road closely approximated the principles of Charles II.

Though the road was originally put in repair by lottery funds rather than impressed labor and town funds, nevertheless, when it was finally repaired it was able to use all the tolls collected for later repairs and did not face the future with an overhanging debt structure or large stock liability. Its toll gate which was located at Montvilie was abolished In 1852 and this road seems to be the only one in America operated through- 76 out in accordance with the principles of Charles II.

In the fall of 1792 a toll gate was established on the Greenwich Road which was a part of the old New York and Bos- ton Post Road. This gate was operated by commissioners in behalf of the county upon the same principles as was the gate on the

Mohegan road. In 1806 this road was taken into the Connecticut

Turnpike, a corporation, which operated a more extensive piece 77 of road. The next move did not come until 1795 and this marks the beginnings of the turnpike development under the aegis of private finance. The New London and Windham County turnpike was the first such enterprise. An attempt was made the previous - 18 - year to operate this stretch of road in the same way as the

preceding two but, although the erection of the gate was au-

thorized, it was on condition that the road be first put in

repair. Difficulties were met in raising funds for this pur-

pose and the corporation was formed to finance the work which 78 it did and then proceeded to manage the road for itself.

Thereafter corporations were rapidly formed affecting 79 highways in all parts of the state. Altogether the general

assembly granted 121 franchises for highway improvement and 80 nearly all were operated. A few outstanding characteristics of

Connecticut turnpike operation not previously mentioned should be noted. At an early date some of the corporations were re-

quired to give a bond to the state in a certain amount to insure

that the repairs would be made and as further evidence of the

company's good faith31 . In other states such a bond was not ordinarily given. Another point of distinction is seen in the method of organization and preliminary negotiations. Though

the turnpikes usually took over former routes there were places

along the old roads where new land had to be taken for such pur-

poses as straightening the road, making a better grade or having

a uniform width. Where such was required, damages had to be

paid to the land owner and this cost in most states was born by

the corporation. No so Connecticut. It was avoided by the gen-

eral assembly declaring the road a public road, after the plans

for the turnpike and the route laid out had been submitted to it,

and in the next instant declaring it not a public road and author

izing the company to go ahead. Having declared it a public road

' - 19 - the duty of paying the damages resulting to abutting owners for land taken fell on the public, so that the town paid this cost. The company was to spend money merely on surface im- 82 provements, Questions arose, too, involving bridges and for some time there does not seem to have been any general rule as to whether they were to be maintained by the towns or the turnpike companies, with the result tha83t several cases on this subject may be found in the reports. When turnpike companies ' r were formed,a term was usually stipulated during which they should operate, within which time it was believed the capital stock could be paid off with interest thereon, or else an inde- 84 finite term was fixed to be measured by such repayment.

The Hartford and New Haven Turnpike Company, created in

1798, was one of the few to disregard the old roads and proceed 85 along a new route as straight as possible between the two towns.

James Hillhouse of New Haven was its first president and one of 86 the organizers. The initial cost was about $2280 per mile or 87 $79,261 for the entire road.

Turnpike companies operated most of the through routes

in the state although there were some stretches where there were 88 none. Beginning at the New York state line in Greenwich the

Connecticut Ttirnpike went to Fairfield over the old post road.

From Fairfield to Milford there was never a turnpike but the road from the latter town to New Haven was operated by the New Haven

and Milford Turnpike Company, From New Haven to Boston several routes existed. The lower route which was not properly a shore route from New Haven to the Connecticut River going through

North Branford, Killingworth and Essex, had three turnpike com-

20 - panies. The Essex Turnpike and the New London and Lyme Turnpike went from the river to the western limits of New London and on the other side of the Thames the Groton and Stonington Turnpike, traversed the northern parts of those towns, went into North 89 Stonington and met Rhode Island several miles north of Westerly.

Starting again from New Haven one of the routes to Hart- ford was the Hartford and New Haven Turnpike previously mentioned.

Another favorite route was the Middletown, Durham and New Haven

Turnpike• To reach Hartford from Middletown the Middlesex Turn- pike was taken to the southern line of the town of Wethersfield. 89 The remainder of t he route was over a free road.

Prom Hartford a much traveled route was over the Boston

Turnpike through the towns of East Hartford, Manchester, Coventry,

Ashford and Thompson. The roads north of Hartford to Springfield on eithe8r9 side of the river were never operated by turnpike companies•

A route which carried considerable traffic from Hartford was the old Albany Post Road. This was operated by the Talcott

Mountain Turnpike Company as far as Winsted, from which town the famous Greenwoods Turnpike covered the distanc* 90 e to Canaan. Prom thence to the state line the road was free. The route from

Hartford to the west through the middle of the state was maintained by the Torrington Turnpike Company as far as the town by that name, from which place one continued9 1 to the state line over the New Preston and Litchfield Turnpike.

There seems to be one instance where a single management operated a turnpike within the state and across the state line in Rhode Island as well. This was on the direct route from Hart-

- 21 - ford to Providence® In 1803 the Rhode Island and Connecticut

Turnpike was. chartered in Rhode Island and it constructed and

Improved the road from the westerly'line of Providence to the state line at Killingly® To continue the route the Connecticut and. Rhode Island Turnpike Company was formed in. Connecticut in

1806 and the road was extended to a point in the town of Eastford where it connected with the Boston Turnpike upon which traffic continued to Hartford. The interests behind these two companies were quite close and by 1816 the roads were under* one management for they were permitted to locate a gate in Connecticut at which toll was taken for use of part of the road in Rhode Island. How- ever, though the management was one, it does not appear that there 92 was ever a formal consolidation®

The 1940s saw many of the roads operated by turnpike 93 companies made free, although some corporations had had their 94 charters revoked before 1820« With changed conditions and improvements in transportation facilities9 5 it became less and less profitable to operate a turnpike road®

The last toll gate on a Connecticut road was on the 96 Derby Turnpike which connected New Haven and Derby. This road was very popular and while in the 1880s there were two other roads 97 to Derby this was considered the best. 1895 was the date of its 98 passing - exactly a century from the incorporation of the first turnpike company and 103 years since the establishment of the first toll gate in the state. The fortunes of turnpike companies, however , had begun to decline about sixty years before so the long continued existence of this particular one may be considered quite

- 22 - 99 exceptional®

Undoubtedly the turnpike companies performed a great ser- 100 vice in improving facilities for transportation on land. How- ever , it seems fair to say that they were not generally popular.

Their rates of toll were fixed by the genera101 l assembly as were the number of gates and their location. After the movement began to spread each road was under the inspection of two commissioners who had power to throw open the toll gates10 2i f a company did not make the repairs they deemed necessary. The popular resentment was probably due to the fact that t he roads had always been free and that people were not used to contribut- 103 ing dircctly to their upkeep. Further, a substantial number 104 distrusted the large powers of a corporation. Certain folk were exempt from toll as for example one going to the mill with 105 grain. Less consciehtious individuals carried a small sack of grain as a regular thing to assure free passage. Toll might also be avoided by taking a shunpike, a turn off on some roads from the main line a short distance from the toll house which joined 106 the turnpike again on the other side of the gate. • Sometimes. stage proprietors could not pay the toll due the companies for 107 which they usually contracted on a yearly basis. There is an

Instance of one such debt to the Oxford Turnpike Company which was annulled by the general assembly when the debtor showed he had s . 108 only made enough to pay his daily, running costs. The turnpike companies were in an unfortunate position from the start due to the stock liability which they were expected to earn money on at once and retire as soon as possible. To do this and also keep the roads in proper repair proved too much to do with the Income

- 23 - 109 to which they were limited. It is often said that the railroads 109a were responsible for the decline of the turnpike companies.

This may be doubted since the companies had fallen into a bad

state of affairs financially before the railroads were a.compet- 110 ing factor. This was especially true in Connecticut for the

first railroad to operate did not begin service until December, 111 1838. It was more simply a case of not being able to earn an 112 adequate return on the investment. The turnpike lesson was a

costly one to certain individuals altho the country as a whole 113 considering all interests probably benefitted®

The turnpikes were a significant factor in the development

of stage coach operation since they maintained in satisfactory

condition much of the physical structure over which the coaches

moved. There seem to be two outstanding features in this growth,

namely, the extensions of routes and the race against time. As

various roads were improve114d by turnpike companies stage service was extended over them. The New York to Boston run always re-

mained one of the more important stages in the state and it was

on this that great effort was made to lower the elapsed time be-

tween points. In 1790 the trip took about four days in the best

weather. By 1830 it was11 mad5 e in a day and a half with only very short periods for rest. Stage schedules were often coordinated

with steam boat schedules so that one could take a stage coach

from an inland town to a port on the coast and proceed to other

parts on the boat soon after arrival. Still later stage schedules

were co-ordinated with railroad schedules. In this11 6wa y elapsed time between various points was further shortened.

Prior to 1800 it seemed to be customary for the general i - 24 - assembly to grant certain individuals the exclusive right to . 117 operate stage coaches over certain routes. After this date, however, the number of petitions which were denied seem to indicate a reversal of policy, thus making the field more competi- 118 tive. The competition was largely theoretical for It required a substantial amount of capital to operate a stage coach business and once one was established there was little danger from rival interests• Various centers had their stage coach proprietors whose equipment covered the surrounding territory and at further distances was often operated under agreements with other proprietors,

Many stage coaches coming into Connecticut were owned by out of 119 state interests, particularly those operating on the thru routes®

The form of organization of the business unit operating the stage coaches was generally an individual proprietorship altho there were probably some partnerships• There is no record tha12t 0 any stage coach corporations were ever formed in Connecticut.

Tho today the use of the corporate form is widespread, it was not until after the Revolution that the "moneyed" or"business" corporation attained any importance in this country. Even then its growth was slow and for years was restricted to enterprises handling relatively large sums of money such as marine and fire insurance companies, banks, turnpike and tollbridge companies, and water and river companies. In Boston, however, there was formed the Eastern Stage Company in 1818 which appears to have been a corporation. It was a syndicate of all the lines in Eastern Massa- chusetts and New Hampshire and some in Maine and Rhode Island. 122

The greatest source of profits for the stage coach bus-

- 25 - iness were the mail contracts. The post rider was discontinued 123 in 1785 and the stage coaches took over his work. These con- 124 tracts amounted almost to a subsidy. They were awarded to the individuals making the best time in delivering the president's 125 message. Andrew Jackson's message in 1829 was delivered in

Boston in less than 32 hours after leaving Washington, and the distance between Hartford and Boston was covered in 6 hours and

8 minutes. For this service a stage coach was not used but a sulky, a light, tho strongly built, vehicle with a single pair of large wheels and one seat beneath which the malls were strapped.

They were the swiftest vehicles of their day and were required to average 16 miles per hour in performing this task, thus neces- sitating the horse to travel at a continuous gallop. Every 15 miles the dispatch pouch was transferred to another sulky with a fresh horse with as little delay as possible. This was different from the stage coach practice where the12 6sam e vehicle went the whole distance, changing only the horses.

An idea of the extent of local stage coach interests can be gathered from the business of James Goodwin,leading stage proprietor in Hartford in the 1820s and the first part of the

1830s. Mr. Goodwin, who purchased the business of Joseph Morgan, whose employ he entered in 1819, operated many lines out of Hart- ford, among them being the routes to New Haven, Worcester and

Providence. His stables and barns, which at one time housed 600 horses and 40-4 horse stage coaches, were on Albany Avenue altho the coaches departed on their trips from a point on State Street.

His advertisements were signed "J. Goodwin, Jr. & Co.,n the company in this case being stage proprietors in other towns with

26 - {

whom he had agreements for exchanging horses and co-operating

generally in the mail and express service. When railroads

began to appear In other parts of the country, Mr, Goodwin,

apparently realizing their possibilities, sold out his stage

coach lines and soon after became one of the chief organizers 127 of the Hartford and New Haven Railroad.

There is little to indloate what freight passed over

the Connecticut highways but it must have been substantial con-

sidering the changes which had taken place. On the other hand,

wherever possible heavy goods were moved on water, both the

rivers and the canal being used for 12thi8 s purpose, but there were . some points not accessible by water. The boards listing the

rates of toll for use of the turnpikes had detailed schedules 129 for various types of vehicles normally used for moving goods.

No reference is made to the Conestoga wagon in Connecticut, but

it seems such an efficient vehicle would have appealed to local 130 inhabitants.

Contemporaneous with the turnpike development was the 131 growth in the number of toll bridges over the larger streams• 132 In some cases ferries had formerly been used. Some of the toll

bridges were operated by companies incorporated for this purpose,

while others were operated by Individuals or unincorporated as- 133 sociations. Detailed rates of toll for various types of vehicles

and different animals were established, each bridge having its

own schedule of rates. The legislative act granting permission.

to operate a toll bridge usually provided that when the tolls

from the bridge should be enough to repay the investment therein

plus interest at a certain rate together with the expense of i - 27 - keeping the bridge In repair in the meantime, the legislature would then further decide how the bridge should be maintained.

Commissioners were appointed for each bridge to Inspect it when it was completed and to audit the company's accounts to deter- 134 mine the amount due it.

In December, 1790, a toll bridge was authorized to be built over the Housatonlc at Leavenworth's Perry, Derby, Rates of toll were not established, however, until October 1801 so the bridge probably was not built until some time after its author- ization. Known as Leavenworth's Bridge it was Incorporated in 135 May 1804.

In October 1891 a group of individuals was authorized by the general assembly to repair or rebuild the long bridge and causeway, about three miles east of New Haven but it was to be at their own expense and free from toll. Later a toll gate was authorized at the bridge and a rate of toll established in October 136 1795. When the Middletown, Durham and New Haven Turnpike Co., was formed in 1813 this bridge and causeway were taken into its 137. system. The first corporation created to erect and maintain a

toll bridge was the one for the bridge from New Haven to East

Haven. This was authorized in October 1796. As the cost of this

bridge, whichms about $60,000, was much more than expected, the 138 company was allowed to increase its tolls in May 1799.

Most of the early toll bridges were built in the south

and middle western part of the state, the Housatonlc .apparently 139 having the most. The Niantic Toll Bridge was established in 140 1797. The Hartford Bridge Company was not Incorporated until 141 October 1808. Ordinarily the toll bridge companies were separate

- 28 - organizations and were not operated by or in conjunction with 142 turnpike companies. They seemed to fare, better than the turn-

pikes, perhaps because there was less chance of traffic evading the psyment of tolls, and perhaps, too, they were more willingly 3 43 supported.

As toll bridges increased during the first half of the

nineteenth century some of the ferries were discontinued so that

the total number in operation was substantially red\iced. The

ferries remaining were those which crossed the larger bodies of 144 water where bridge construction would have been too expensive.

Equipment on the ferries was generally improved, the larger ones 145 adopting steam boats.

Mention should be made of the plank road companies® There

was a flurry in this type of highway in the early 1850s, Seven

comapnies were incorporated to bulId plank roads between 1851 and

1853 but only one road was completely constructed. This was the

Waterbury and Cheshire Plank Road, All of the others were also

contemplated for the western part of the state. By this time

ttye railroad development was well along which was probably the

reason why this comparatively expensive type of road never really 146. got under way.

« 29 - REFERENCE NOTES

1. Mitchell, Isabel S. 5 Roads and Road Making in Colonial Connecticut (1933) 4. This work, in pamphlet form, was published for the Tercentenary Commission of Connecticut.

2. Clark, George L.; A History of Connecticut (1914) 250. Love, William DeLoss; The Colonial History of Hartford (1914) 37. The latter writer traces with exactitude the "Old Connecticut Path" and particularly that part of it between Springfield and Hartford, in support of this thesis, at 40-46. This particular route is probably an exception to the general conclusion reached in this paragraph of the text. CF. "The Pequot Path" in Mitchell, op. cit. supra note 1, at 19-20.

3* Supra note 1.

4. Earle, Alice Morse; Stage Coach a nd Tavern Days (1900) 223-225.

5. Mitchell, op. cit. supra note 1, at 4-7. See also maps of the earliest towns reconstructed from the original grants. For map of Hartford in 1635, see Love, op. cit. supra note 2, facing 10. For map of Windsor, 1633-50, see Stiles, Henry R.j The History and Genealogies of Ancient Windsor (1891) vol.1, facing 149. For map of Wethersfield, 1634-1644, see Stiles, Henry R.j The History of Ancient Wethersfield (1904) vol.I, facing 44. Cf. map of New Haven in 1641, Atwater, Edward E.; History of the Colony of New Haven (1881) facing title page. For map of Norwich in 1660, see Caulkins, Frances Manwaringj History of Norwich (1874) 67.

6. Mitchell, op. cit. supra note 1, at 31-32.

7. Id. at 13-14.

8. Id. at 5.

9. Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut, vol.11, 133.

10. Mitchell, op. cit. supra note 1, at 12.

11. See Legal Digest, infra, "Highways" under the following dates: 1638, at LL-2; 1643, at LL-3a; 1650, at LL-4j 1672, at LL-5j 1699, at LL-7.

12. Colonial Records, op. cit. supra note 9, vol. IV, at 314-315.

13. Id., vol. Ill at 30. NOTES ( continued )

14* Mitchell, op* cit* supra note 1, at 9*

15. Id.j map facing 32 showing dates of settlement of the towns in Connecticut.

16. Davis, Joseph Stancllffe; Essays in the Earlier History of American Corporations (1917), vol. II, 4-6, 34-35. Wood, Frederic J.: The Turnpikes of New England (1919) 25. / 17. Mitchell, op. cit. supra note 1, at 6, 11, 14, 16.

18* Colonial Records, op. cit* supra note 9, vol. I at 71. Legal Digest, infra, "Ferries" under date of 1641, at LL-3a* Stiles, History of Windsor, op. cit. supra note 5, vol.1, at 409-415 fixes January 1648 as the date for the beginning of this ferry service. At this time John Blssell contracted to operate the ferry for a seven year term. It had probably been operated unofficially for some time previous.

19. Graves, Frances Miner; The Old Post Road. This unpublished paper in the files of the Connecticut Historical Society was written about 1930* Mrs. Graves, the author, a long time resident of Norwich and D. A. R. member, died in 1933. Also Burrows, Mary; History of the Old Indian Trail and Post Road in the Town of Groton. (Circa 1920). This paper, also unpublished , is in the files of the Connecti- cut Historical Society. See further Caulkins, Frances Manwaring; History of New London (1852) 89, 402, 659.

20. Mitchell, op. cit. supra note 1, at 19-20, 29. Clark, op. cit. supra note 2, at 260.

21. Mitchell, op. cit. supra note 1, at 6.

22. Earle, op. cit. supra note 4, 226-227. This writer says, "Horseflesh was so plentiful that'no one walked save a vagabond or a fool'»n

23. Mitchell, op. cit. supra note 1, at 27-28. Clark, op. cit. supra note 2, at 254.

24. Jenkins, Stephen; The Old Boston Post Road (1914) 1-5. See also Earle, op. cit. supra note 4, at 275-278.

25. See note 15. Also Mitchell, op. cit* supra note 1, at 22-28.

26. Id, at 31. Also Clark, op. cit* supra note 2, at 253.

27. Mitchell, op. cit. supra note 1, at 13-14, 32*

28. Id. at 28. NOTES ( continued )

28a Earle, op. cit. supra note 4, at 271.

29. Mitchell, op. cit® supra note 1, at 24-25.

30. Id. at 29-30.

31. Id. at 20-21. See also Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 25.

32. Colonial Records, op. cit. supra note 9, vol. XI, at 411.

33. Mitchell, op. cit. supra note 1, at 15-16.

34. Colonial Records, op. cit. supra note 9, vol. V, at 435,

453, 496-497; vol. VI, at 183, 364.

35. Id., vol. VI, at 239; vol. VII, at 277.

36. Id., vol. VII, at 155-156.

37. Id., 304vol, . 405VII, , 437at .361 , 500; vol. VIII, at 125, 139, 153, 38. Id., vol. VIII, at 304, 405.

39. Id., vol. XI, at 624. See also Mitchell, op. cit. supra note 1, at 16. Toll bridges might be made free by- paying the cost thereof to the builders or proprietors. Funds with which to do this were sometimes raised by lotteries, id.

40. In 1702 there were nine ferries in the Colony; in 1750, twenty-five Legal Digest, Infra, "ferries" under dates of 1702, at LL-9-10, and 1750, at LL-12-13. See also Mitchell, op. cit. supra note 1, at 29-30.

41. Jenkins, op. cit. supra note 24, at 449. Here is given a list of the taverns on the old Boston Post Road. The statements concerning them in the text frequently give the dates of their origin. See also Watrous, George Dutton; Travel and Transportation. This monograph appears in Atwater, Edward E.; History of the City of New Haven (1887) 352.

42. Colonial Records, op. cit. supra note 9, vol.1, at 103- 104. The taverns werethe object of much regulation by the General Court as the succeeding volumes of these records show. Much of the regulation concerned meet- ings held at the taverns and t he sale of liquors therein.

43. de Chastellux, Marquis: Travels in North America (1787) (Dublin) vol. I, 50.

44. Knight, Sarah Kemble; The Journal of Madam Knight (1901) ( Norwich ). NOTES ( continued )

45. Id, at 28, 29, 31. Throughout those parts of the journal devoted to the time spent on the road, the author repeatedly refers to her guides.

46. Id. at 44-48.

47. Id, at 44-48, 67-68.

48. Colonial Records, op. cit. supra note 9, vol. VI, at 37,

i 49. Jenkins, op. cit. supra note 24, at 22-42. • / ' 50. Watrous, op. cit. supra note 41, at 351-352.

51. Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 28. Clark, op, cit, supra note 2, at 259.

52. Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 26, 29. Clark op. cit. supra note 2, at 281-286. Davis, op. cit. supra note 16, vol. II, at 7.

53. de Chastellux, op. cit. supra note 43, vol. I, at 9, 29, 37, 48, 63.

54. Id. at 16-18, 36.

55. Wood op. cit. supra note 16, at 29. 56. McMaster, John Bachj A History of the People of the United States (1903) vol, I, at 131. Davis, op. cit. supra note 16, vol. II, at 329-330. Earle, op. cit. supra note 4, at 233.

57. Jenkins, op. cit. supra note 24, at 24, 32. Although routes of transportation were opened up immediately after the war the state of trade and commerce was not altogether glowing. The Federal and State governments found themselves faced with an onerous public debt and a distressing tax situation. Also the balance of foreigh trade was so unfavorable for several years that the country stiffered a substantial drain of specie. McMaster, op. cit. supra note 56, vol. I, at 139-140, 204-207. It was not until about 1790, when a definite speculative wave swept the country, that business gained confidence and enthusiasm. Davis, op. cit. supra note 16, vol. I, at 278-288.

58. Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 30.

59. See Legal Digest, infra as follows: "Highways" under date of 1785, at LL-26; "Nuisances on Highways" under date of 1787, at LL-26a. NOTES ( continued )

60. See Legal Digest, infra; "Highways" under date of 1784, at LL-17-18. ,

61. The majority of highway repairs were effected by impress- ing labor from the towns, as provided by statute. Note 60, supra. It was where this method failed that resort was had to such a special device as the lottery. The popularity of the lottery increased in this period as an incident of the spirit of speculation referred to in note 57, supra. Many of the applications for lotteries to further highway repairs were denied. See Connecticut Archives, First Series, Travel, Highways, etc., vpl. Ill; 13; Second Series, Travel,Highways, etc., vol. lis 67-68; vol. V: 99, 100; vol.VI: 11,62; vol. VII: 11, 12, 23-27, 38-41; vol. VIII: 46-52, 58; vol. XIII: 55-57; vol. XV:5,,49.

62. This general outline of lottery procedure is gathered from the specific instances in t he Connecticut Archives, cited supra note 61.

63. These conclusions may be inferred from the references to the Connecticut Archives, cited supra note 61. The panic of 1792, also must have contributed to the break- down of the lottery system because of the contraction of money which resulted therefrom. Davis, op. cit. supra note 16, vol. I, at 288-315.

64. See the discussion of the Mohegan Road in Section E, "The Era of Turnpikes", infra at L-16-17. Also Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 30.

65. de Warville, J. P. Brissot; New Travels in the United States, Letter III, dated August 9, 1788. This lettet may be found in the edition of these travels reprinted by the Historical Publications Company in 1919 at 76-89. The letter was originally printed in 1792.

66. Davis, op. cit. supra note 16, vol. II, at 221. The first turnpike company in the United States was "The President, Managers, and Company of the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike Road", Incorporated by Pennsylvania in 1792, id., vol. II, at 218. The second was "The Society for establishing and supporting a Turnpike Road from Cepatchit Bridge, in Gloucester, to Connecticut Line, on the great road leading to Killingly and Hartford", incorporated by Rhode Island in 1794, id.,vol. II, at 221.

66a. Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 331.

67. Id., at 4. See Legal Digest, infra, at LL-2, where a summary of English Highway law Inthe 16th and early 17th centuries is given. NOTES ( continued ) 68. Wood, op. cit supra note 16, at 4. 69. Id., at 4-6, 331.

70.' This point, ±t would seem, has been fairly well established by the disoussion in Sections A, B, G and D, supra.

71. Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 331. Davis, op. cit. supra note 16, vol. II, at 222.

72. Wood, op. cit, supra note 16, at 57, 332.

73. Id, at 331.

74. Id. at 34. See also Watrous, op. cit, supra note 41, at 353.

75. Wood, op. cit, supra note 16, at 35, 334-335, 76. Id. at 334-335. The memorial to the General Assembly requesting permission to conduct a lottery to raise funds with which to repair this road and to collect tolls from those using it thereafter may be found in Connecticut Archives, Second Series, Travel, Highways, etc., vol. XIIIS 55-57. The act of the Legislature authorizing the collection of tolls on the Mohegan Road and also fixing the rates thereof may be found in Private Laws of Connecticut, vol. II, at 1363-1364.

77. Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 335-336.

78. Id. at 336-337. The special act cf the legislature creating this the first Connecticut turnpike corporation required the company to keep accounts of its receipts and expenses, subject to inspection by any committee appointed by the General Assembly for that purpose. Private Laws of Connecticut, vol. II, at 1380-1381.

79. Davis, op. cit. supra note 16, vol. II, at 216 presents a table showing the number of charters granted to turnpike corporations by the several American states to 1800.

80. Wood, op. cit, supra note 16, at 331.

81. Id. at 332. A few of the turnpike companies with the dates of their Incorporation from which a bond was required were the following: Canaan and Litchfield Turnpike Co. (1799), Private Laws of Connecticut, vol. II, at 1217; Farmington River Turnpike. Co. (1800). Private Laws, vol. II, at 1273j Bridgeport and Newtown Turnpike Co. . (1801), Private Laws, vol. II, at 1212; Hebron and Middle Haddam Turnpike Co. (1802), Private Laws, vol. II, at 1319; Middlesex Turnpike Co. (1802), Private Laws, vol. II, at 1350; Connecticut and Rhode Island Turnpike Co. (1806), Private Laws, vol. II, at 1241?; Colchester and Chatham Turnpike Co. (1808), Private NOTES ( continued )

Laws, Vol. II, at 1232; Chatham and Marlborough Turnpike Co. (1809), Private Laws, vol. II, at 1221; Durham and East Guilford Turnpike Co. (1811, Private Laws, vol. II, at 1254; Parmington and Harwinton Turnpike Co. (1812), Private Laws, vol. II, at 1271. It does not appear that any such bond was ever forfeited. Davis, op. cit. supra note 16, vol. II, at 227.

82. Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 33, 331-332. An example of this is seen in the resolution of the General Assembly authorizing an alteration to b e made in the layout of the Middlesex Turnpike Co. in the following language: "That so much of said road as was laid outbe, and the same hereby is not a highway." Private Laws of Connecticut, vol. II, at 1353. The Hartford and New Haven Turnpike Co. appears to have been an exception to the conclusion reached in the text for here the corporation paid about $18,000 of its own funds for lands to be used as its road. But this company, it should be recalled, made an entirely new road, and did not, as most of the others, take only short strips of land merely for the purpose of straightening an existing road. See the report of Albert Gallatin, secretary of the treasury, 1808, on "Turnpike, or Artificial Roads." This is State Paper No. 250, 10th Congress, 1st Session, reprinted as Document No. 499, 61st Congress, 2nd Session. It is reprinted in Wood,op. cit. supra note 16, at 14-18.

83. Wood, op. cit. supra note 16. at 33-34. See Waterbury v. Clark, 4 day - 198 (1810); Canaan v. Greenwoods Turn- pike Co., 1 Conn. 1 (1814).

84. Davis, op. cit. supra note 16, vol. II, at 228. Most of the Connecticut turnpike companies were chartered for as long as would be required to repay the original investment of the stockholders, plus interest, In the earlier cases the interest rate was set at 12 per cent; in later ones it was reduced to 8 per cent. When, by 1830, little progress had been made in reducing this liability, it was realized, the companies were perpetually chartered. It was originally contemplated that when this liability was discharged the road would revert to the public and become a free road. Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 333. See also, any turnpike company's charter, Private Laws of Connecticut, vol. II, at 1200-1514.

85. Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 349-351

86. Watrous, op. cit. supra note 41, at 354.

87. See note 85, supra. NOTES ( continued )

88. Wood, op* cit* supra note 16, at 35. Also Watrous, op. cit. supra note 41, at 354.

89. Wood. op. cit. supra note 16, map facing 331. This map shows the location and extent of all the Connecticut turnpike roads.

90. An alternate route to Albany was over the Granby Turnpike, which went from West Hartford through Bloomfield to Granby and the Massachusetts line. See map cit. supra note 89.

91. See note 89, supra.

92. Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 294-296; 377-378. See also map cit. supra note 89, and id., map facing 287.

93. General Statutes were enacted facilitating the discon- tinuance of turnpike roads. See Legal Digest, infra, under title "Turnpike Roads" under following dates: 1835, at LL-90-91; 1844, at LL-97; 1853, at LL-112- 113; 1854, at LL-114-115. Sometimes parts of roads were discontinued from time to time. Private Laws of Connecticut, vol. IV, at 1288, 1289, 1290, 1292, 1303.

94. Such was the case with the farmington and Bristol Turnpike Co. whose charter was revoked in 1819. Private Laws of Connecticut, vol. II, at 1271; and the Hartland Turnpike Company whose charter was revoked in 1814. Private Laws, vol. II, at 1318.

95. Earle, op. cit. supra note 4, at 274. Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 391. Watrous, op. cit. supra note 41, at 353-354. •

96. Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 348.

97. Watrous, op. cit. supra note 41, 353-354.

98. Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 347-348.

99. See note 93, supra.

100. Watrous, op. cit. supra note 41, at 353. Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 36. Interest of the Federal government In works of internal improvement is seen In Gallatin's Report, cit. supra note 82.

101. These provisions were essential elements in the charter of every turnpike company. See any charter incorporating a turnpike company. Private Laws of Connecticut, vol. II, at 1200-1514. I

NOTES (continued)

102. Legal Digest, infra, under title "Turnpike Roads" under the following dates: 1803, at LL-33; 1806, at LL-39; 1811, at LL-45; 1821, at LL-71.

103. Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 32, 33, 331, 357-358, 362, 370, 376. Earle, op. cit. supra note 4, at 240. Davis, op. cit. supra note 16, vol. II, at 216.

104. Davis, op. cit. supra note 16, vol. I, at 430-432, 440 j vol. II, at 13, 14, 35, 41, 42, 108, 216, 303-309. "Turnpikes aroused vigorous hostility from landowners because of the right of eminent domain, from other landowners who were left to one side by the route laid out. and from farmers who objected to having to pay toll", id., vol. II, at 306. A writer in the Connecticut Courant (now Hartford Courant) of June 26, 1797 speaking of turnpike roads says, The companies have not fulfilled their engagements - or the roads have not answered the expense without too high toll, or the Turnpikes have been set in the wrong place, or without being under proper restrictions."

105. Legal Digest, infra, "Turnpike Roads" -under date of 1813, at LL-50-51.

106. Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 32. In 1805 the Parmington and Bristol Turnpike Company was allowed to alter certain of its gates which were being avoided by sbunplkes. Id., at 360.

107. Legal Digest, Infra, "Turnpike Roads" under date of 1807, at LL-42.

108. Connecticut Archives, Second Series, Travel, Highways, etc., vol. VII: 36,37. This particular turnpike company in 1796. petitioned the legislature to permit its toll keeper to sell liquor so that the road would be more productive and in time relieve travellers from the payment of tolls. The petition was denied. Id., vol.XV: 20. Also in 1792 Jesse Brown in showing that he is running his stage between Norwich and New London at a loss on account of the toll on the road is granted a reduction of toll on stages. Id., vol. VII: 29-30.

109. Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 331-334, 344, 346, 362, 369, 391. Although, as noted, Connecticut's'turnpike companies resembled in many respects the English turnpike trusts, the Investors stood in a different relation to the enterprise in the two instances, which relation, in individual cases, may have been Important. Under the English arrangements those who put up the money with which the roads were repaired, were bond- NOTES - (continued)

holders, and as such were considered as creditors of the trust. Furthermore, they ordinarily had the right of foreclosure which gave them a preferred position within that group. When the income from tolls was not sufficient to pay for the administration and upkeep of the road, the burden of doing the latter fell back on the parishes. When, as they sometimes did, the bondholders foreclosed, t hey collected tolls directly to be applied on the indebtedness to them. Thus, when the inhabitants of various parishes found themselves repairing the roads and at the same time paying tolls for the benefit of the road's bondholders, local feeling against such a state of affairs ran high, sometimes precipitating riots. Id., at 5-6. In the United States, and Connecticut especially, those who, put up the money with which the roads were repaired, were stockholders, and as such were the proprietors of the enterprise. They did not occupy such a favorable position from the financial and legal point of view as did the English bondholders. Id., at 31-33. When a Connecticut town was obliged to make repairs on a turnpike road, it was enabled to take the toll receipts until the expenses thereof had been collected. Legal Digest, infra, "Turnpike Roads" under dates of 1837, at LL-93; 1841, at LL-95; 1844, at LL-97

Earle, op. cit. supra note 4, at 231-232.

Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 35.

This was the Hartford and New Haven Railroad which began operations from New Haven to Meriden at this time. It was on December 14, 1839 - about a year later - when service was established to Hartford. Watrous, op. cit. supra note 41, at 362. See note 110 supra.

See note 109 supra. Also Watrous, op. cit. supra note 41, at 353.

Wood, op. cit.- supra note 16, at 43, 45, 51-53. Watrous op. cit. supra note 41, at 353-355.

See note 65, supra. Also Jenkins, op. cit. supra note 24, at 33,40.

Watrous, op. cit. supra note 41, at 356-357. See Jenkins, op. cit. supra note 24, illustration facing 3 showing advertisement of "J. Goodwin, Jr. & Co." in 1839. The Goodwin stage coaches would leave State Street, Hartford, dally "at 4.a.m., and arrive in Worcester at 3 p.m. and in Boston by the BOSTON AND WORCESTER NOTES - (continued)

RAILWAY CARS, at 6.p.m." For a list of the principal stage, canal and railway routes in Con- necticut and other states In the late 1830s, see Mitchell; Travelers Guide. Thru the United States, 1835, 1836, 1838, 1839. For a list of the stage routes out of Hartford and New Haven for the same period with their fares and schedules, see the directories of those cities 1838-1841.

117. In October 1784 Talmadge Hall and Jacob Brown were granted the exclusive right by the general assembly to drive the stage."from the City of Hartford to Byram River" (N.Y.state line) during the pleasure of the assembly. Connecticut Archives, Second Series, Travel, Highways, etc., vol. VII: 18. In May 1790 Jesse Brown and others were granted the exclusive right to run stages between Hartford and Providence for not exceeding 10 years. Id., vol. VII: 21,22. In May 1793 Elihu Hall of Wallingford petitioned the general assembly to be given the exclusive right to drive stages between Hartford and New Haven, charging that Jacob Brown, the present licensee, has driven by a circuitous route between the two towns. This petition was denied. Id., vol. VII: 17.

118. In October, 1795 the general assembly adopted a resolution discontinuing the exclusive right granted to any person of carrying passengers between Hartford and New Haven. Id., vol. VII: 20a. In October 1803 the petition of Deodat Woodbridge of East Hartford for the exclusive right to run the passenger stage on the middle road from Hartford to the Massachusetts line was denied. Id., vol. VII:16.

119. This information was obtained from Mr. William B. Goodwin of Hartford whose grandfather, Mr. James Goodwin, was the proprietor of several stage lines out of Hartford in the 1820s.

120. A search through the Private Laws of Connecticut has failed to disclose the incorporation of any business engaged in stage coach operations. Mr. William B. Goodwin, referred to in note 119 supra, is also of the opinion that there were no stage coach corporations in Connecticut.

121. Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 31. Davis, op. cit. supra note 16, vol. II, at 21-29. See also Id., vol. II appendix B at 332-345.

122. Earle, op. cit. supra note 4, at 272-273.

123. Legal Digest, Infra, "Highways" under date of 1785 at LL-26, NOTES - (continued)

124. Earle, op. cit. supra note 4, at 233. Mr. William B. Goodwin, referred to in note 119 supra, expressed the opinion that the mail contracts were very profitable.

125. Earle, op. cit, supra note 4, at 269. See also two .letters from Mr. William B. Goodwin to the State Planning Board under dates of December 7 and 11, 1934. These letters are in the files of the Plan- ning Board.

126. See the Goodwin letters cited supra note 125. For a description of other vehicles which were used on the roads at this time, see Wood, op.cit. supra note 16, at 43-53.

127. See the Goodwin letters, cited supra note 125. The Goodwin Homestead, which for a time was used as a tavern, is located at 604 Albany Avenue on the north side thereof. This is between the "intersections of Garden and Vine Streets. The stables and barns referred to were op- posite on the south side of the avenue.

128. Movement of freight over, water was much cheaper than over land. The accumulation of tolls resulting from moving goods any considerable distance over land made the price almost prohibitive within a comparatively short distance. Wood, op. Cit. supra note 16, at 26, 36-37. But the Canaan and Litchfield Turnpike was strategically located to service much freight movement. Id., at 354-355.

129. See the charter of any turnpike company wherein are established the rates of toll for various vehicles, Private Laws of Connecticut, vol. II, at 1200-1514; and especially the alteration of the rates of toll for the Monroe and Newtown Turnpike Company in 1838, Private Laws, vol. IV, at 1326.

130. Jenkins, op. cit. supra note 24, at 25-26. Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 49-50.

131. For the bridges upon which the right to take toll was granted between 1789 and 1857,.either to individual proprietors or incorporated companies, see Private Laws of Connecticut, vol. I, at 234-293; vol.Ill, at 267-287.

132. By comparing the ferries in the state in 1784, Acts and Laws of Connecticut, Revision of 1784, at 76, with those in 1854, Statutes of Connecticut, Compilation of 1854 at 543-548, those which have been discontinued in the period may be determined. Some of those discontinued were replaced by the following toll bridges: Toll Bridge from New Haven to East Haven, 1796, Private NOTES - (continued)

Laws of Connecticut, vol, I, at 241} Hartford Bridge Company, 1808, Id,, vol.1, at 254; Bridge over Mill River in New Haven (not a toll bridge), 1836, id., vol. I, at 274; Mystic Bridge Company, 1819, vol. I, at 274; Niantic Toll Bridge, 1797, id., vol. I, at 279; Norwich and Preston Bridge Company, 1816, id., vol.1, at 280; Saugatuck Toll Bridge, 1798, id., vol. I, at 283; Milford and Stratford Bridge, 1802, id., vol. I, at 288.

133. See the terms of the resolutions of the general assembly relating to the several bridges affected, Private Laws of Connecticut, vol.1, at 234-293; vol. Ill, at 267- 287.

134. The resolutions, relative to toll bridges, cited supra note 133, contain these provisions.

135. Private Laws of Connecticut, vol.1, at 244^245.

136. Id., vol. I, at 264.

137. Id., vol. II, at 1357-1359.

138. Id., vol. I, at 241t243. 139. Between 1789 and 1836 the general assembly passed resolutions relating to 29 bridges. Of these 24 were in the South and middle western part of the state, 11 crossing the Housatonic River. Id., vol. I, at 234-293.

140. Id., vol. I, at 279.

141. Id., vol. I, at 254.

142. See the provisions of the charters and amendments thereto of the several turnpike and toll bridge companies, Private Laws of Connecticut, vol. I, at 234-293; vol. II, at 1200-1514.

143. Davis, op. cit. supra note 16, vol. II, at 186, 216.

144. See note 132 supra.

145. See Legal Digest, infra, "Perries" under dates of 1821 at LL-30-33; 1826 at LL-37'; 1852 at LL-108.

146. Wood, op. cit. supra note 16, at 38-43 and especially 408-410. For charters incorporating the plank road companies, see Private Laws of Connecticut, vol. IV, at 851-872. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Atwater, Edward E. History of City of New Haven.

Burrows, Mary History of the Old Indian Trail and Post Road In Town of Groton (unpublished).

Caulkins, Prances Manwaring History of New London.x

Clark, George L. A History of Connecticut; 1914.

Connecticut Archives; First and Second Series. Material on Travel, Roads, Taverns, Turnpikes and Corporations.

Connecticut Historical Society. Various papers and pamphlets on sections of the Old Post Roads. Sundry historical material on Hartford and Col- onial Connecticut.

Connecticut Valley Historical Society. Paper "Old Coaching Days," 1904-1907, vol. IV.

Davis, Joseph Stanciiffe Essays in the Earlier History of American Corporations, 2 vols.; 1917. de Chastellux, Marquis Travels in North America; 1780, 1781, 1782. de Warville, Brlssot New Travels in the United States; 1788.

Earle, Alice Morse Stage Coach and Tavern Days; 1900.

Gallatin, Albert Turnpike or Artificial Roads 1808, State Paper No. 250, 61st Congress.

Graves, Frances Miner The Old Post Road (unpublished).

Hartford City Directory, 1838 - 1841.

Jenkins, ThStephee Oldn Boston Post Road; 1914. Knight, Sarah (Kemble) The Journal of Madam Knight; 1704.

Love, William DeLoas The Colonial History of Hartford. BIBLIOGRAPHY, Cont'd,

McMaster, John Bach History of the People of the U.S.

Mitchell, Isabel S. Roads and Road Making in Colonial Connecticut; 1933,

Mitchell; Traveler's Guide Thru the United States; 1835, 1836, 1838, 1839.

New Haven City Directory, 1838-1841.

Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut; Vol.1, Vol.11, Vol.IV, Vol. XI, Vol. V, Vol.VI, Vol. VII, Vol. VIII.

Stiles, Henry R. History of Windsor.

Watrous, George Dutton Travel and Transportation, in Atwater's History of New Haven; 1887.

Westerly Historical Society "Records and Papers", 1913-1915, 1915-1916.

Wood, Frederick J. The Turnpikes of New England; 1919. f

State of Connecticut

STATE PLANNING BOARD

History of Transportation in Connecticut

PART II. 1820 - 1936

Hartford, Connecticut 1937 CONNECTICUT STATE PLANNING BOARD

Members

William L. Slate, Chairman Director, Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station

Joseph W.Alsop Chairman, Public Utilities Commission

Arthur L» Clark Superintendent, Pish and Game Commission i Maurice R0 Davie Professor of Sociology, Yale University

John Jo Egan Secretary, Connecticut Federation of Labor < Austin F. Hawos State Forester, Park and Forest Commission

Edward Ingraham President, Ingraham Maiufacturing Company ( William F. Ladd Adjutant General, State Armory

John A. Macdonald Commissioner, State Highway Department i, Stanley II0 Osborn Commissioner, State Health Department

Sanford H. Wadhams Director, State Water Commission

F0 Perry Close Director

Joseph T. Woodruff Consultant, National Resources Committee

Office

Room 432, State Office Building Hartford, Connecticut PREFACE TO PART TWO

This historical outline of the progressive development of transportation in Connecticut by waterway, highway, railway and airway represents an effort to furnish the background necessary to a readier interpretation of the

Connecticut Statutes relating to transportation.

Part One covered the period from 1635 to 1850.

Part Two covers the period since t he advent of the rai3uo«$, which in addition to the railroad has seen the development of the horse-car, electric street car, bicycle, automobile and airplane.

Fully referenced throughout, a bibliography on the subject is added for the convenience of readers.

The compilers of Part Two are appreciative of the ready assistance of the State Library Staff in this connection.

Irving K. Butler

Herbert L. Richards

H. Jackson Tippet • OONTgNTS

PART I

Travel and Transportation by Land

1635 - 1850

PART II

Chapter Page

I® The First Two Centuries of Maritime Commerce 1

II® Rise and Decline of Transportation by Water, 1815-1936 30

HI. Turnpike and Canal Companies Oppose the Rail- roads, 1832-1847• 47

IV. Rapid Development of the Railroads after Adverse Beginnings, 1836-1936• 54

V. The Coming of the Horse-oarj its later electrification, 1859-1936, 71

Vie Connecticut the Pioneer State in Bicycle and Automobile History: The Bicycle, 1866-1936 75 The Modern Automobile, 1895-1936 79

VII, Transportation by Air, 1911-1936 85

Reference Notes

Bibliography Chapter 1

THE FIRST TWO CENTURIES OP MARITIME COMMERCE

"Our principle Townea are Hartford vpon Conecticutt river, New London vpon Pequot River, New Haven and Fayrefield by the sea side: in which townes is managed the principall trade of the colony,"

So replied Governor Leete and the Council to in- quiries received from the Committee for Trade of His Majesty 1 Council in 1680, In varying degrees those "townes"

(associating Fairfield with Bridgeport) have been the chief centers of such maritime activities as have engaged Con- necticut ports down through the years• The four places mentioned, then, will be given primary consideration in the following historical findings, but any attempt to record a maritime history for this period must also give due recognition to Norwich, the Connecticut river towns, Stoning ton and Mystic, Guilford, MiIford, Derby and Norwalk,

Stamford, and Greenwich,

Ferries were in operation in various sections of the Colony in the early years of its existence, and will be considered separately; a maritime traffic in slaves was also more or less general, and this subject likewise will receive separate consideration. Discovery of Connecticut River; Water Transportation to and, from Hartford

To Adriaen Block, a native of Holland, probably be- 2 longs the credit for the discovery of the Connecticut River.

Block first came to Manhattan (New York) from Holland in 1612; the following year he made another voyage in command of the ship TIGER, which was subsequently destroyed by fire as he was preparing to return. To replaoe this loss, he and his companions built another vessel, which he named ONRUST

(or Restless), said to have been but forty-four and a half • 3 feet long and of sixteen tons burden. With this little craft he set out carefully to explore the coast to the eastward. He sailed boldly through the then dangerous strait of

"Hell-Gate" into Long Island Sound, and coasted along the northern shore. At the present town of Stratford he visite4 d the "River of Red Hills" (now known as the Housatonlc), and continued on up the coast, subsequently to enter the Connecti- cut River, which he explore5 d for some sixty miles to the foot of the falls at Enfield.

ONRUST was thus the first white man's vessel to sail on the•Connecticut River, which appears on the aarly Dutch maps as "Versche River" (Fresh River)6 , and Block was the first white man to view the Enfield Falls. On his departure he explored Block Islands to that Island was given his name.

In 1632 the Dutch from Manhattan proceeded up the river as far as Hartford; in October, 1633, an expedition came from Plymouth under the command of Capt,, William Holmes, and,

- 2. - . despite warnings and remonstrances from the Dutch, continued up the river as far as Windsor; in 1636 William Pynchon with a company from Roxbury settled at Agawam; it was he who first 7 established regular navigation above Hartford,

Soon after the first settlements by the English on the

Connecticut, a flatboat or scow, which drew little water, was designed. It could be poled along the river course, and with very great exertion could even be pushed up over the falls at

Enfield. Until the middle of the nineteenth century much 8 traffic with Springfield and points above was thus carried on.

As early as 1810, regular lines of flatboats were running between Hartford and up-river settlements as far as

Cheapside on the Deerfield river, the latter having been a point of large shipping interests with extensive territory west and north. For many years, and until the construction of the bridge at Hartford in 1809, Warehouse Point was regarded as the head of sloop navigation. Previous to the construction of the bridge all communication between the two shores had 9 been by ferry. .

The great shipping industry which was to develop began with the action of the General Court in 1642, when that Court authorized the river towns to cooperate in building a ship, probably at Hartford. The next mention of the ship is in 1649 when the Court authorized Samuel Smith and others to get enough pipestaves, or barrel staves, from outside the town to freight

"the ship" on its first voyage• , The craft was probably built by Thomas Demlng of Wethersfield who had been granted shipbuilding privileges at the cove in that town where work in ship construetion was carried on for many years. The name of his ship was the TR10UX. While England was the best market for

the large masts that the county could furnish, the West Indies was the best for the pipestaves j traffic in the latter was most profitable for a considerable period of time, they having 10 been exchanged for hogheads of molasses and for some port rum.

Freighting business on the river grew to considerable dimensions, the work at first, of course, having been done en-

tirely by sailing-vessels. Considerable labor and money were

spent in developing the up-river navigation, and oanals were

built at Windsor Locks, South Hadley, and indeed all the falls

that could not otherwise be passed, in order that navigation in flat-bottomed boats might be proceeded with as far as Wells 11 River, Vermont.

Little progress toward improving the channel of the

river seems to have been made, however, until 1800 when the

"Union Company" was chartered and empowered to improve the

river bed below Hartford, to construct wharves and effect

other improvements, and was given authority to collect proper

tolls from all passing vessels for a period of sixty years•

In 1834 the company was forced to defend Its activities before

a legislative committee, where it was shown that by its opera-

tions a channel had been kept open through the entire shipping

season to an average depth of from seven to nine feet, whereby

loaded vessels were enabled to reach their wharves at Hartford

under sail, when before, sloops and schooners even at high tide

were obliged to b e warped across the bars, with heavy wear and

tear, or were unloaded below Middletown into lighters at rauoh

expense, and even then consumed from three to fifteen days in 12 . . ;•" . ' sailing from that city to Hartford® , Travel by water to and from Hartford during the period

1750-1830 consisted chiefly of the exportation of goods to the West Indies, Importation of the produce of those islands, and its shipment Into the surrounding country and up the Con- necticut river. After peace was declared in 1783, a thriving business developed, which Increased in extent with Barbados,

Cuba, and the French island of Santo Domingo. The vessels employed in this trade were termed "Horse Jockeys", and were strongly built, but dull sailers with low d ecks and very high, waist, of from one hundred to two hundred tons burden, and generally excellent sea-boats. Many of the smaller ones were sloop-rigged, one-masted vessels, with a stout, short mast, and carried a very large standing topsail. The larger vessels were either two-topsail schooners or full-rigged brigs• These 13 vessels made two, or at the most, three voyages a year.

Although the first steamboat to be operated between

New York and Hartford did not appear until 1824, It is of interest to note that John Fitch, born in South Windsor In 1743, and commemorated by a bronze tablet in the State Capitol by order of the Legislature, was the first man to apply steam to the propulsion of wateroraft, having used therefor a condensing engine before he knew of the Watt engine. The honor is still sometimes given to Livingston and to Fulton, who launched his

CLERMONT in 1807, but the official records of New Jersey show that Fitch'3 invention was reoognlxe• 14d in 1786 and that he was given rights to run his ateamboat.

Tha passage of a «t®«8ifeoat between Hartford and Say- brook was noted in the •'".Qoiaranfc* in its issue of July 28, J.Q19, as follows s "Sailed stMS^feMt SNTIRPRISE, Cftjpt* Pitkin, for Saybrook?" and, two days later, "arrived the steam-boat 15 ENTERPRISE from Saybrook."

In 1831, a steamboat built at Springfield, Mass., and named for the noted American traveler, John Ledyard, succeeded in making a trip from tidewater to a point a short distance north of Wells River, Vermont, 280 miles from the mouth of the

Connecticut, For a few years steamers plied more or less 16 regularly between those two cities•

Ferries

The subject of the first regular ferry across t he

Connecticut River seems to have been debated at Windsor in

January, 1641, at which time the Court decreed that if the town of Windsor would provide a ferry-boat "they are to b e allowed three pence for a single passenger, and two pence a person when they1 7 carry more than one at a freight, and twelve pence a horse,"

No definite action was taken in the matter, however, until January, 1648, when the Court concluded a contract with

John Blssell "to attend the. ferry over the Great River at Wind- sor for the full term of seven years from this day, and that he will provide a sufficient boat for the oarrying over of horse and foot upon all occasions•" 18

The establishment of a regular ferry over the Pequot

(Thames) River at New London was an object of prime importance td the early settlers there, and, on November 6, 1651., articles were drawn to lease the town's first ferry to Edward J, Messenger for twnnty-one years, After two or three years Messenger gave i 19 ; up the lease. - 6 - In 1654 the disposal of the ferry was left to Governor

Winthrop and the townsmen, who entered into "articles of agreement" with Gary Latham which granted him a lease and monopoly of"the ferry over Pequot River, at the town of Pequot, for fifty years - from the twenty-fifth of March, 1655." Mr. Latham, on his part, bound himself to "attend to the service immediately with a good canoe and to provide within a year's time a 20 sufficient boat for man and beast."

By 1702 nine ferries were in operation in the Colony, with definite charges fixed by the Court for each. They operated at Windsor, Hartford, WethersfIeld, Saybrook21, New London, Norwich, New Haven, Milford, and Stratford. By

1750 twenty-five ferries were in operation, as follows: Pour on the Thames River, twelve on the Connecticut River, one each at New Haven, Stratford, Derby, Newtown, Niantic, Cornwall,

Knowles's Landing (near Middletown), Stamford, and one at the 22 Narrows over the Saugatuck River. In 1784 the number had 23 Increased to twenty-nine, vhich marked the high point of ferry transportation. Nearly all have disappeared (1935), as bridges took their places or the service was abandoned. New London

Meiuly out of activities associated with whaling grew

Connecticut's first large manufacturing enterprise -- that of shipbuilding. In this, New London was the leading center of the Colony. Ships were built on the deep and commodious harbor there as early as 1600, the most famous of the earlier craft having been called "Mould's vessels," constructed by an especially competent builder, Hugh Mould, who worked In collabora- 24 tion with Joseph Colt®

The first craft were, of course, small, and built for coastwise trade which was principally with Boston. There, clothing and household goods, military accoutrements, powder and lead were obtained. The returns were in peltry and wam- pum. A petty traffic was also kept up with Rhode Island and

Long Island by boats and small sloops• Very soon the coastwise trade was extended to Manhadoes (New York), and occasionally to Virginia. New London before 1700 was much noted for these coasting vessel2s5 and their skippers. Two men and a boy were the usual crew.

A commercial intercourse was opened very early between

New London and Newfoundland, which was continued until after

1700. During the 1600*3 also, direct voyages from New London to t he West Indies were of common occurrence. Two voyages were made yearly to the island of Barbados, that island having offered t he most lucrative business of the period. Horses, cattle, beef, pork, and sometimes pipesfcawes were exchanged for sugar and molasses and, at a later period, rum. Merchants of Hartford, Middletown, and Wethersfield made shipments from 26 New London. An interchange of inhabitants also took place.

Between 1660 and 1664 Mould and Coit constructed three vessels, known then as barquesranging from twelve to twenty tons, of from i50 to MO value, one of which, the ENDEAVOUR, made several voyages to the West Indies. In 1661 the NEW

# It is not easy to determine the character of a vessel from the nomenclature used at that period. The terms "ship" and "barque" were of comparatively the same meaning, while "boat", "sloop", "snow ketch", and "brlgantine" were all of vague import. - 8 - LONDON TRYALL, the first merchant vessel built in New London, was constructed by one John Elderkin, and it was regarded as a remarkable affair, "costing, rexclusive of iron work, spikes, and nails, two hundred pounds." In 1666 Mould and Colt built a vessel of seventy tons, the NEW LONDON, which was called a ship -- a craft larger than any theretofore constructed, and employed in European voyages. A captain, mate, boatswain, and one sailor made up the usual complement for this type of 27 vessel.

Trade with the West Indian islands grew to assume quite an important place in the maritime Indus try of New London. On the 26th of June, 1724, six vessels sailed at one time for those islands, all freighted with cargoes of her sea, which then 28 constituted a principal article of export from the town.

In 1723 "Jeffrey's great ship" was commenced, and launched in October, 1725. Its burden was 700 tons: it was the largest vessel, at that time, over built this side of 'the

Atlantic, and excited much interest and attention throughout the Colony. New London had acquired a reputation for building large ships. It has been said that at least eighty coasters were owned in the Colony, principally at Norwlch and New London, and that one hundred and fifty sail of merchant vessels entered and cleared at the latter port from the close of the Revolu- tionary War to the second rupture with Great Britain. The receipts of the office of port collector were from fifty 29 thousand to two hundred thousand dollars annually.

New London was prominent in the early steam navigation of the Sound. In 1816, one year after the close of the war, the first trip from New York to New London was made by the CONNECTICUT in twenty-one hours - considered a remarkable and triumphant success in steam navigation at that time. After- wards the CONNECTICUT commenced running regularly to New Haven twice a week, and connected there with the PULTON fdr New York.

Eighteen years later, freight boats, propelled by steam, were

Introduced, and largely used for a considerable period of time as propellors in the freight department of the transportation 30 lines between New York and Boston.

Although New London was late in entering the whaling # business, she rose to be one of the most important ports in the traffic, having been second only at one period to New

Bedford, "which sent out a fleet larger than all other ports 31 combined."

- The departure of the first whaling vessel from New

London of which there is authentic record, was the sailing of the ship RISING SUN on May 20, 1784. Only her sailing is 32 recorded, there being nothing to show that she ever returned.

At first the whaling expeditions were conducted in small sloops, fitted and sent out for a few weeks' voyage, the extent of which rarely or never extended beyond the banks of

Newfoundland, but with increasing business larger vessels and longer voyages became 33common . After 1770, voyages were made to the Brazil banks.

*As early as 1647, however, the General Court at Hartford had passed a resolution granting a' monopoly and exclusive privilege for "the taking of whale" within Its jurisdiction to one Mr. Whiting for seven years. We hear nothing further of Mr. Whiting's project and the probability is that it'did not prove a success. It is known, though, that the appearance of whales in and outside the Sound was not unusual.

10 - The Revolutionary War, with its blockades along the coast, and the Jefferson Embargo were two epochal crises which negatively influenced New London commerce as well as important shipping interests in Connecticut in general.*

Prom the beginning to the close of that war a cloud of depressing gloom hung over New London. Her mariners and arti- sans were deprived of employment; her shopmen and merchants were impoverished or bankrupt; religion, education, and morals were at a low ebb, and the shadows grew deeper from year to 34 year •

After the return of peace the West Indian trade never 35 revived, but in 1819 the whaling interest recommenced. By

1846 the New London fleet consisted of 71 ships and barques, one brig, and six schooners• They aggregated over 26,000 tons burden, and employed about 2,500 men on the sea, with an invested capital of $2,500,000. These vessels ploughed3 6 every sea from the Arctic Circle to the Cape of Good Hope.

All that now remains of this once thriving Industry, except the fortunes founded by the old whaling captains, is an occasional deserted wharf and the many relics and3 7 souvenirs treasured in the homes of the old whaling families.

Norwich

By the year 1730, four sloops were owned here and engaged in West Indian and coastwise trade• Not long afterwards the

*New England Congressmen offered slight opposition to the original Embargo Act of December 22, 1807, By it, however, the section was committed to a policy which would save her ships but ruin their owners. She stood to win and to lose. Having garnered her gains, she would be the more certain to bemoan her losses• See S&aysiPLoM'^Martin, "Jefferson and the Embargo", (1927) pp. 148-149. - 11 - • Norwich traders sent a sloop and a schooner to Ireland. These ad- ventures are thought to have been the first voyages across the ocean 38 from Norwich. As the close of the 18th century approached, the citizens of the town were extensively engaged in maritime commerce, and at'one time more than eighty sail of vessels, principally brigs and schooners,3 9 were employed from the port, chiefly in the West Indian trade.

Prom 1750 onward the interest in navigation continued steadily to increase. Some of the merchants, from the first beginnings of their commerce, imported goods directly to Great Bri-

tain, either in their own vessels, or in packages landed at Boston and New York and consigned to them. Pelt hats were then a common

article of importation, the colonists having been forbidden to make them even for their own use. Nails, paper, loaf sugar, snuff,

spices, were all imported from Europe; also ribbons, crepes, laces, plain linens, and occasionally a piece of Holland cotton — the 40 latter Intimating the beginning of a trade in cotton cloth.

Horses, cattle, and the produce of a thriving hinter-

land converged at Norwich and sought a market abroad. Most of

the voyages of the era were undertaken in vessels of light burden

and small draft. Livestock, provisions, and lumber were the

articles demanded for the West Indian market and even flour was 41 then an article of export rather than of import.

In 1789, packets were operating between Norwich and

New York, Norwich and Newport, and Norwich and Boston. Several

other sloops 4engage2 d in coastwise commerce kept the Thames River lively. .

In 1799 a company was formed for the purpose of con-

ducting a sealing and whaling business• The ship SUSANNAH

was the first vessel to b e placed in this service: she spent the Summer of that year in whaling off the coast of Patagonia.

The ship MIANTANOMO was fitted out for whaling by the same company, and cleared for Canton in 1800 for the purpose of whaling off the northwest coast of North America and circumnavi- 43 gating the globe on her voyage home.

Shipments to t he northern coast of South America, especially to Dutch Giiiana, were lucrative, the cargoes4 4 brought in from t here having paid a higher duty than others•

In planning a commercial venture, it was not uncommon to combine a fishing voyage with European trade. A license for fishing and a foreign passport were obtained, and t he vessels cleared for the cod-fisheries and a market. Several

Norwich schooners entered int4o5 this line of traffic, particularly between 1802 and 1808*

In 1808 the Jefferson embargo was in force, and the maritime trade of Norwlch rapidly declined thenceforward. The mercantile holdings ceased to b e productive; many were Im- poverished by their risksf th46e most sanguine were discouraged; and failures were frequent. At the close of the Revolutionary War, trade was re- 47 newed, but with diminished enterprise.

Maritime Traffic in Slaves

Connecticut in common with the other colonies of the section had a trade for many years with the West Indian slave marketsAlthough this trade was much smaller than that of

*It appears, however, that Connecticut was one of the first colonies to pass a law abolishing the slave-trade. This was done in 1769. See #4®, p. 126.

- 13 - • the neighboring colonies, many of her citizens were engaged

in it. Large numbers of horses and other commodities were

shipped to the islands and exchanged for the slaves• But

actual importation of the latter was small,though almost 48 entirely unrestricted, save by a few light, general duty acts,

Middletown, New Haven, and Hartford were ports in the

Colony in the 1700's which were supplied with slaves from

Guinea or the West Indies49 , or sent their vessels to supply other states with slaves•

Slave-traders also plied between New London and Africa.

Captain John Eaton, in command of theSJH0W AFRICA, which de-

parted from New London in January, 1757, for Africa, noted in

his log for May 5th: "This 24 hours died 3 small slaves with

the flux - 165 slaves remain on board." The log of the SNOW

FOX, which left New London in March, 1758, bound "for the coast

of Africa,50 " noted the purchase of a number of "boy" and "girl" slaves. Having received its first blow by the law of 1769,

however,, devotion of shipping to the transportation of slaves

was further restricted by a re-enactment of the law in 1784,

• in which provisions were made for the abolition of slavery

and the imposition of substantia51 l fines onv essels if caught while engaged in the traffic.

Maw Haven

Doubtless the earliest venture in shipping as a commer-

cial enterprise in Connecticut was ithe ill-fated vessel of 100

tons built by the first New Haven settlers. Laden for England

with the best part of their commercial wealth, she set sail

- 14 - • 167 in. 1647 and was never heard from again. Known as ?Lamber- ton's ship," she was chartered hy an association called the

"Company of Merchants of New Haven," and, with seventy persons aboard, carrled"pease and some wheat, all in bulk, with about two hundred West India hides, and store of beaver and plate, 53 so as it was estimated in all at five thousand pounds•" Al- though this disaster so discouraged the colonists that at one time they contemplated abandonment of the settlement54 , both the town and the shipping remained to prosper.

Trade was soon established with Boston, New Amsterdam

(New York), Delaware Bay, Barbados, and England. Small vessels owned in New Haven, and navigated by her seamen, sailed frequently to and fro between New Haven and Boston. Doubtless they sometimes returned freighted with merchandise purchased of Massachusetts men; but there is evidence that New Haven merchants exported and imported by way of Boston, they having sent their beaver and other furs to that port to be transferred 55 to t he ships which had brought them English goods.

The pinnaces, shallops, and ketches that were employed in t he coastwise trade carried letters and packages from ffiend to friend — seamen and passengers having rendered such service as is now performe56 d by express companies and by the postmen of the government.

The greatest of Connecticut's maritime ventures occurred in the years 1796, '97, '98, and '99, when a fleet of twenty vessels — the "New Haven South Seas Fleet" — was equipped, outfitted and loaded, and officered and manned by oitisens of the town or neighboring communities. It was composed of fine, staunch, and for the day, large, full-rigged ships, the equals 57 of any that sailed from American ports. - 15 - This enterprise flourished greatly for some years.

Its main interest was the sealing .off South America, where herds were abundant at the time. The pelts were carried around Cape

Horn to China, where they were sold or exchanged for return cargoes of tea, silk, and other valuable Oriental goods• Most renowned of the fleet was the NEPTUNE, which returned in 1799 with the richest cargo received. It consisted of tea, silk, 58 and china, and yielded a profit of #240,000.

Each of the vessels in the fleet circumnavigated the globe and returned to New Haven in safety. The ships carried crews of about forty men and boys, a surgeon, supercargo*, carpenter, blacksmith and cooper, armaments of six-pound guns, muskets, cutlasses, boarding pikes, etc. The voyages were generally of from twenty to thirty months' duration. This type of commerce was maintained with great vigor until 1806, 59 and at intervals until the war with Great Britain in 1812.

Merchants in different towns of the State had an interest In nearly every ship. Hartford, Wethersfield, Middle- town, East Haddam, Farmington, Derby, Litchfield, Milford.

Branford, New London, and Stratfor60d were largely Interested In several of the earlier ships.

As was the case elsewhere, the Jefferson Embargo and the War of the Revolution put an almost oomplete stoppage to the maritime commerce of New Haven. In July, 1808, seventy- eight vessels were lying embargoed in the latter port, while during the war many of the vessels that belonged to the town were taken up the Quinnipiac, East Haven, and Housatonl61 c rivers, where they were dismantled and "laid up".

*An agent aboard ship sent by owners of the merchandise to have charge of the cargo, to ;S ell it abroad, and to purchase a return cargo. « 16 - One month after the embargo wag annulled, however, thirty-three vessels had been refitted, loaded, and sent to the Dutch and Swedish islands of the Caribbean, whence articles designed for the Windward Islands were dispatched in fast- sailing British and French schooners• From that period until the war with Great Britain, a constant and rapid appreciation of the maritime Interests of the city was to be observed, and

In a few months after the embargoed vessels were released, t he

American ensign was flying from the gaffs of New Haven vessels in the ports of St* Petersburg, Crohstadt, Hamburg, Lisbon,

Cadiz, Bordeaux, Liverpool, London, Cork, Mogadore, along the

Spanish Main, and in the far distant ports of Batavia, Canton, 62 and Polo Penang.

At the termination of the war twenty-four sea-going vessels, out of a total of one hundred owned in New Haven at the time, were taken to the wharf in one day. Commercial relations previously formed with distant ports in Europe and

South America, and with the fruit ports of the Mediterranean, were profitable, and for many year63s valuable cargoes from those ports were brought to New Haven.

In 1820 a number of New Haven merchants who were interested in foreign commerce formed a company, though not incorporated, the object of which was the prosecution of whale- fishing in the North Pacific. Two ships were purchased, outfitted, and sent on whaling voyages in 18220 The prices received for t he oil and bone when they returned were so low, however, that no adequate remuneration was received, and the en- 64 terprise was abandoned.

17 The world has never produced a more intelligent set of merchant captains than those who have commanded New Haven vessels J men not only capable, thoroughbred seamen, but men able to transact the whole business of their voyages, selling their cargoes abroad and purchasing return cargoes. Some of the most lucrative East Indian voyages, combined with sealing voyages in the Pacific, were made from New Haven by New Haven 65 captains•

Bridgeport

During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Pair- field owed much of its financial and political prestige to an 66 excellent seaport. The seaport of Fairfield was old Black Rock.

Vessels of 300 tons or larger could enter this port, while vessels of 30 or 40 tons could enter the rivers of Guilford,

Milford, Norwalk, Stratford67 , Stamford, and Rye — all of which had good tide harbors•

Now Black Rock Is merely a section of Bridgeport. New- field (Bridgeport) harbor on the east had developed in rivalry with the old port of Fairfield, and in a relatively short time, ships that ha68d sailed from Black Rock wharves, cleared from Bridgeport.

The most natural channel of communication and transportation for the small settlement about the Pequonnock River (Bridgeport harbor is at the head of tidewater on this river) was that of

Long Island Sound. Hence we find that among the first mechani- cal industries that came intoexistence in Newfield was that of shipbuilding. It is state69 d that this began on the Pequonnock River as early as 1720.

- 18- At that time vessels were "built as they were wanted. The timber was cut in the forest and drawn to the banks of the river, where it was left to season until used. ' It was hewed Into proper shape by hand at odd times, and when ready it was put together as vessels of light tonnage and draught, suitable for navigation 70 on the shallow rivers and harbors that bordered the Sound.

It is probable that the store business of the era was the outgrowth of a shipyard at Berkshire, as a 7stor1 e without a packet would have been a misnomer in those days. Some of the ships that were built were large enough to cross the ocean, 72 several having gone as far as China.

Shipyards continued to enlarge in proportions until after 1800. Before the Revolution, but especially after it, trade with the West Indies was of commanding proportions, and when Bridgeport began to spread out as a seaport town just after the year 1800, the coastwise trade with Boston, Mew York, and Baltimore, and traffic with the West Indies was largely the cause of the rapid growth of the borough. The West Indian trade made brisk times for the coopers and millers, and led to the construction of the Berkshire, dams and mills, the latter using tidewater 73 as power.

During the British blockade of New London in the War of the Revolution scarcely a ship left the Pequonnock River, for fear of seizure. % Bridgeport's first store was opened on the Pequonnock River about 1730, at Berkshire, the head of navigation. See 69, p. 6. A dearth of flour in the community was caused, and it is re- lated that, in order to provide some means of obtaining a fresh supply, several of the townsmen escaped in the darkness and rowed all the way to New York. On-their return, they were fired upon but escaped injury and landed the flour safely. See #72, p. 9; also Danenberg, Elsie Nicholas, The Story of Bridgeport, (1936) pp. 38, 39. - 19 - • Travel by water between Bridgeport and New York b egan

In 1813. In November of that year William King, a Bridgeport merchant, advertised in t he local newspaper that the sloop

"Victress will sail from the store and wharf of the subscriber" for New York each alternate week during the Winter season, and

"after that time will make her weekly trips as usual; every

attention pAid to passengers and freight." He offered for sale

"groceries, bar-Iron, iron hoop, and nail rods," and wanted to

purchase "rye, old and new, corn and flaxseed." The only other

packet that sailed between Bridgeport and New York at the time

appears to have b een the sloop MINERVA, which sailed every

Saturday morning• Passenger communication between the two

cities was also maintained by stage coach, but this mode of 75 travel was to expensive except for the wealthy.

CONNECTICUT RIVER TOWNS

Wethersfleld and Rocky Hill i

It is quite certain that a Mr. John Oldham was the first

owner and maste7r6 of any sailing vessel at Wethersfleld, If not ih the Colony.

In 1648 Thomas Deming of Wethersfield, a "ship carpen-

ter" , established the first shipyard in the town, and perhap7s7 in the Colony, which w as maintained until the early 1800's.

Pipestaves seem to have been the principal article of

export during that period. As early as 1641 the law provided

for their dimensions and for an Inspection of them in each town.

Wethersf ield was authorized to export 30,000 per annum acid

Hartford and Windsor 20,000 each. The staves were shipped in

- 20- bundles, or "shooksto Barbados and the West Indies, from which places many of them returned in the shape of pipes and hogsheads, filled with molasses, sugar, or rum; thousands of them were made into casks her© which were filled with salt beef, pork and fish, kiln-dried corn meal, etc*, and exported principally to the West Indies, Timber and lumber also formed a very large Item of export in the earlier Colonial commeroe, while West Indian salt figured heavily i,n the imports • Ship- ments of horses to the West Indies began very soon after 1700: 78 this trade was continued for more than a hundred years.

In 1672 the town, about to divide up the land on the east side of Rocky Hill (Stepney), reserved five acres for a

"landing place," on which there was a shipyard for many years.

As the river bed moved more and more to the east*79 , the bulk of Wethersfield1s shipping was done from Stepney.

In the eighteenth century vessels were plying between

Rocky Hill and the South American ports of Surinam and Pernam- buco, making stops also at West Indian ports.** Cattle, swine, brick, shingles, and grain were exported; in one cargo alone was a shipment of 1,700 pounds of "bread" (ship-bread)80 , probably baked in the bakery then existing at Rocky Hill,

•Illustrative of the difficulties of the old-time sailing vessel navigation, thirteen days were necessary for the PAIR TRADER,%n 1768, to get from Saybrook Bar•to Rocky Hill, due, in considerable measure, to intervening sandbars, In 1772 a representative each from Hartford, Wethersfield, Glastonbury, Mlddletown, and Saybrook, were directed to place buoys and water marks on all bars and shoals at an estimated cost of i337, they to reimburse themselves by a lottery or series of lotteries.

*#For a brief description of the operation of Colonial laws on the maritime commerce of the day, see p. 538, #28.

21 A trade was also springing up with Ireland, to which country flaxseed was carried; to Gibraltar and Bombay, flour, lumber, "stores for milling," and mules were exported; to Lisbon and Balboa, fish were shipped? lumber and potatoes to England; 81 molasses, sugar,and onions to New York City.

Here, too, the War of the Revolution and the Embargo 82 caused a most serious interruption to commerce.

Glastonbury and Portland

A Glastonbury diary dated October 30, 1794, noted:

"Went to launching of a ship of 500 tons; not less than 3,000 83 persons were present."

The first vessel built in Portland, a schooner of 90 tons, was launched in 1741 from the Gildersleeve shipyard.

During the Revolution several ships-of-war were built here, among them the TRUMBULL, of 700 tons, 36 guns; and the BOURBON,

900 tons, and 40 guns. The frigate CONNECTICUT WAS built by

Philip Gildersleeve in 1798; she was a vessel of 514 tons and

20 guns. In Churchill's shipyard 12,500 tons of shipping were 84 built between 1806 and 1816.

Middletown

In the Winter of 1669-70 a shipbuilder was allowed to build vessels here, and shipbuilding was carried on more or 85 less for about a century and a half.

In 1776 Middletown became a lawful port of entry on the Connecticut River under Colonial law -- Saybrook, as such a 86 port, having been abolished in the meantime* Foreign trade

- 22- • was principally with the West Indies and coastwise trade was 1 87 carried on with Hew York and the Southern States.

In 1811 there belonged to Middletown 7 ships, 21 brigs, and'4 schooners employed in foreign trade, and one schooner and 88 6 sloops employed in coastwise trade, amounting to 6,000 tons.

Navigation was much reduced by the Revolutionary War,

and, at the close of 1815, only 3,537 tons of shipping belonged 89 to the town.

Shipbuilding commenced In Chester in 1775 near the mouth of the cove, where the ADRIATIC was the first ship built.

The JAME BLOSSOM was built about the year 1822 by Samuel Colt 90 and others, and was lost on her first voyage to Mobile.

At that time there was a considerable amount of shipping

owned here, much of it engaged in the West Indian trade. 9Th1e number gradually decreased until but one remained In 1884.

The nearest approach to steam navigation on the Con-

necticut previous to the eighteenth century was a boat built by

John Silliman of this town. It was in t he form of a scow, with

paddle wheels propelled by horse power. He carried grain and

other materials on the river and, at one time, it is said, he

carried the mayor and aldermen of Hartford on an excursion trip.

No steamboat is known to hav9e2 been operated on the river prior to 1819, except the PULTON, which plied for a short time,

and which will be described at a later point.

- 23 - • Haddam

Shipbuilding began here in the early 1700'3 though no considerable progress was made for several years. In 1815 four brigs, aggregating 745 tons, and one schooner of 110 tons 93 were launched from Haddam yards•

A small number of vessels were usually employed in the coastwise trade, and sometimes9 4 two or three were employed in trading with the West Indies.

Saybrook

Shipbuilding commenced at Saybrook Point about 1720, but was not carried on extensively for many years. In 1775 the ship OLIVER CROMWELL of 24 guns was built and launched here. For ten or fifteen years before the war with England, from 1,200 to 2,000 tons of shipping were launched annually from the Point and yards in the neighborhood. In 1740 shipbuilding began at Westbrook, where it was hoped 1,000 tons of 95 shipping would be built annually.

In 1702, Saybrook, under a Colonial law, was made a port of entry for the Connecticut River, and was allowed a naval officer. Vessels properly cleared from Saybrook were liable to seizure in foreign ports because they could not produce clearance papers signed by Her Majesty's collector at

New London, then the only port In-Connecticut established by 96 English authority.

24 Mystic

The first Mystic shipbuilders were Messrs. Greenman &

Company, who commenced operations in 1827, in a small way, at

"head'of Mystic'.' This firm began with smacks and schooners,

then built brigs, barques, and clippers for the Southern and 97 California trade --125 vessels in all.

The most important of early Mystic shipbuilders was

the firm of Charles Mallory & Company, 9whic8 h began operations in 1840, and built in all 620 vessels.

The type of vessel that gave distinction to Mystic was

that known as the "half9 9 clipper." This craft was intended for the California trade.

In 1866 the Mallory steamer LOYALIST started to make weekly trips from Mystic to New York. The traffic was not

sufficient to support a steamer100 , however, and after two seasons the line was discontinued.

Stonington

The license granted by the General Court of Connecticut

to Thomas Stanton in 1650 for the exclusive trade of t he Paw-

catuck River for three years, laid the foundation of the commer-

cial relations of this town with the West Indies, with which a

successful trade was conducted, principally with Barbados. Mari-

time commerce was also carried on to a considerable extent with 101 Boston and the Plymouth Colony.

Before the Revolution, and when the West Indian trade

was so profitable, vessels of all sorts and descriptions from

fifteen tons and upward were built here, and pressed into the

- 25 - business. Some of them were framed and set up in the woods*, and then taken down, carried to some suitable place on 'the shorfc, 102 completed, and launched.

Derby

The first shipbuilding in Derby was conducted at the cove on the east side of the Housatonlc River, The little vessels built here were called the Boston Coasters, and employed in carrying on trade with Boston, the Southern planta- 103 tions, and the West Indies• They were of not more than 60 or 80 tons burden, but went back and forth between Derby and the 104 West Indies with little danger. They carried cattle, horses, staves, casks, and farm produce on their outbound voyages, and returned with the commodities of the islands, much of the imports having been rum. Greater numbers of vessels sailed from

Derby in the early 1800's than sailed from the port of New Haven, the former town having been nearer the base of export 105 supplies,

Packets, sloops, and schooners were built on the

Naugatuck River, and, about 1810, several vessels were built 106 for the Derby Pishing Company, which engaged in whaling.

When the first steamboat was placed in operation in

1324, the vessels built in Derby and then in service strongly opposed the new method of transportation. The first steamboat * The "Royal Limb," a famous canoe, was made from the limb of a tree so large that a barrel of molasses could easily be rolled on the inside from one end to the other. The butt of the tree from which the limb wqs taken was forty-eight feet in circumfer- ence . Cf, 88, p. 675.

26 - to ply between Derby and New York was the LAFAYETTE, a small boat with an uncouth appearance. Unable to withstand the ^ opposition of the three Derby packets, at that time also operating between the two places, she was sold to parties in Bridge- port and operated between there and New York. A new steamboat was then built, called the OUSATONIC. Although better adapted for the service between Derby and New York, she remained on the line but two seasons, and steamboating on the Housatonlc 107 was abandoned until 1836•

Talmadge Beardsley was credited with building the first center-board vessel on the Housatonlc — a very fast sailing vessel known as t he COMMODORE HULL. He 10late8 r assisted Robert Fulton in building the first steamboat.

MlIford

Ships were built at MlIford as early as 1690. Nearly every trader built his own vessels, and several yards were maintained at the village. It is said that, during the period

1790-1820, MiIford enjoyed its greatest commercial activity when there were a number of schooners and sloops in operation, some of them having been used in the Boston and coastwise trade, while others were used in the.West Indian trade, carrying thither horses, cattle, cornmeal, and timber. On their return voyages, 109 these vessels were laden with rum and molasses.

QuiIford

In 1703 Guilford was designated by the General Assembly as one of the eight ports of entry in the Colony,* and in the * The others were New London, Saybrook, New Haven, Milford, Strat- ford, Fairfield, and Stamford, COLONIAL RECORDS OF CONNECTICUT, 1689-1706, v. 4, p.374,

- 27- latter 1700's was made tributary to New Haven harbor. Sachem's

•Head harbor, two miles west, was much used as a night station for vessels In the coastwise trade before the period of lighthouses,

Prior to 1773 this harbor was also used by vessels In trading with the West Indies• Many cargoes of cattle and other stock were shipped from the harbor, and lumber, to some extent, was 110 also an item of export.

Norwalk, Stamford and Greenwich

The sailing of a weekly packet or stage boat was estab-

lished between Mianus and New York as early as 1696; between

Cos Cob and New York in 1710} and between Rocky Neck*(Greenwich) 111 and New York in 1725. The center of all business, however, was at Mianus where passengers from the packet boats could take

stages for the North and East112 . Prom the docks at Mianus most of the shipping was done•

Although these boats were fitted up to c arry passengers,

and many people availed themselves of this mode of travel to and from the city of New York, their principal purpose was to 'carry produce from Greenwich to the city, and at one time there were

two boats running from Mianus, three from Cos Cob, and two from

Rocky Nock. In the early days potatoes were the staple crop:

during the potato season as many as twenty-eight thousand busheii

of this product have been shipped from Greenwich to New York in

one week.** Later on, shipments of poultry by these market

* A corporation known as the Rocky Neck Company was formed here at the time, the purpose of which was to acquire the land and build a storehouse, or storehouses, and a wharf in order thsfc passengers and freight to Stamford, New York, and other points could be transported. See Hubbard, P^A,, OtherVDays in -Greenwich. (1913), pp. 257-260. ** The potato crop in Greenwich frequently controlled the price in the New York market. Cf. #111.

- 28 - • boats, near Thanksgiving and Christmas, were as high as four thousand pounds in one week; two hundred and ten tons of hay- have been shipped in a week, and fifteen hundred pounds of 113 butter *

Just when the first steamboat commenced stopping at

Greenwich is not definitely known, but as near as can be ascertained there was a boat running from there to New York a few years after the PULTON, with thirty passengers aboard, arrived at New Haven from New York in 1815. Among the boats subsequently to ply between New York and Greenwloh, Stamford, and Norwalk were the NUMROD, OLIVER WOLCOTT, FAIRFIELD, CRICKET,

JOHN MARSHALL, NORWALK, STAMFORD, AND CATALINE.

29 Chapter II

RISE AND DECLINE OF TRANSPORTATION BY WATER 1815-1957

The Fulton It was a fortunate time in which to introduce

the steamboat when the FULTON Arrived at New

Haven, because the country was beginning then to understand its need of transportation and also to value the part transportation

played in its social and commercial development. Towns and cities which previously had prided themselves upon their individual self-

sustaining ability, found their existence becoming more and more

dependent upon the needs of other towns and cities• The commer-

cial age had arrived, and its arrival spelled partial doom to

the strong provincial attitude which had existed in New England 115 from the beginning of its settlement.

Fulton's The FULTON plied for a time between New Haven Monopoly and New London. Another steamer, the CONNECTICUT, controlled by Fulton, had been placed in service between New York and New Haven. In 1822 Fulton was enforcing a patent (it actually amounted to a monopoly) rtilch he had procured from the New' York

Legislature. This patent prevented steam vessels not licensed by his firm from traversing New York waters and permitted Fulton

to seize any steamboat operated by others without such license,

and to collect a penalty for every trip so made. As the above

steamboats ran in opposition to the sail packet lines, the packet

owners induced the Connecticut Legislature to enact a retaliatory measure prohibiting any vessel bearing the Fulton license from

entering any of the waters within the State. By June, 1822,

steam communication between New York and New Haven had ceased, - 30 - • A bitter legal fight involving the question of the control of the navigable waters of the United States was the r esult. In

March, 1824, the United States Supreme Court, reversing the

Court of Errors of New York and declaring the act of the New

York Legislature unconstitutional, held, in Gibbons vs• Ogden, that Congress in being given the power to regulate commerce, was given the power to regulate navigation. Thus the death-knell of 116 the Pulton-Livingston monopoly was rung.

Consequently, capital which had been timid in investing

in steamboat enterprises was available, and the rivers and Sound became crowded with steamboats which11 7supplie d transportation services the country sorely needed.

New Haven Steam- The New Haven Steamboat Company was organized boat Company in 1822 and Its vessel, the UNITED STATES,

made three weekly trips between New Haven and

New York. This service continued until 1825, when the HUDSON was added and daily passenger and freight service was inaugurated which continued for nearly a century, the SUPERIOR took the place of the UNITED STATES In 1830 and the HUDSON was succeeded ' by the SPLENDID in 1832. The NEWHAVEN replaced the SUPERIOR in

1835, and the NEWYORK replaced th11e 8 SPLENDID in 1836, the latter then being used as a spare boat.

Boats operated When the NEWYORK burned in 1839 the New Haven on the line Steamboat's property was sold to Commodore

Vanderbilt and the Connecticut Steamboat Company of Hartford. In

1843 the KOSCIUSKO, commonly known as "cask-o-whlskey", was added

to the line and succeeded by the NEW CHAMPION in 1846. The

TRAVELLER, built in 1845 for Commodore Vanderbilt, carried the

mails until the railroad was laid to New York in 1848. Commodore -31 '- Vanderbilt's interest in this boat was purchased by Chester W.

Chapin and Colonel C. H. Northam in 1850, and the TRAVELLER, which had run as a day boat out of New Haven, discontinued this service to force passengers to patronize the new railroad, which agreed to pay $20,000 annually for a term of five years. The

TRAVELLER then ran as a night liner and NEW CHAMPION served Hart- 119 ford and New Haven.

The New Haven Steamboat Company then became the Hartford,

New Haven and New York Steamboat Company and bought the GRANITE

STATE in 1853, which burned In 1883. After the ORMtSHS burning, and because of the Chapin interest in the Valley Rail- 120 road, the Connecticut River part of the route was abandoned.

In 1866 the NORTHAMPTON and the NEW HAVEN, with opposition propellers and of 450 tons burden, were built and placed in service between New Haven and New York. In the former city they departed from Canal Dook, in the 20-acre basin of the Farmington-

Northampton canal, and operated in connection with the New Haven and Northampton Railroad until 1879. Four other boats were added between 1866 and 1884: 12th1 e CONTINENTAL, ELM CITY, C.H. NORTHAM, and ELEANOR F. PECK.

The Starin- -The Starin New Haven Line was inaugurated New Haven Line in the early '70*s, having been at first a towing line. The freighters JOHN H. STARIN and ERASTUS CORNING were added in 1873 and began regular service in connection with the New Haven and Derby Railroad.• Two other ships later were added to the service. In 1924 the YALE, a new freighter, was 122 added, making daily round-trips between New York and New Haven.

Under the control and supervision of Chester W. Chfpln,

- 32 - • Jr., a banker of Springfield, Massachusetts, the New Haven Steam- boat line continued to prosper and to develop, A new line, known as the Narragansett Bay Line, was opened in 1899 and operated boats from Providence as well as New Haven in direct competition with the raiIroads• Competition grew Intense and In 1900 the

New Haven road interests took over the New Haven-Narragansett 123 Bay Line, and the Providence service was abandoned.

Inasmuch as the Connecticut River above Middletown did not lend itself to easy navigation because of troublesome bars and a shifting channel, Jeremiah Wadsworth, supported by fifty- seven prominent citizens of Hartford, petitioned the Assembly in 1788 requesting permission to dredge a channel ten feet deep, and proposing to defray the cost by imposition of tolls. The request was denied, since the Assembly was jealous of monopolies but later granted encouragemeni t to the Union Company, Six years after its incorporation (1806) the Union Company had so pro- gressed in deepening the channel, dredging the bars, removing obstructions, and erecting piers as to permit it to impose tolls,

The toll system met with considerable opposition, yet the Union

Company continued for the full period of Its sixty years' charter, its last annual meeting having' been held on May 28, 1864, when its affairs were wpund up. By 1835 the company had spent $45,000 in improvement of the river channel; the steamboat company had spent $34,000,- while the city of Hartford had contributed $12,000,

As large subscriptions of capital were difficult to obtain for public works, resort was had to lottery. Hence, in 1790 the

"River Bank Lottery" was authorized to raise money for "supporting the Bank of the River, adjoining the Public Road through the Long

Meadow of Middletown." The first wharves in Hartford were also 124 built with money raised through lottery, - 33 - • Connecticut Steam- John L® Sullivan, a Boston engineer, conceived boat Company in- augurates steam a plan of steam towboats for which he secured towboats patents. Early in 1817 he offered to sell his plan to a company to be formed for operating "Steam-Tow-Passage-

Boats" on the river below Hartford and, after he had.locked En- field Palls, for navigating the river above. Sullivan's proposi- tion was accepted and the Connecticut Steamboat Company was incorporated in October, 1818. The Connecticut Courant, Nov. 10,

1818, said, "Last week was launched from the shipyard in Hart- ford, the first steam boat ever built on the Connecticut River.

It is designed for a towboat, to ply between this city and the mouth of the river." The company met financial difficulties an12d5 the boat, known ast he EXPERIMENT, did not meet expectations.

Service between In May 1823 the Connecticut River Steamboat Hartford and the New Jersey Company received its charter to operate shore between-the Hartford and New Jersey shore, near New York. The company's first steamboat, the OLIVER

ELLSWORTH, named for a Chief Justice of the United States and a resident of Windsor, was launched February 4, 1824, and made her first trip to Hartford May 6, 1824, with sixty passengers and a large freight. When the Fulton monopoly broke down and the OLIVER

ELLSWORTH began to s all directly to New York, opposition sprango up. The Hartford Steamboat Company was organized in 1824, beginning operations with the MODONOUOH in 1826, and the Steam

Navigation Company was organized in 1825. Passag126 e to New York was $4.50, and both lines did a fine business.

Transportation In 1824, due to an attempt to divert the above Hartford Improved by trade of the upper Connecticut River to the building of En- field Canal Farmington Canal and the Hampshire and Hamden

- 34 - • Canal, an "Association for improving the navigation of the Con- necticut River above Hartford" was formed. The BARNET, a small

steamboat, was launched by the Connecticut River Company in 1826

to navigate the upper river. On its initial trip to Springfield

it met with considerable difficulty in steaming over Enfield Palls,

as the Enfield Canal had not been built. Prom Springfield the

BARNET continued on Its journey to Northampton and Bellows Palls,

The return trip to Hartford took five days. The experiment en-

couraged the Connecticut River Company to hasten construction of

the Enfield Canal, which was begun in 1827 and completed two years

later. Two new steamboats were added to the line, the BLANCHARD

and VERMONT. The fare, Hartford to Springfield, was $1.00, and

daily trips were made by the VERMONT, BARNET and MASSACHUSETTS, 127 the latter a new boat.

Competition arises By 1832 Hartford newspapers were advertising in service between Hartford and New the departure of four steamboats to New York, York and the announcements exhibited bitter compe-

tition. In 1834, Commodore Cornelius Vanderbilt placed the WATER

WITCH on the Connecticut River to serve Hartford and New York

travelers at night, and added the NEW ENGLAND to maintain a day

schedule, the trip between the two cities then consuming thirteen

hours. Both boats' were represented by the same set of shore

agents J this arrangement, however, did not last for long. Soon

the LEXINGTON was added by Vanderbilt and t he fare was dropped to

$2.00, which the old line met. The NEW ENGLAND'S boilers exploded

on the evening of October 9, 1833, when she was off Essex, and

eleven passengers were killed and fourteen injured. The BUNKER

HILL was subsequently added to the line to compete with the

LEXINGTON, Pares were cut to $1.00 for through passage to New

- 35 - • York and fifty cents to Saybrook, In May 28, 1837, Commodore Vanderbilt brought another of his boats, the CLEOPATRA, to the river• The fare to New York continued at $1,00 except on the days when the competitive BUNKER HILL was on the other end of the run, then the Vanderbilt boats, not meeting opposition^ charged $2*00. The competition between the BUNKER HILL and CLEOPATRA continued until 1838 when peace was declared and both 128 sets of agents served the one line. At that time Chapin and Sargent operated the stage routes between Springfield and Hartford} and Pink and Chapin ran the stern-wheeled steamers MASSACHUSETTS and SPRINGFIELD, later adding the JAMES DWIGHT, which was built by Charles Stearns at the foot of State Street, Springfield, The AGAWAM, PHOENIX and FRANKLIN, built for passenger trade, were withdrawn in 1844 upon the open- ing of the railroad. It is probable that Charles Dickens rode on the MASSACHUSETTS when he made his trip to Hartford in 1842129, a description of which may be found in his "American Notes"• In 1842 the MASSACHUSETTS burned at her wharf in Hartford 130 after a career of 12 years• Transportation The inevitable shadow of railroad competition Interest turns to new rail- was arising in 1839 when the railroad connect- road , ing Hartford and New Haven was completed* Conneotion was made with the New Haven boats for New York, Popular interest turned to the new railroad, and there was little excite- ment on the Connecticut River during the following two years* The SPLENDID operated on the river in 1841 and 1842, About the same time the New Haven Line was purchased by Commodore Vanderbilt

and the Connecticut Steamboat Company, the latter then13 1largel y owned by Chester W« Chapin and Colonel C* H, Northam*

36 River trans- Despite the invasion of the railroad, the portation continues to he Connecticut River was busy in 1846, when there heavy were 2078 arrivals and departures of vessels at Hartford, including 652 steamboats. Their total freight was 175,430 tons. Ten Boston packets, two Providence traders, two packets connecting New London and Norwich, and three steam-propeller lines to New York, Albany, and Philadelphia made the port busy. 132 • In 1852, the CITY OP HARTFORD made its appearance on the river. It was owned by the Hartford and New York Steamboat Company, which had been organized in 1841 to succeed the Connecticut River

Steamboat Company. It was an elaborate, well furnished boat and popular among travelers. The GRANITE STATE, operated by the Hart- ford, New Haven and New York Steamboat Company, another popula133 r boat, competed with the CITY OF HARTFORD for many years.

In the early ^O's eight independently owned tugs operated on the river with M. R. Brazos, of New York, as agent. This was highly competitive and. uneconomical and Charles C. Goodrich, who had been employed by Brazos, organized the Hartford and New York

Transportation Company in 1877. Its capital was $112,000, of which $77,000 was paid out fo13r4 five tugs. The company secured a monopoly of river towing.

Freight trans- Up-river freight boats ran between Hartford portation above Hartford and Old Hadley and a steam tug and five boats called at Warehouse Point and Windsor Locks, and one boat ran to

Winds or. In later years J. Cooley and Company, with six boats and one steamer, and Parker Douglass and Company, with five flatboats and a towing steamer, controlled this traffic. The railroad continued to oat into earnings, but in 1851 an attempt was made

37 to revive the dwindling business when the Steamboating Company of

Hartford was organized,, Fearing flatboats running between Hart- ford and Springfield would hurt the railroad, the railroad managers determined to eliminate water competition. The Steamboating Company made a deal with the railroad in 1851 and retired. A movement was started in 1871 to revive up-river steamboating and government aid was obtained to build wing dams between Hartford and Warehouse

Point. The channel was deepened but steamboats did not come back 135 to the route.

Largest steam- In 1866 the Hartford and New York Steamboat boat ever to operate on the Company placed the STATE OF NEW YORK on the Connecticut river. It was the largest, handsomest and most costly steamboat to run on the river. It had 152 staterooms and

366 berths; 800 passengers could be carried; it cost $200,000.

A special effort was made to develop passenger traffic. As a result encouragement was given to build a summer musical seminary to accommodate 100 pupils at Upper Landing, East Haddam, under the supervision of Professor Dwight S. Babcock. Hotels were built to accommodate summer visitors. The Steamboat Hotel erected in

1785 at Upper Landing, East Haddam, was enlarged and named Champion

House. Other hotels which benefited from the summer increase in passenger traffic were the Griswold, Union, and Pettipaug at

Essex; Gelston House at Goodspeed's; Bacon House at Lyme; Pease

House at Saybrook Point; Fenwick Hall, Saybrook; and the Mansion

House and Chaffee's at Middletown136 . New Yorkers also occupied summer homes along the river.

The STATE OF NEW YORK was involved in several accidents entailing much damage and expense, the consequence of which was the passing of the Hartford and New York Steamboat Company into

- 38 - • receiver's hands shortly after the year 1882, The company's property was sold at U. S« Marshal's sale at New London, and the

STATE OP NEW YORK was purchased by the Hartford and Connecticut 137 Valley Railroad Company for $50,000*

The difficulties of river navigation at low water caused the managers of the Hartford, New Haven and New York Steamboat

Company to quit the Connecticut River and henceforth it operated as the New Haven Line. The Valley Railroad abandoned its plans to operate connecting steamboats and aided the Hartford and New York Transportation Company to purchase its boats on favorable 138 terms•

N.Y. N.H. & H. By 1895 most of the Long Island Sound steamboat R. R.operated water transporta-lines competing with the New York, New Haven and tion between Hartford and Hartford Railroad Company were gathered into that New York system. The New Haven road was determined to own a Hartford line of steamboats and offered $250,000 for the Hatch and North Coal Company's dock at Hartford, the one piece of dock property at Hartford which the Hartford Line did not control* This dock was purchased by the Hartford and New York Transportation

Company at the foregoing figure. The railroad next offered to purchase the Hartford Line and succeeded to ownership on the basis of exchange of stock, Hartford and New York Transportation Company shares being taken in at $80 (par value $25) against New Haven 139 railroad shares at $200.

In the sense that it was never a part of the New Haven

Railroad's marine district and was not later taken into the New

England Navigation Company or the New England Steamship Company, but was allowed to go its separate way, the Hartford Line has had control of its own affairs to a greater extent than any of the » 39 - marine properties that were absorbed earlier. It was also per- 140 mitted to continue its management•

The Hartford and New York Transportation Company became the operator of the Maine Steamship Company, Portland route, which the New Haven had taken over, making a successful showing, and it organized a fast freight line, New York to Boston, for which BUNKER HILL, MASSACHUSETTS and OLD COLONY were built. Later

It took over the operation of the Joy Line to Providence, New

Haven and Bridgeport, and it now operate141 s these services as the Bay State Line and Merchant's Line.

Bridgeport's Bridgeport became an important transportation water-rail connection gateway with the building of the Housatonlc important and Naugatuck railroads, and steamboats connected with the new rail lines• New York shippers loaded goods

aboard Bridgeport steamboats for transfer to cars via Pittsfield

and Albany for the west. A contract for steamboat connection

to New York was ratified at a meeting of the Housatonlc Railroad's

directors held February 21, 1842, and the railroad reported to

the Connecticut General Assembly in 1843 that it had "... made

arrangements with other railroads so as to form uninterrupted

connection between tidewater at Bridgeport and Hudson, Albany and

Boston." The first purchase of wharf property in Bridgeport by

the Housatonlc Railroad Company was made April 30, 1846. The

railroad's contract for steamboat operation continued to November

14, 1850, when a contract was made with the New York and New

Haven Railroad Company covering interchange of New York business,

which continued until January 1, 1860, the arrangement with the

railroad then being cancelled and a new agreement made with the

- 40 - • steamboat company to carry aJX of the New York freight. The

Connecticut Legislature authorized the Housatonlc Railroad

Company June 17, 1864, to subscribe to the capital stock of such Joint stock corporations "as hereafter may be organized under the laws of this state for the transportation of freight and passengers between Bridgeport and New York on v essels propelled by steam." The Housatonlc Railroad Company subscribed for $26,000 in stock of the Housatonlc Transportation Company's

$30,000 capital. The railroad loanedft*? 1,00 0 to the transportation company to purchase "the propeller, CAPTAIN A. H. BOWMAN and the side-wheeler, STAMFORD, and for repairing Pier 35, East 142 River, New York."

The Housatonlc Transportation Company met with severe losses owing to the sinking of the CAPTAIN A. H. BOWMAN, and to s trong competition up to November 23, 1865. The investment of the Housatonl143c Railroad in the steamboat company had grown to $186,000.

Bridgeport The Bridgeport Steamboat Company w as organized Steamboat Company December 8, 1865, with $250,000 capital, the organized. Housatonlc Railroad subscribing $100,000. This company took over the Housatonlc Transportation Company property, the latter company winding up its affairs March 15, 1866, and assuming the Transportation Company's indebtedness to the Housa- tonlc Railroad. An operating cohtract was entered into by the

Houaatonic Railroad Company and the Bridgeport Steamboat Company,

Jsiuary 10, 1866. The BRIDGEPORT and CITY OF RICHMOND were purchased in 1866 and in 1867 J. B. SCHUYLE144 R was built and operated until it was succeeded by the LAURA.

- 41 - • The Hangatuck Railroad Company loaned the Bridgeport

Steamboat Company |75#000 in 1866, taking a mortgage covering

the BRIDGEPORT, STAMFORD and JAMES B. SCHUYLER. Both the Housa-

tonlc and Naugatuck railroads made further Investments in the 145 steamboat company in 1869®

Daily trips to New York were made by th6 ROSEDALE, owned by Alexander M.C. Smith, the one-way fare being 65^ and $1.00 for the round-trip. The Bridgeport Steamboat Company met this competition with the LAURA, which began to operate in the day- time, but the boat being slow, fares were cut to 25 cents for one way and to 40 cents for the round-trip. The newcomers countered with a 75-cent round-trip fare, 50 cents for the one- way fare, and a 50-oent round trip ticket Tuesdays and Fridays, and one those days the LAURA carried passengers for 25 cents a 146 round-trip.

In 1866 Alexander M.C. Smith sold his steamboat interest to the People's Steamboat Company. One of the stockholders in this compaiy was P. T, Barnum, who owned valuable wharf property in Bridgeport, which property became the People's Line Terminal•

The fight between the Bridgeport Line, and the People's Line continued to be bitter. When competition was keenest a conference was called between the rival companies. A gentlemen's agreement for a fair division of business, on the basis of the volume of business then being done, was entered upon and steamboats of the two lines carried 1,000 passengers daily. The Bridgeport Steam- boat Company prospered, and purchased the stock of the feople's

Steamboat Company and one-half of P. T. Barnum's holdings until it oontrdlled the opposition company® When the People's Steamboat

Company directors sought to lease the property to others, the - 42 - • new owners obtained a restraining order and managed the two lines in 1890. The first action brought under the Sherman anti- 147 trust law considered this merger.

In 1903 the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad purchased the Bridgeport Steamboat Company, when the latter!s capital was $300,000, with a bond issue of $100,000, the railroad paying cash and taking over Bridgeport dock property and the steamboats ALLAN JOY, WILLIAM G. PAYNE and ROSEDAIE . The steamboat line was taken into the marine district of the railroad.

The Bridgeport Steamboat Company was deeded to the New England

Navigation Company December 1, 1904, and conveyed to the New 148 England Steamship Company July 1, 1912.

Regular steamboat connection with Norwich was established in the spring of 1817, when the FULTON and the CONNECTICUT formed the line, with New London and New Haven as ports of call. The packet sloops began to lose patronage and importance, for while the big sloops were fast in fortunate wind, weather, and tides, there were days of uncertainty and a passenger for New York ran the risk of being a week on a voyage. The new line began with 149 three weekly trips.

The Fulton-Livingston monopoly was strongly opposed and the Fulton boats were forced out of Connecticut ports® In 1824, when the monopoly had been knocked out, the FTJLTON and 15th0e CON- NECTICUT called at New London, en route to Providence.

The steamer LONG BRANCH connected Norwich and New York in 1821 and in 1822 the HENRY ECKFORD came to the route. The

NEW LONDON and the FANNY served in 1824 and the EXPERltENT in

1825. Later the GENERAL JACKSON ran between Norwich and New

London and New York, continuing this service until 1835.

- 43 - • CHARTER OAK, from the Hartford line came 6n in 1841 and the

CLEOPATRA from the Connecticut River in 1842; the NEWHAVEN 151 was added in 1843. A daily seirvice between New London and

New York was continued until November 15, 1934, when lack of satisfactory revenue forced its abandonment• The claim was made at the time that, during the ninety-four years of operation, not one fatal accident to a passenger had occurred.

Transporta- One of the most notable pf early steamboats tion between Norwich and was the NORWICH, built for the New York and New York • Norwich Steamboat Company in 1836• Norwich 152 ran on the Thames route for fifteen years•

The Connecticut River liners to New York undertook to divide the Norwich and New London business, running the CLIFTON in connection in 1837, and they also solicited Norwich business by stages from Ely's Ferry on the Connecticut River• As a retaliatory measure the Norwich £Ine stopped its boats at Saybroo153 k and ran the THORN on the Connecticut River in connection.

The steamboats of the Norwich Line in 1846 were

WORCESTER, CLEOPATRA, KNICKERBOCKER AND MOHEGAN. CLEOPATRA was a Vanderbilt boat from the Connecticut, 15an4 d KNICKERBOCKER a Daniel Drew boat from the Hudson river.

The Norwich and New London Steamboat Company was organized in 1848 with $200,000 capital. The line ran in connection with the Norwich and Worcester Railroad, the termi&UBr being Allyn's point. The company operated the WORCESTER In 1850, the COMMONWEALTH In 1855, and also the propellers CHARLES OSGOOD,

SHETUCKET, DECATUR and QUINEBAUG. In 1860 the company disconti15-5 nued operations, sold its equipment, and wound up its affairs.

<® 4 4 - In the latter year the Norwich and New York Transporta- tion Company was organized with $350,000 capital. The company ' was formed to supply a connection for the Norwich and Worcester

Railroad, the steamboat company being promoted by Augustus Brewer, who was president of the railroad, and who managed the steamboat line until 1866, when he retired. Service was begun with the

COMMODORE C. VANDERBILT, and CONNECTICUT fast boats from other routes. Later the CITY OF BOSTON and CITY OF NORWICH were added to these lines. In addition to the passenger and freight liners, many freighters operated successfully on the Thames as 156 well as excursion fleets.

Steamers Hart- In the late 1880's the Hartford and New ford and Middle- town appear on York Transportation Company reorganized the Connecticut its finances and planned a new boat to

ope rate between Hartford and New York. An order was placed with

a Philadelphia shipbuilding concern, and in 1892 the HARTFORD, with twin-screw propellers came to the river* HARTFORD with

large freight capacity and sixty-five staterooms, was success-

ful, and the company placed an order with the same builders

for a 15secon7 d boat MIDDLETOWN, which was delivered on April 28, 1895.

The two boats operated between Hartford and New York

until 1898 when the HARTFORD was sold to the U. S. Army for transport service in Cuban waters, and her name was changed to 158 GENERAL TERRY.

While the HARTFORD was in war service, CITY OF LAWRENCE

was again chartered and ran with the MIDDLETOWN. An order had

been placed with a Baltimore concern for a new HARTFORD, distin-

guished by two stacks, and of MIDDLETOWN'S dimensions .— 245 feet - 45- in length, 45»6 ft. heam, 14 ft. depth of hold, with triple expansion engines of 1,000 horsepower. The second HARTFORD 159 arrived for its first trip October 27, 1899.

Commercial HARTFORD and MIDDLETOWN continued to make nightly Transporta- tion on the trips between Hartford and New Yorkfbr over a Connecticut comes to a quarter-century, but the service was abandoned in close the early 1930's since which time the only travel on the river has been the summer week-end trips of excursion steamers of light tonnage, which made round-trips between Hart- ford and Saybrook Point.

Sporadic attempts to operate day-line steamers on the

Connecticut have been made, as In 1900, when H. B. Hale of East-

Hartford, operated GUIDE, MADELEIN160 E and BOHEMIAN, boats which were not suited to the trade.

- 46 - Chapter III

• TURNPIKE AND CANAL COMPANIES OPPOSE THE RAILROADS 1832-1847

The development of railroads in Connecticut was decidedly conservative. The State's first two railroad charters were granted # by the General Assembly In 1832, to the New York and Stonington

Railroad, projected to run between Providence and Stonington; and to the Boston, Norwich,16 1an d New London Railroad, to run between Norwich and Worcester.

First railroad The "New York and Stonington" was the pioneer to touch Con- necticut soil railroad to be operated on Connecticut soil, although (since only about six miles of its route lay within the boundaries of the State) it cannot be called strictly a Connecticut railroad. The route was surveyed and located by Major George Washington Whistler (father of the famous artist), who had been assigned for the work by the United States Army; the road was opened between Providence and Stonington in November, 1837, connecting with the Boston and Providence Railroad through what is now Roger 162 Williams Park, by means of a ferry across the harbor at Providence.

As one of the chief interests among the pioneer railroad men of Connecticut lay in the through route between New York and

Boston, and in the elimination of the somewhat difficult open-ocean voyage around Point Judith, the New York and Stonington Railroad was projected to connect the already established Boston and Provi- dence Railroad with steamboats that operated on the sheltered waters of Long Island Sound from the excellent harbor of Stonington. Like- wise, the Boston, Norwich, and New London Railroad was designed to * PRIVATE LAWS OF CONNECTICUT, v. 2, 1789-1836, Title XXX111, pp. 1019-1025.

- 47 i connect the Boston and Worcester Railroad, as well as the thriving

Industrial communities along its route, with Long Island Sound, 163 through the Thames River estuary, at Norwich,

Citizens reluctant One of the factors behind the reluctance of Con- to accept the new type of trans- necticut citizens to accept this newest type portation of. transportation was the reasonably convenient transportation afforded by its navigable rivers during, perhaps, two-thirds of the year, especially after the introduction of the steamboat in the early part of the nineteenth century. At this time facilities on the Sound, the Thames, And the Connecticut 164 of River were doing their best to meet the transportation needs a population numbering 275,248 people. Only three centers, Hart-' ford, New Haven, and Middletown, could boast of having more than five thousand residents each. More than half the people lived In moderate sized towns of from two to three thousand population165, and a good many lived In even more thinly settled communities.

Parmington Canal In addition to its favorable water transporta- Company chartered tion, Connecticut had early developed, by means of private capital, an elaborate system of turnpikes, or toll roads, and toll bridges, chartered and built during the half century before 166 the Initial appearance of the railroads. Furthermore, in May, 1832, a company called the "President, Directors and Company of the Parmington Canal" was chartered by the Connecticut Legislature to construct and operate a canal from New Haven through Parmington to the Massachusetts boundary at Southwick, together with a branch up the Parmington Valley from Farmlngton through New Hartford to the Massachusetts boundary in Colebrook, aspiring to an eventual con- 's CP, #161, The author notes that Pulton's famous trip up the Hudson River in his steamboat, the CLERMONT, took place in 1807, The development of steamboat traffic was very rapid after that date. ** The census of 1820 gives the population of Connecticut as 275,248, ® 48 - 167 nectlon with the Erie Canal. It was thought this new canal would

adequately take care of all passenger and commercial transportation

for many years to come. Consequently, the development of a new

enterprise which would destroy its value was not enthusiastically

received.

Moreover, the development of the railroads was feared by

various other groups: farmers feared that their horses would lose

value; stage-drivers saw their stages in the scrap-heap; owners of

coasting vessels dreaded competition, and there was an uneasy feel-

ing prevailing that the revenue which was left at the toll-gates

of the turnpikes would fill the fat coffers of the railroad cor- 168 porations.

Railroad In fact the resentment against this new enter- regarded as a prise became so strong and bitter, that in 1832 monopoly a memorial signed by such prominent men as

Simeon Baldwin and Roger M. Sherman was presented to the General

• Assembly. The petitioners protested that the railroad would work

more harm than good, that a railroad was a monopoly, and that the

construction of a railrpad betwee16n 9 New Haven and Hartford would destroy four turnpike companies. Local jealousies also arose

to aid the cause of vested interests, especially when some citi-

zens of Hartford protested tha,t a railroad would divert all their

business to New Haven. Others feared that railways would cause the

growth of mammoth cities, and henc170 e destroy the idyllic society to be found in country districts. Law makers from the rural dis-

tricts were opposed to all legislation which favored 17th1 e extension of State aid to the promoters of the new enterprise.

On the other hand, the railroad advocates spoke in prophetic

vein of the great advantages to be achieved, namely, increased - 49 - i • i growth of every city and town in the State with accompanying pros- perity to every company engaged in transportation whether by land

or sea, a general expansion of wealth and income, and the employ- 172 ment of hundreds of ordinary laborers.

First railroad Due to the aforementioned opposition, the In- route opened troduction of railroads in Connecticut was some- 173 what later than in certain other parts of the country. Hence, in

December 1838, when Connecticut's first genuine railroad route,

running from New Haven to Meriden, was opened by the Hartford and

New Haven Railroad, there were already about two thousand miles of 174 railroads in service along the Atlantic seaboard. The trip over

the eighteen miles from New Haven to Meriden was made in fifty-

seven minutes, which achievement convinced the most pessimistic of 175 the advantageous possibilities offered by the new enterprise.

In 1836 the Boston, Norwich and New London Railroad (chartered in

Connecticut in 1832) was consolidated with the Norwich and Worcester

Railroad of Massachusetts under the name of the Norwich and

Worcester Railroad. Grants of $400,000 from Massachusetts and of

$200,000 from the town of Norwich permitted the company to proceed

with construction. This road, like the Stonington road, was

planned largely to handle through traffic as a link in the journey

between New York and Boston, connecting the Boston and Worcester

Railroad with Long' Island Sound. After numerous delays and diffi-

culties, the road was opened in March, 1840, between the joint

terminal at Worcester and Market Street, Norwich, where transfe176 r was made directly between cars and steamboats at the wharf.

- 50- Operation of After the Farmington River Canal Company had the canal a losing enter- been chartered in May, 1832, Massachusetts in prise the following year chartered the "Hampshire and

Hampden Canal Company" to continue the canal line from Southwick to the Connecticut River just above Northampton. By 1836 the two original companies were hopelessly in debt. Subscriptions to the stock were slow and many of the subscribers failed to pay as the installments came due, while unprecedented floods and droughts and malicious injuries caused heavy losses both during and after construction. The canal from the beginning had carried considerable trade, and had provided commercial benefit to New Haven and the other towns and cities along its route. As the only means of saving anything, a new organization, the "New Haven and Northampton

Company", was chartered that year in both Connecticut and Massa- chusetts to take over the assets and liabilities of the original companies. The old stock was surrendered by the stockholders and the debts were adjusted, with a loss to all concerned, of roundly 177 |1,039,000.

Realizing that the railroad was the coming means of transportation, an amendment to the latter company's charter permitting such a change was obtained, and in January, 1847, work was begun in

New Haven on a railroad which reached Plainvilie in January of the next year. While the section of the canal north of this point was kept open for some time longer, canal operation may be said to have ceased with the close of the season of 1847. It has been estimated that, giving due credit for the saving to the railroad by use of canal property, and for the land not so used in the city of New Haven, 178 the total loss chargeable against the canal project was $1,089,425.

51 - Company char- In 1824 the Connecticut River Company was chartered to build canal at tered to build a canal at Enfield Palls. The Enfield Palls charter contemplated not only a canal at Enfield

Palls, but the consolidation of the Improvements made at South Had-

ley, Massachusetts, and Bellows Palls, Vermont, and the improvement

of all the rapids and shoals to Barnet, Vermont, provided the States

of Vermont, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts acquiesced. The promoters of this enterprise were principally business men of Hartford, who were engaged in trade with the up-river towns. At that time

freight could be delivered at any of the river towns by water cheaper

than by land carriage, even from Boston. Thus when the up-river

merchants bought their goods in Boston, they were shipped via Hart- '

ford and Warehouse Point, where the goods were transferred to scows

or flatboats, and thus delivered at Springfield, Northampton, and

other towns above - Barnet, Vermont, being the most northerly point.

The capacity of the boats used was about 18 tons, of which only ten

of twelve tons could be carried over the falls, the excess of freight

having to be carted, around the falls by ox-teams and reshipped at

Thompsonville, more than 5 miles above. Except with a favoring

wind from the south, it required as many men to "pole" a boat over

Enfield Palls as there were 17ton9 s of freight on board, and the time required was about one day.

Canal At the time the canal was built there were completed probably sixty or more boats which had occasion

to ppss and repass these rapids several times in each season; and a

number of men residing in the neighborhood made it their business

to join the crews to help them work the boats over the falls. The

stated price for the service was one dollar. As Vermont was the

only State to join Connecticut in the aforementioned project, the

- 52 - • canal company confined its operations to the building of the Enfield

Palls Canal, on the west side of the river, at Windsor Locks. In

1320 the present locks and canal (about miles long) were completed and boats were allowed to pass after payment of tolls, the

charge authorized in the charter being 75 cents a ton of actual

lading passing up through the locks and canal and 17 cents a ton on

the tonnage of the boat. Down stream the charge was fifty and seventeen cents, respectively, this largely because during good i water boats would run the rapids, taking on river porters at Enfield,

thus avoiding paying toll, A daily line (and at times two lines) of passenger steamboats ran between Hartford and Springfield. Two 180 favorite boats on this line were the AGAWAM and PHOENIX. In the

140's the railroad appeared In the valley and the water navigation era had a setback, which, in this particular stretc181 h of the Con- necticut River, continues to exist to this day.

Five water-rail Thus by 1846 there were five important through through routes between New York routes available for transportation of passengers and Boston and freight between New York and Boston - all

combinations of rail and steamboat lines. The first route lay from

Boston through Providence and Stonington by rail, and connected at

Stonington with the steamers OREGON and KNICKERBOCKER. The second route from New York was over the Long Island Railroad to Greenport,

thence by the ferry steamboat NEW HAVEN to Allyn's Point and thence by rail through Worcester to Boston, The third route was by rail

on the New Haven to Springfield Line, connecting with steamboats on

Long Island Sound. The other two routes were by steamboat, one to

Providence and one to Pall River, at each of which there was rail 182 connection to Boston.

« 53 - Chapter IV

RAPID DEVELOPMENT OF THE RAILROADS

AFTER ADVERSE BEGINNINGS 1846-1956

Unfavorable Aa the railroad era began, various other conditions continue to factors in addition to those before mentioned obstruct Early Growth were instrumental in retarding its rapid growth

In 1837 a financial crisis existed in Connecticut when all but four banks suspended specie payments, which were not resumed un- 183 til May, 1838. This aggravated the problems of the individual railroad managements, since they required capital in amounts 184 which had been quite unheard of a few years earlier.

State Aids Moreover, the Connecticut Legislature followed The Railroads in some a policy similar to that laid down in regard to instances the construction of turnpikes and. canals by re- 185 fusing to appropriate public funds for railroad lines. The ear lier enterprises (building of roads and canals), however, had not been undertaken in vain, for some good highways existed and canal building had given civil engineers practical experience, and also 186 had accustomed the public to large expenditures of money. In some instances the State did aid the railroad companies in obtaining private capital by means of tax exemptions. The capital shares of the Boston and New London company, and of the Stonington road, were declared free from taxation until the annual dividend reached a 6% profit on the outstanding stock. Such tax exemption

- 54 - privileges were discontinued in 1835, the charters of that year stating that railroad stock was taxable as personal estate 187- regardless of the earnings of any road.

Despite Despite such disadvantages, railroad devel- Disadvantages Development opment continued to progress. In 1836 the Proceeds Apace Housatonic Railroad was chartered, to connect the Western Railroad of Massachusetts with Long Island Sound.

In this instance, as far as through traffic was concerned, one of the important objectives was to provide an all-year-round route between New York and Albany in conjunction with Long Island Sound steamboats to Bridgeport. Under its charter the company was authorized to build a railroad from the north line of Connecticut, near Canaan, down the valley of the Housatonic River to Brook- 188 field, thence to Long Island Sound at Bridgeport.

The City of Bridgeport, In its corporate capacity, granted

$150,000 to the new company. State aid was again refused its directors. The road was opened between Bridgeport and New Mil- ford in 1840 and was completed to West Stockbridge In 1842, in

coordination with the Berkshire Railroad of Massachusetts. Con- nection was effected through West Stockbridge with the Western

Railroad by means of the West Stockbridge Railroad, and so the

through rail-route between Bridgeport and Albany was completed

on December 28, 1849, another connection was opened to Pittsfield

over the route of the Stockbridge and Pittsfield from Van Deusen-

ville, Mass. The Housatonlc Railroad served as Bridgeport's only

railroad until 1849 when the New York and New Haven Railroad was

constructed through Bridgeport, and connections were made with it, X89 and with the Naugatuck road. Many Roads ' In 1838, the Hartford and New Haven company open in quick succession began to operate cars over a part of its line.

This company later built a branch road from Berlin eastward to the port of Middletown, and then a continuation of the main line, extending from Hartford north to Springfield, Massachusetts, there to meet the Boston to Albany road. Transportation between

New Haven and New York was still carried on by boat or stage coach for some time, but a railway to copnect these19 0citie s was chartered in 1844, and completed four years later. This road soon became the most important one in the State, yet it had been 191 more strongly opposed than any other built at the time.

In 1847, a charter was granted in Connecticut to the New

London, Willlmantic and Springfield Railroad; in 1848 a charter was granted in Massachusetts to the New London, Willlmantic and

Palmer Railroad, and in the same year the two companies were con- 192 solidated under the latter name.

The road was opened between New London and Willlmantic in November, 1849; to Stafford Springs in March, 1850; and on

September 20, 1850, to Palmer, where connection was made with the

Western Railroad. This railroad provided another link for New

York-Boston travel, in combination with several Sound steamboats which were operated by independent companies connecting at New

London. A physical connection was established in 1855 at'Norwich with the Norwich and Worcester Road. This railroad is now known as the New London Northern and is operated by the Canadian National 193 System as.part of the Central Vermont Railway.

In 1850 the road which had been opened between New Haven

and Plainville in 1348, was extended from Plainville north to

Parmington and to Collinsville, Simsbury, Granby, and Tariffville. The route to Northampton was completed the following year. The connection with the Western Railroad at Wegtfield, Mass., however, was not completed until 1855 due to difficulties inspired by the

Hartford and Hew Haven Company in an endeavor to prevent the extension of the Canal Railroad into Massachusetts to form a com- 194 petitive connection with the Western Railroad.

The Telegraph The efficiency of railroad transportation dur- inaugurated; , Coal for fuel ing this period was greatly impaired by the lack experimented with; Air. brakes of any method of communication. The problems come into use arising from this situation, especially on single track routes, were great. In 1844, however, Morse had invented the telegraph, and in 1851 telegraphic communication was applied to railroad operation. By the late fifties the use of the telegraph in the railr6ad field had been generally adopted and another noteworthy Improvement was effected In transportation ser- 195 vice. In the early sixties experiments with coal for locomotive fuel in place of wood were being conducted. It was thought coal would be less expensive. However, the coal sulphur from this new fuel destroyed the engine fire boxes, and consequently prevented the successful and economical use of coal for several years. By 1869 the Westinghouse air brake was being used and then the vacuum brake in 1871. These two inventions19 6greatl y increased the safety and convenience of railroad travel.

The Pullman Sleeping cars were patented December 2, 1856. Sleeping Car ' and the The Wagner cars, were the first to be used in Dining Car Connecticut. In 1857 George M. Pullman brought

out a much needed new type of sleeping car. This car was improved upon in 1859 and again in 1864, and received immediate approval „ 57 . and us© by over-night passengers. In 1867 Mr. Pullman formed

the Pullman Car Company which, since the Wagner contract ceased,

has supplied the Connecticut steam railroad companies with not

only their sleeping cars hut with their. Pullman day coaches as 197 well.

Prom 1856 to the present time gradual improvements to / provide more comfortable traveling coaches have been made. The

early coaches were wooden cars and were a, source of danger at

all times to the traveling public.' The long sought for steel

cars came into use in this State when the Pennsylvania road de-

clined to allow wooden cars to be hauled through its tubes.

Then came the dining cars, which are operated by the local roads, 198 and the smoking car.

Three Railroad As the railroads developed, problems involving Commissioners appointed for their regulation arose, which resulted in the each road General Assembly, in 1850, appointing three

railroad commissioners on each railroad in the State (their sal-

aries being paid by the railroad) to examine the railroads of

the State twice a year or oftener and requiring the railroad199 s to make repairs necessary for the safety of the public. In 1853,

this Act was amended by the creation by the General Assembly of

the General Railroad Commission (predecessor of the present Pub-

lic Utilities Commission) to have jurisdiction over all railroads

in the State. The duties of these commissioners were more fully

specified; they were empowered to oblige the companies to use all

safeguards to prevent injuries; blanks were to be furnished the

corporations, on which full statistics and returns were required;

railroad officials were requested to notify the commissioners,

within twenty-four hours, of all accidents attended with serious - 58 - • personal injuries} and an annual report was to be made to the 200 legislature.

Previous to the appointment of the commission, railroad legislation in Connecticut had been somewhat haphazard, and each railroad managed its affairs with little regard for its neighbors.

The commission assumed general supervision over matters of safety and costs of operation, and over service, with particular reference to establishing convenient connections for passengers and freight between adjacent railroads - a subject which had been a source 201 of considerable complaint from the public.

The appointment of these commissioners followed similar provisions set forth in the old turnpike and canal charters and

is indicative of the control which was exercised by20 2th e State over its public utilities from the earliest times.

No question as to the need for such supervision could be raised for, by 1355, there had been laid over 600 miles of track, representing an investment of nearly $24,000,000, or a20n 3 amount greater than the entire banking capital of the State.

Commission on In 1907 an important Commission-on Public Public Service Corporations Service Corporations was appointed by the Legis- Appointed. lature, and two years later it advised the

appointment of a permanent Public Utilities Commission to be in

session all the times to grant franchises, supervise condemnation

of land and capitalization of corporations, ascertain the facts

concerning the financial and physical conditions, of a railroad,

also the causes of accidents; to supervise a road's operation

so far as it might affect the public safety, and to establish

rates when existing rates were purely supervisory. In accordance - 59 - • with, these recommendations, the Legislature in 1911 appointed 204 such an advisory commission.

Additional Before and after 1855 the' following additional Roads opened roads were opened.

In'1849, a road between what is now Devon and 205 Waterbury, extended to Winsted on September 24th of the same year.

In 1847, the Hartford and Providence Railroad revived the old charter granted in 1833 for a small road planned to run between Hartford and Manchester, and consolidated with, the New York and Hartford Railroad (chartered in 1845) and the Providence and

Plainfield Railroad (chartered in 1846). The union, known as the

Hartford, Providence and Fishkill Railroad, was projected to se- cure a through overland route between Providence and the Hudson

River. By 1855 there was through service on this road between

Providence and Waterbury, and in 1882 the line was extended to the Hudson River. After several reorganizations, which included comprehensive consolidations, the road became known in. 1873 as the New York and New England Railroad and in 1895 as the New Eng- 206 land Railroad.

In 1852 the New Haven and New London Railroad was opened; this road made a physical junction with the New London, Willlmantic and Palmer Railroad at New London, completing, via Norwich and 207 Worcester, another route between Boston and New York.

In 1858 the New London and Stonington Railroad was opened

to operate between Groton and Stonington; this road had been merged in 1856, befor208 e completion, with the New Haven and New London Railroad.

Bridges Supplant As late as 1869, the trains between New Haven Train Ferries on the "Shore and New London continued to cross the Connecti- Llne"

- 60 - • out River at Saybrook on a steam, ferry which had been used for that purpose for nearly eighteen years. Under the authority of the Legislature, extended in 1868, and the permission of the

United States Government in 18S9, the Connecticut River Bridge was built at Saybrook, trains passing over in 1870. The train ferry in New London, however, which was used for thirty years to cross the Thames from New London to Groton was supplanted in 209 1889 by a bridge built from Poquonock Junction to Groton.

Thus was completed the Shore Line, which had been considered an 210 impossibility a half-century before*

The New York and Boston Railroad which had been chartered in 1848, but had failed before completion, was revived under the name of the Boston and New York Air Line. The road was completed between New Haven and Middletown in 1870 and to Willi- mantic in 1873, establishing a new route between Boston and New 211 York.

Bridge built At the time, Connecticut had no direct rail at Poughkeepsie connects Connecti- connection with the West (there being no cut with the West bridge then across the Hudson River south of

Albany) until the construction, in 1888, of the Poughkeepsie bridge. This bridge provided convenient all-rail routes from the

West via both Canaan and Danbury to all Southern New England.

Another direct rail route to the South and West was established in 1916 by the construction of the Hell Gate Bridge in New York 212 City, connecting the New Haven and Pennsylvania Railroad systems.

Roads given By a statute enacted in 1893, railroads in right to use electric power Connecticut were given the right to use elec- for motive power trie power in addition to the motive power * already employed In operating such railroads. In 1894 the directors

* Public Acts of Connecticut, 1853, Chapter 193, p. 351. - 61 - of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad In a report to their stockholders had threatened to reduce local service in territories where the electric street railway had lessened its revenue. However, instead of doing this the road started the third rail equipment between New Britain and Berlin in 1897 and also between Hartford and New Britain and Bristol. This type of equipment was abandoned shortly, as being too dangerous, although at one time the third-rail was advocated to replace steam with electric operation all the way from New York to Bos- 213 ton. ( In 1907 the Highland division from Burnside to Vernon and from Rockville to Melrose was electrified. In 1917 an electric power house was built at Berlin, whence power was dis- tributed in four different directions, supplying the New England division by way of New Britain, Hartford and Bristol. In 1898 214 the New Canaan Branch was provided with the overhead trolley.

The "New Haven" To comply with a new law against steam opera- electrifies road from tion in the Park Avenue tunnel in New York Woodlawn to Stamford; City, the electrification by the third rail Later to Cedar Hill line between Woodlawn and the Grand Central

Station was started in 1904. To meet this requirement for entrance into the Grand Central Station, the New Haven road had to elec- trify its road from Stamford to Woodlawn. The single phase alter- nating current system was used, for the first time on any railroad, securing an overhead conductor of the most effective kind in connection with electric locomotives, thus avoiding the dangers of the third rail. The first part of the system was completed in 1907, and the remainder which extends to Cedar Hill in New

Haven, in 1914. The anticipation was that the rest of the road to

Hartford and Springfield and by way of the Shore Line to New Lon- - 62 - • don, Providence and Boston would be electrified and that only electric locomotives would be used for both passenger and freight trains, the steam engines to be utilized for some parts of yard work, but financial reasons have so far prevented the realization 215 of these ideas.

Between New York and New Haven, including all yards and sidings there are 518 miles of track equipped for electrical operation, excluding that part of the New York Central Company between Woodlawn and Grand Central Terminal. The investment in this electrification was about $20,000,000, including locomotives, electrical shops, and freight yards of which the large modern hump classification yard at Cedar Hill, with probably the largest layout platform in the country, is said to be valued at §8,000,000.

The plant for supplying power for the electrical operation of the whole division is at Cos Cob (Greenwich), Connecticut. The orig-

inal works were completed in 1907 but their capacity was more than doubled in 1913 and a further enlargement was completed in 1924.

The company has over 100 electric locomotives already in use for freight and passenger trains, some of them weighing 150 tons ex-

erting a maximum tractive effort of 40,000 tons and hauling a

freight train of 1500 tons at a maximum speed of thirty-five miles

an hour. These are also supplied with, third-rail shoes so that

they can operate over the New York Central's twelve miles of track 216 into Grand Central, this being a third rail.

The "New Haven" In 1904 the Pennsylvania railroad tunnel and "Pennsyl- vania" construct under the Hudson River connecting New York "Hell Gate" Bridge City with New Jersey was started. This stu-

pendous work was completed in 1910. To make this tunnel effective

for long distance transmission it became necessary to construct - 63 - • the Hell Gate Arch Bridge. The New York, New Haven and Hart- ford Railroad was interested in this and became joint owners with the Pennsylvania road. The cost of this bridge is given afe $28,000, of which half is an expenditure of the New Haven road. This route linking New England with the entire Atlantic seaboard was opened to traffic April 1, 1917, work having been . 217 begun in July 1912.

"New Haven" On July 1, 1912, the "New Haven" road, be- sells its water lines cause of legislation by Congress, segregated

Its interests in the water lines previously owned and operated by tho New England Navigation Company and sold the physical properties to the New England Steamship Company. The consideratio21n 8 was capital stock and mortgage bonds of the purchasing company.

On April 21, 1914, the directors of the road,.to avoid the appointment of a receiver, were authorized by the/stockholder to complete negotiations and to arrange for the segregation of the various subsidiaries that v/ere under dispute with the U, S.

Department of Justice. The Department filed its petition in the District Court of the United States, Southern District of New

York, on July 23, 1914, and a dissolution decree confirming the #219 settlement was entered October 17, 1914.

Under the terms of the agreement the various stocks were placed in the hands of Federal trustees to be sold by them, the trolley stocks within five years and the outlying steamship 220 stocks within three. . • .

•* For full details of the settlement see MOODY'S RAILROADS, 1918.

- 64 - • President On December 26, 1917, President Wilson issued Wilson takes control of all his proclamation taking possession and control roads during ' # war time of all the railroads of the United States,

and appointed William G. McAdoo, then Secretary of the Treasury, as 221 Director General of Railroads.

This Federal control came to an end on March 1, 1920, under

Title II of the Transportation Act of 1920. Also, by the terms of

this Act, the Interstate Commerce Commission was granted practically

complete power over all railroads, rail-and-water lines, telephone,

telegraph and wireless systems, and oil-carrying instrumentalities, 222 within the continental limits of the United States.

Heavy capacity Under a defined plan authorized by the Board Bridges substi- tuted for light of the "New Haven" and subsequently by the capacity Bridges on "New T-Iaven" United States Railroad Administration, the road

during the years 1918-19 completed the substitution of heavy capa- 223 city for light bridges on all of its lines for heavier traffic.

Cedar Hill In 1919 the Cedar Hill Terminal, essentially terminal completed a facility for the handling of freight, was i completed. The larger terminal improvements on the "New Haven"

system are at Cedar Hill, Providence, and to a less extent at

Waterbury, Hartford, Springfield, and Midway. Cedar Hill and

Providence are the hubs through which the heavy volume of traffic 224 is received and forwarded over the several radiating lines.

* At a meeting of the principal railroad executives of the country in Washington it was resolved that during "the war they would coordinate their operations in a continental railway system, merging during such period all their merely Individual and competitive activities in the effort to produce a maximum of national transportation efficiency. -- (See #48, p. 16).

- 65 - • All Railroads In 1923 all railroads adopted a program to adopt program to provide provide adequate transportation service adequate transportation ser- which included the following objectives: vice 1. To keep the percentage of locomotives and cars awaiting repairs at the lowest possible minimum consistent with the volume of business offered and the revenues available.

2. Increased supervision on the part of the railroads and greater cooperation with shippers to bring about better utilization of car capacity.

3. A continued and intensive effort to increase the miles per car per day in an endeavor to make'new records of achievement in prompt movement of traffic.

4. Continued stud225 y and consideration of the greatest joint use of facilities.

New England One of the most important examples of Transportation Company, Incor- coordinated rail and motor passenger service porated - is that offered by the New England Trans- portation Company, a subsidiary of the New York, New Haven and

Hartford Railroad. The company was incorporated on June 15, 1925, for the purpose of owning and operating motor vehicles in Mass- achusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New York. The first service was established by the subsidiary company in Western

Connecticut in August226 , 1925, as a substitute for local rail passenger trains.

Substantial operating economies and more frequent service have been achieved22 7b y the "New Haven" by bus substitution for all-rail service.

- 66 - • Motor Terminal In 1927 motor terminal trucking through con- trucking # stations structive stations was initiated by the road.

Mr. C. E. Smith, then vice-president of the road, testified that the trucking of freight through a "constructive station" in lieu of floating it to and from pier stations was inaugurated to effect 228 economies in operation.

Emergency In 1933 the Emergency Transportation Act was Transportation Act passed, creating the- office of Federal Coordin- ator of Transportation, and in June of that year Joseph B. Eastman was appointed coordinator. The purposes of the office ares

1. To encourage and promote or require action on the part of the carriers and of subsidiaries which will (a) avoid unnecessary duplication of services and facilities of whatsoever nature and permit the joint use of terminals and trackage incident thereto or requisite to such joint use; x x x x x (b) control allowances, accessorial services and the charges therefor, and other practices affecting service or operation, to the end that un- due impairment of net earnings may be prevented, and (c) avoid other wastes and preventable expense; (2) to promote financial reorganization of the carriers, with due regard to legal rights, so as to reduce fixed charges to the extent required by the public interest and Improve carrier credit; and (3) to provide for the Immediate study of other means of improving conditions surrounding transportation in all Its forms and the preparation of plans therefor. 229 tf Warehouses to which freight is delivered by carriers serving the Hew York metropolitan area, and from which the freight is removed by local freight-trucking companies and transported over water, thus reducing or eliminating the handling of merchandise traffic by lighterage service. Testimony in I. C. C. Docket 19715, May, 1928.

- 67 - • The reorganizations of railroads that have taken place since the above Act was passed, together with loans from the

Reconstruction B'inance Corporation and the Railroad Credit Cor- poration, and the coordination of transportation as a whole have done much to arrest the precipitate decline which started at the outset of the recent depression and., resulted, in a major calamity for many common carriers.

In 1934 the total mileage of roads operated and owned by railroad, companies in-Connecticut was 929. Counting yard tracks, second, third and fourth tracks and sidings, the New York, New

Haven and Hartford has over 700 miles of electrified tracks.

Practically all travel and freight between New York and. New Haven continues to be handled by electric locomotives.

Reconstruction On October 22, 1935, a request of the New Finance Cor- poration re- York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad for a fuses Loan to "New Haven" $5,000,000 loan from the Reconstruction

Finance Corporation was rejected by the Interstate Commerce Com- mission, It was the first time in the Commission's administration of Federal Loans to railroads that suc•SHIh- an application was denied by formal order to a Class I carrier.

Road files The following day the road filed, with the clerk Petition for Reorganization of the Federal Court in Washington a petition under Section 77 of Bankruptcy Act for reorganization of the railroad system under

Section 77 of the Bankruptcy Act. At the general offices of the

* 24th Annual Report, PUBLIC UTILITIES COMMISSION, State of Connecticut, 1935, pp. 310 and 511. a* See NEW YORK TIMES, Oct. 23, 1935, p. 1, col. 2.

- 68 - • road in New Haven it was said the reorganization woxald affect a system embracing not only the 3,255 miles of track and some

20,000 employees of the railroad proper, operating in Connecti- cut, Massachusetts and Rhode Island, but bus, trolley car, and boat lines, as well as many subsidiary units in Southern New

England.

Trustees Subsequently, Howard S. Palmer, President of appointed the road, Professor Winthrop M. Daniels of

Yale University, and James Lee Loomis, head of the Connecticut

Mutual Life Insurance Company, of Hartford, were appointed trustees. The Diesel- On June 5, 1935, the Diesel-powered "Comet", powered "Comet" arrives on the a stream-lined train, began operation on the road road between Boston and Providence, and daily covers the 43.78 miles between those cities in forty-four minutes.

In a year the train had traveled more than 133,000 miles, having made five round-trips every week-day until September 1935, when a sixth round-trip was added. Approximately 100,000 persons had 230 ridden on the "Comet" during its first year of service.

On November 12, 1935, the trustees were ordered by the

United States District Court to submit a plan for reorganization 231 before April 23, 1936; on April 17, 1936, the trustees re- 232 ceived a six months' extension in which to do so; on October 10, 1936, they petitioned the Court for a further six months' extension, and on October 23rd this extension was granted until 233 February 1, 1937.

* Ibid., Oct. 24, 1935, p. 31, col. 8.

- 69 - • I. C. 0. orders On June 1, 1936, the Interstate Commerce two-cents per mile passenger Commission ordered the two-cents per mile fare put in . effect passenger fare to be placed in effect on the road. At the end of the first month the increase in revenue was only 1.5/1, which looked like a loss because the road had been running 10% ahead for the first five months of the year.

In July the increase was 16.3% over the same month, for the year previous, but in August it fell back to 12.2$. In September it jumped to 25.9%, largely due to heavy Labor Day traffic. In

October, passenger revenue was 19.4^ over the same month the year previous, and in November the increase was about 14$. On December

.11, President Palmer said the net income of $200,000 for November was a "Christmas present" which he was delighted to announce to the traveling public and shippers of the region. For the third 234 consecutive month the road had been "in the black."

Air-Conditioned Within the past few years air-conditioned coaches and streamlined coaches have been placed in service on the Locomotives "New Haven." They have contributed to the riding comfort of the passengers, and also have played some part in increased traffic on the road.

It seems very probable that the combination of the new rates and the innovations designed to make their bids for more intensive railroad travel by the public will continue to show the pleasing returns to the road that have been evident since their inception. On March 3, 1937, the Baldwin Locomotive Works delivered the first of a fleet of ten modern streamlined locomotives to the "New Haven." These locomotives were the first to be designed and built as streamlined locomotives on any eastern railroad, and with the installation of all ten they will con- stitute the largest fleet of this type of locomotive on any American railroad. — See HARTFORD TIMES, March 9, 1937, p. 2, col. 7. - 70 - • Chapter V

THE COMING OF THE HORSE-CAR

ITS LATER ELECTRIFICATION 1859-1936

The Hartford In 1859 another Interesting and important and Wethers- field Horse feature of transportation was introduced into Rail Road Connecticut. In that' year The Hartford and

Wethersfield Horse Rail Road Company was incorporated, and in the following year the Fair Haven and Westville Horse Rail Road 235 Company was organized to cover the city of New Haven. Shortly thereafter additional charters were issued for the b\iilding of. horse railways in various other cities of the State. As a rule, the horse-cars, possessed none of the luxuries and conveniences of the trolleys of today. There was little heat in the cars in winter; at night they were poorly lighted; during had weather the service was irregular, and after heavy snow storms it was 236 temporarily discontinued.

First Electric In view of these inconveniences, the advent Trolley line laid out in of the electric trolley was welcomed. In Derby ' 1888 the first trolley made Its appearance in Connecticut, in Derby, only two years following its initial trial in South Bend, Indiana. It met with instant approval due to the comfort it furrfished in heat, speed, and regularity of service regardless of weather conditions. In fact the demand for trolley service in Connecticut cities became so urgent that the Legislature of 1896 granted acts of incorporation to fifteen

- 71 - new street railways. Subsequently a total of fifty-nine corporations, which entered the business of transportation by trolley, eventually came into the possession of and control by the Connecticut Company, so that by 1910 this company practically dominated the street and interurban transportation within the

State. Many independent trolley companies also aided in taking care of interurban passenger transportation. Later a number of trolley companies began to carry freight, thus assisting in the development of local business by expanding the system of rapid 237 delivery of goods.

The N.Y., N.H. At this point it is interesting to note that and Hartford obtains con- the Connecticut Company (originally chartered trol of Rail Transportation in 1905 as the Thomaston Tramway Company - its in Southern New England name being changed in 1907 by the Superior

Court to the present title) became the servant of the New York,

New Haven and Hartford Railroad Company. By 1907 the Connecticut

Company had taken over under lease all the electric railways owned by the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad Company and was operating them while, in turn, the capital stock of the Connecti- cut Company, amounting to $275,000 in 1909, was all owned by the steam railroad company. In 1910 these electric railways were sold to the Connecticut Company, the capital 23stoc8 k of which was increased to $40,000,000 to meet the expense. Thus the New

York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad, which was incorporated

August 6, 1872, as a consolidation of the New York and New Haven

Railroad Company (chartered in 1844), and the Hartford and New

Haven Railroad (chartered in 1833), the effect of which was to merge and bring under its control not two railroads, but over a

72 hundred railroads (54 of which companies were formed for opera-

tion in Connecticut, obtained control of transportation in 239 southern New England.)

New Haven Prom 1850 until 1900 there was a spirited Line Steamers pass into rivalry between railroad and steamboat .control of "NY., N.H. & H." ' companies for passenger and freight busi-

ness. Gradually this competition dwindled as contracts and

agreements were made between the companies whereby duplication

of service was avoided, interests of the. rival companies pro-

tected, and cut-throat rates eliminated. In this respect the

railroad companies acquired the dominant position 24an0d as a re- suit practically dictated the terms of agreement. Finally,

in May, 1900, the steamboats owned by the New Haven Line passed

wholly Into the control of the New York, New Haven and Hartford 241 > Railroad Company, thereby strengthening its dominant position

in the field of transportation. - ' • •

Due to the continuity in change in the various forms of

transportation from 1600 to 1900, it is apparent that the trans-

portation system must be considered evolutionary in its nature.

From the trail to the railway track, new and improved methods of

transportation supplanted the old. The railway had partly super-

seded the highway, the canal, and the river as a means of trans-

portation, these falling into minor places in the State's aggregate

of facilities for conveyance and communication. Today the auto-

mobile is competing with the railway, and in the background appears

the aeroplane with its unlimited transportation possibilities

making the effect of its future development upon automobile and

railway transportation hazardous to predict.

- 73 - • The Jitney Coincident with the period of the World

War a new phase of public passenger transportation developed in what was known as the jitney. Starting'in 1914 this entirely unregulated passenger service, in direct competition with the regulated street railway, brought the latter companies close to receivership by 1920, before regulatory legislation was enacted.

This jitney bus service which was greatly improved under regulation, was adopted by the electric railways to extend their trolley service. More recently this bus service had been preferred to electric trolley operation for two main reasons? first, its service had been more flexible in operation, and, second, it had obviated the heavy capital outlays for track construction and maintenance of track structure and pavement. Today (1936) the principal street railway company, the Connecticut Company, is operating about as many routes by bus as they are by street railway, and a half dozen smaller street railway companies have all gone to bus operation.

- 74 - • .Chapter VI .CONNECTICUT THE PIONEER STATE IN BICYCLE AND AUTOMOBILE HISTORY

The Bicycle 1866-1956

First veloci- The progenitor of the modern bicycle was a pede in United States appeared velocipede which had been made by Pierre Lalle- in New Haven ment, a Parisian blacksmith, in 1865. In 1866

Lallement came to the United States to look for work, made a velocipede and rode it about New Haven, and was induced by one James Car- roll to patent it with him in November of the same year. By 1870 a velocipede "boom" had burst, and the Patent Office was receiving an average of six applications for new patents every week. The sport, however, collapsed, and it was nearly a decade later before

America took it up again in 24a 2genera l way, this time with a different wheel -- the bicycle proper.

The "Ordinary" This vehicle made its appearance in America at and "Columbia" first bicycles the Centennial Exposition of 1876, -when some made in America English machines were imported and exhibited.

Colonel Albert A.Pope, of Boston, saw them and thought of organiz- ing a bicycle business in this country. He went to England to study the industry, brought back some English wheels, and engaged W, S.

Atwell, of Boston, to build one for him. The result was a vehicle weighing seventy pounds and costing $313. This vehicle was known as the "Ordinary" and had'steel rims and solid.rubber tires, round or half round. To gain speed, the front wheel of these machines was gradually enlarged and the rear whee^reduced to a mere steerer, until there was a 64-inch front wheel and a 16-inch rear wheel.

Again visiting England, Col. Pope decided that conditions here

. 75 - warranted the continued manufacture of bicycles for the market, and in 1878 he had the Weed Sewing Machine Company, of Hartford, make some wColumbiasrt for him in a corner of the company's shop. These and the tt0rdlnarysf> were the first bicycles made in America, and

Col, Pope was, therefore, the originator of cycling history in 243 Connecticut, and in the nation, as well.

League of American A cycling movement spread throughout the country, Wheelmen formed and on May 31, 1880, the League of American

Wheelmen was organized at New Port, R.I., to promote the general interests of cycling J to ascertain, defend, and protect the rights of wheelmenj to facilitate touring, and tos ©cure improvement in the condition of the public roads and highways. The League's objectives for its cyclists were very similar, in fact, to those of the American Automobile Association of today for motorists* It was a national organization, and in 1889 had a membership of more than 10,000, The Hartford In November, 1885, a corollary of this national Wheel Club league was organized in Connecticut when about * thirty enthusiastic wheelmen formed the Hartford Wheel Club, The latter enjoyed what was described at the time as a "glowing reputation" in the world of cycledom, because it was favorably known not only in New England, but throughout America, France, and the

British Isles, Other bicycle clubs incorporated In the State were: New Haven Bicycle Clitb. ,,,,.».•...,...... July 31, 1891 Columbia Cycle Club of Hartford ..., •.Sept, 13,1892 Rockville Wheel Club Feb. 12, 1894 Rambling Wheelmen of Bridgeport ...... Jan,.'12, 1897 Quinnipiac Wheel Club (Southington) .Feb, 33, 1897 Water bury Wheel Club May 1, 1897 New Hflven Cycling Club June 17, 1898 Union Cycle Club (Danbury) April 4, 1899 Lafayette Wheelmen of Bridgeport ...... Feb. 2, 1900 Other clubs had been organized during the period 1874-1907, but they were voluntary associations, formed without capital. (See vols. 2, 3, and 4 in office of Secretary of State).

- 76 - • Introduction of The bicycle business increased with such rapidity pneumatic tires, drop fraine for that the Pope Manufacturing Company soon became ladies, and the chainless wheel the largest customer of the Weed Sewing Machine Increase bicycle demand Company, and then bought control of its stock and finally absorbedthe corporation. The Pope Company developed and improved the "Columbia" which soon became one of the most favored machines. From the initial use of solid, rubber tires, there followed in 1889 the introduction of pneumatic tires, about the same time the drop frame for ladies, and finally the chainless (or safety) wheel, all of which progressive developments Increased the demand for this novel form of transportation. It Is important to note at this point, in view of subsequent trends in the field of transportation, that the bicycle industry in first applying pneumatic tires assisted In the developmen24t 4 of this Item so Important to the automobile and the aeroplane.

Increased use of The production of bicycles quickly developed bicycles and campaign by Colonel into one of the great industries of the country, Pope result In better roads and the Pope Company of Hartford was the fore-* most among those merged in the American Bicycle Company of Bridge- port in later years. The growth of the industry was accompanied

with a demand from bicycle clubs and cyclists for better roads.

Under the leadership of Col. Pope an educational campaign for this

purpose was successfully conducted. As a result, the public was

aroused to the need for better roads, and from this movement grad-

ually evolved federal appropriations and legislative action which

culminated, as presently will24 5b e noted, in a general betterment of conditions for the cyclists.

A thriving Census returns indicate that, in 1890, there industry were twenty-seven establishments engaged in

making bicycles in the United States? the capital invested was - 77 - • $2,058,072; the number of employes was 1,797; and the value of the product was $2,568,326• Around 1895 the Industry suffered a severe decline from a slackening of demand which produced a crisis in the business, but it was not long in settling upon a firmer basis. By

1900 the business had so extended that the number of establishments had increased to 312, the amount of capital invested had increased to $29,783,659, and the 17,525 workmen employed, received an annual wage of $8,189,817. The cost of material in that year was $16,792,- , ' 246 051, and the value of the product was $31,915,908.

Bicycle side- At this juncture, the great increase in the path commissioners ap- number of bicycles in use, And the campaign pointed and bicycle licen- which had been conducted by Col. Pope eventu- ses issued x ated in the enactment of an Act by the Connecti- cut General Assembly, in 1901, providing for the appointment of a bicycle sidepath commissioner for, and in, each county of the State,

"such commissioners to be empowered to construct and maintain side- paths along any public road or section thereof, of the county, outside of the limits of cities." The commissioners were also "empowered to adopt and issue a form of license to be affixed to a bicycle, and to be known as a bicycle sidepath license." In 1918 the Commission for Revision of Connecticut Statutes declared the foregoing Act obsolete. Decline of the With the advent of the motorcycle and automo- industry for a generation; re- bile, the comparative safety which formerly newed interest in recent years had been enjoyed by cyclists ohthe highway was largely curtailed, and these new highway hazards stopped to a great degree the future development of the bicyle industry. By

1905 the number of establishments producing bicycles had decreased ''247 to 101, and for a generation interest in cycling remained practi- * PUBLIC ACTS OP CONNECTICUT, JANUARY, 1901, pp.1384-5. GENERAL STATUTES OP CONNECTICUT, revision of 1918. - 78 - cally dormant. Within recent years, however, the sport has recap- tured much of 1 ts earlier popularity. Each 'summer week-end now witnesses the departure from various cities throughout the nation of "cycle trains" hearing large numbers of enthusiasts to some rural rendezvous.

The Modern Automobile 1895-1936

In the development of the bicycle, the automobile had cast its shadow before. Although a few steam-propelled "horseless carriages," as the first motor vehicles were called, had antedated * the bicycle,-: the real history of the modern automobile in Connec- ticut began In 1895. In that year, also, the Connecticut State

Highway Department was set up by legislative enactment, and legislation was passed providing for the improvement of public •JBHfr roads.

Hiram Percy Maxim After Daimler, the famous German, invented his produces first gasoline car of motor In 1884, an untiring struggle to develop authentic record ; 248 in America; in the gas-explosive engine began in America, following year the "Pope-Hartford" Results occurred locally when, in September, appears 1895, Hiram Percy Maxim, then employed as an engineer inthe Thomson-Houston Electric Company at Lynn, Massa- chusetts, who, with Mr. George H. Day of Hartford, had been conduct- ing an experiment with an engine attached to a tricycle run by liquid gas, astonished and amused the Hartford public by appearing on Park Street with the first practical gasoline car of which there is authentic record in America, Mr,'Maxim, in later years, described # It is recorded that, as early as 1760, Christopher M, Spencer drove a steam-car on the highways of Connecticut; that, In 1787, Nathan Read drove a makeshift steam-car about Hartford; and that, in 1797, Dr. Apollos Kingsley operated a steam-car on Hartford's Main Street. (See 10, p. 527.) CONNECTICUT GENERAL STATUTES, Sec. 1465. *** CONNECTICUT PUBLIC ACTS, 1895, Chapter 315. - 79 - • the machine "as being a three-cylinder, four-cycle engine with no brake, no reverse, and the carburetor a nightmare." In another year the car was running to New York and Boston and the great "Pope-Hart- 249 ford" car was born.

Steam-propelled Just-prior to 1895 the Duryeas of Springfield, automobile un- popular; the Massachusetts, had built a gasoline automobile gasjollne-propelled "Winton" that would run, but there was no market for it.

It is also stated that, in 1825, Thomas Blanchard, of the same city, produced the first real American steam-propelled automobile "but'} it is added, "nobody wanted it." . It is further asserted that the first bona-fide sale of a gasoline car was that of a Winton. In i the fall of 1898 a Winton operated by Mr. P. W.Manross of Porest- ville, Connecticut, was driven from Forestville to Hartford, a distance of eighteen miles In fifty-five minutes. His best continuous run without stopping for water or gasoline was forty miles, the average running time being 15 miles per hour. Then other runs were made to Bridgeport and to New York, all of which were highly successful, as noted in The Automobile Magazine for March, 1901.

In the early nineties the Whitney steam car was made in Hartford and was seen on the city.streets, but its manufacture was not of 250 long duration.

"Steamers" In 1907 the Pope Manufacturing Company and , "Electrics" established a "Motor Carriage Department" and began to make the Columbia Electric Phaeton, At that time, also, the Locomobile Company of America, located at Bridgeport, * 251 was a pioneer in the making of both steamers and electrics.

Soon the Pope Manufacturing Company began to make the gasoline automobile. Prom its Toledo, Ohio, branch came the "landaulette"and the famous mile-a-minute Pope-Toledo gasoline car - a high

- 80 - • priced powerful car; from Hartford came the well-known Pope-

Hartford gasoline touring cars that were to win the leading place among the moderate priced American machines; from Hagers- town, Maryland, came the Pope-Tribune gasoline cars, constructed to meet the peculiar needs of those who sought a light-weight touring car, either with tonneau or In runabout type; from Its plant in Indianapolis, Indiana, came the Pope-Waverly electrics 252 In many different models for both pleasure and commercial use.

Many factors For awhile it appeared as If Hartford was to operate against New England become the center of the automobile industry and to the ad- vantage of and the promoters had hopes of making It the Detroit as hub of automotive Detroit of today. Due to many conditions, industry however, chiefly the lack of capital, which existed in substantial sums in and about Detroit at the time, the rivalry among competitors to improve the foreign models and adapt them to the rougher and longer roads of America, andthe constant litigation over patent rights proved to be too great a strain on the Hartford concerns. Moreover, the attitude of outside stockholders was far from cooperative. There was a somewhat similar story in Springfield and Bridgeport, and New England was to learn that her shar25e3 in the new industry would be the furnishing of automotive parts. Ast he automobile business drifted westward so did New England inventors and mechanics, taking with them the 254 best talents and traditions of the Industrial arts. Hence, in

1908, four years after the Pope Motor Company had been organized, the motor company's name disappeared'from the Hartford records and in 1916 the record of the main company reads "George Pope, receiver."

- 81 - Seven of The part which Connecticut played in the early America's automobile factor® days of the automobile Industry, as set forth les located in Connecticut in in the United States Census of Manufactures 1905 for 1900, indicates that the Industry at that time was of insufficient importance to receive a separate census 255' listing; it was referred to as a branch of the carriage industry.

The 1905 census shows seven of America's fifty-setfen automobile factories located in Connecticut and the State ranking seventh in the industry, with a record of having produced 832 cars during

1904, of which 127 wer# e steam-propelled, 319 were electric, and 386 run by gasoline.

Connecticut en- The rapid increase of motor vehicles on the acts first automobile traffic law streets of Connecticut resulted in the enact- (1901) in the United States; pro- ment of legislation in 3.901 regulating the vides for registration and number- speed of such vehicles to fifteen miles an ing of cars in 1903; and for ap- hour on highways outside cities, and to twelve pointment of motor 256 vehicle commis- miles an hour in cities. This was the first sioner in 1917 automobile traffic law to be enacted in the 257 United States. In 1903 an Act was passed providing for the 258 registration and numbering of cars with the Secretary of State.

In 1905 a law was enacted requiring markers which were to be fur- / nished by the Secretary of State, and two years later another law was passed providing for the taxation of automobiles and for the licensing of operators of the same. The General Assembly of 1917 provided for the appointment of a Motor Vehicle Commissioner, and he took office June 1st, of that year. Under his direction and in accordance with his recommendations, laws regulating motor vehicle traffic have been passed at each legislative session to

* Connecticut Motor Vehicle Report (1933)

82 259 make traveling upon the highways safer. Inasmuch as the fees

collected by the Motor Vehicle Commissioner other than those used

to maintain his office are turned over to the Highway Department

for the improvement of highways, the growth of the automobile in-

dustry has played an (exceedingly important part in the development

and maintenance of our highways. In 1934 the sum of $7,637,025.53

was turned over to the Highway Department by the Motor Vehicle De-

partment for highway purposes, together with $4,947,470.16 represent

ing the gasoline tax. In addition, the Federal tax on the sale of

gasoline has enabled the government to cooperate with the States 260 in the development of better roads and highways.

A commercialized In 1914 the jitney began to disturb the street automobile - the jitney railway companies. The jitney was an automobile used to carry passengers and derived its name from an Ameri- canism meaning a nickel or five cents, which was the original fare charged. Competition became so keen between the jitney and the street railway that the operation of jitneys was placed under the jurisdiction of the Public Utilities Commission, This condition was particularly true in Bridgeport in 1923. Finally after many lengthy and fiery hearings the Commission denied the petitioner of the jitneurs to run on the ground that although frequent jitney service might prove a temporary convenience, it would ultimately result in the abandonment of a street railway with all the con- sequences of such abandonment u£on future public convenience and 261

necessity.

The truck The commercial .motor vehicle, or truck « that

is, the "vehicle designed and used for the

transportation of merchandise or freight," - has entered largely # See Biennial"Report of the"Highway Commissioner for June 30, 1933 and June 30, 1934. » 83 - into the transportation of manufactured articles'over short hauls to the extent that it has furnished serious competition for the 262 short-haul steam railroads. Thus the number of trucks regis- # tered in Connecticut during 1933 was 44,995. Added to these freight carriers are a large number. of out-of-state vehicles chiefly- engaged in transporting freight from other States, much of this freight being thus forwarded to avoid the expense of crating and 263 rehandllng. With constant improvements being made on motor trucks, plus the additional convenience and economy to be derived from better highways, it can well be said that' the short-haul steam railroad has a formidable competitor.

The motorcycle The motor cycle, really a miniature auto-

mobile, weighing about 400 pounds and capable - of traveling over all kinds of roads at a speed that might seriously endanger an automobile, did not appear In Connecticut until the 264 late eighties. This vehicle is used chiefly to transport light' packages, to patrol the highways, and for pleasure. In 1933 there were 1996 motorcycles registered in Connecticut.

In the same year there were registered 261,644 private passenger cars. These figures indicate the rapid growth of the

automobile industry during the period from 1900, a growth which

still continues to increase.

* See Connecticut Motor Vehicle Report, (1933).

« 84 - Chapter VII

TRANSPORTATION BY AIR 1911-1936

Connecticut In the development of the most modern form enacts first aviation laws of transportation, that by aeroplane, Con- in the world necticut has played an Important parto As early as 1911, laws were passed by the Connecticut Legislature regulating the use of aeroplanes within the State, in order to 265 protect the public from reckless aviators In that year a statute was enacted which required that "any vehicle intended for the transportation of passengers, or goods, or both, in the air, should apply for registrati on to the Secretary of State"; at that time, also, legislation was passed which necessitated the display of a marker on all aircraft "in a conspicuous place

Brainard To promote the Interest of aviation the city Fieldj Com- missioner of of Hartford in 1920 set apart land for Motor Vehicles designated as aviation purposes, soon to be known as Brain- Commissioner of Aircraft ard Aviation Field. The first airmail in

Connecticut was carried in 1922. In 1924 the Commissioner of * CONNECTICUT PUBLIC ACTS, 1911, chapter 86,

- 85 - • Motor Vehicles was designated also the Commissioner of Aircraft; airports were defined as meaning a public, or private field or place of landing "where the landing cxif a aircraft is permitted by the owners thereof, and such fact is publicly known"; and trick and low flying and the dropping of "any matter whatsoever from any aircraft" were prohibited. In the same year the first installment of government planes arrived in Hartford for the use of the; National Guard squadron. In 1925 a state appropriation of $114,500o00 was made to build a separate armory and workshops at Brainard Field In which to house and repair planes. Later, photographic and medical units were organized and thus evolved 266 the One Hundred and Eighteenth Air Squadron, now known as the 43rd Division Aviation, Connecticut National Guard.

Safety In the latter year, also, aviation inspectors regulations amplified were empowered to examine any aircraft or pilot, at any time, and "upon finding any violation, x x x x or any incompetency of such pilot, or that such aircraft is unsafe, shall order such pilot not to operate such aircraft, or may detain such aircraft until it shall be made safe. Safety regulations were also amplified by the enactment.of a statute which prohibited the operation of an aircraft "at a height unsef- ficient to enable it to glide at all times to a safe landing place, which height shall be at least 2,000 feet, except at the beginning or end of a flight, when such an aircraft shall be over any thickly settled portion of any town, city, or borough, or over any place where any celebration, contest or game, except a public aeronautical demonstration over or near a flying field,

* CONNECTICUT PUBLIC ACTS, 1921, chapter 207.

- 86 - • is being held., or over any place where a failure of such aircraft might cause personal injury or damage to property."

Office of In 1927 the office of Commissioner of Commission- er of Avi- Aviation was inaugurated, and the com- ation inaugurated missioner was given power to "make, alter, or repeal regulations concerning the administration of all statutes relating to aircraft or pilots," x x x x x and all fines, fees, and forfeitures were to be turned over to the commissioner and "paid by him promptly into the treasury of the State," The sale, or offering for sale, of gasoline for use in aircraft that was not "equal to or better in quality and specifications than that known as United States Aviation •5HC- Gasoline, domestic grade," was prohibited* In 1929, parachute jumps were forbidden, except in case of emergency, unless the person was a licensed parachute jumper. Governor In the development of aviation former Trumbull and Captain Knox Governor Trumbull (1925-1931), known as create many innovations the "Plying Governor", took a keen and extremely helpful interest* Under his promotion the Colonial

Air Transport Company began to carry mail and express. Brainard

Field was improved and enlarged to 120 acres and new buildings added, under the supervision of Captain Clarence M, Knox, commander of the squadron, as State Commissioner. Later the

New England Air Corporation, the "H.&.H." Transportation Company, porfetiothe Interstatn furnishine Airwayg passenges and thr e service"L.& H., " werCompanye locate, ad privatin Hartforde cor- .26 7 * CONNECTICUT PUBLIC ACTS, 1925, chapter 302. Ibid., 1927, chapter 324. Ibid., 1929, chapter 253.

87 Other In 1931 the helpful practice of marking laws State Institutions was inaugurated by the enactment of a statute which demanded that all such Institutions

"shall cause one building within their group to be marked as an aid to aerial navigation"; and, in 1933, any railroad company, organized tinder the laws of the State, was empowered to "acquire, own, maintain, and operate either directly, or through subsidiary corporation, aircraft for the transportation of passengers and property." In the latter year, also, gliders, primary gliders, secondary gliders, gliding angle, and experimental aircraft were defined. The "Liberty" From the time the Wright brothers began Engine; Pratt and flying, Hartford industrialists manifested Whitney Air- craft Company a keen interest in aviation. A few machines formed for its manufacture had been made in Hartford and New Britain.

In 1910 Nils Nelson of New Britain, made a machine differing from the Wright and Curtis planes; It had a four-cylinder, thirty horse-power engine and weighed 500 pounds. Charles K.

Hamilton, of New Britain, stimulated national interest by carrying the first mail from New York to Philadelphia and by his cross-country flight. With the war came the development of the Liberty engine - a combination of all that was best in the best engines of the day. Its inventor, George J. Mead, continued his improvements until he had invented an air-cooled engine which eliminated the water-cooled system and reduced weight 1.69 pounds per horse-power. Hartford was selected as

* CONNECTICUT PUBLIC ACTS, 1931, chapters 185 and 199 (section 959b). ** Ibid., 1933, chapter 185 (section 844b).

— 88 — the city for its manufacture, and on July 25, 1925, it was announced that the Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Company, with a ' 268 capital of .$2,000,000, had been formed for that purpose.

United This company began to make the "W^sp" Aircraft Company engine, weighing a quarter of a ton less takes over Pratt & than any other, requiring less frequent Whitney and makes the overhauling, and having a much longer, life. "Wasp" and "Hornet" Large government contracts were filled. motors The year 1926 was the first year for orders.

They amounted to $2,500,000j orders on the following January amounted to $3,000,000 and, on January 1, 1928, showed an increase of 100 per cent. A larger engine, developing over ' 269 500 horse-power, the "Hornet", is now being made. On July

1, 1935, the United Aircraft Manufacturing Company took over the

Pratt & Whitney Company, together with four other companies.

All of the operating divisions are located In East Hartford with the exception of the Sikorsky Aircraft Division, which is located in Stratford, Connecticut. Products of the corporation include

"Wasp" and "Hornet" motors, airplanes, propellers, amphibions and large flying-boats. As of December 3127, 01935 , this corporation had unfilled orders totalling $15,800,000.

Department of To keep pace with the rapid growth in the Aeronautics and.State Air- aviation industry, the 1927 Legislature port Commission created created a Department of Aeronautics which took over the enforcement of Connecticut aviation laws originally passed in 1911, and subsequently controlled first by the Secretary of State and then by the Motor Vehicle Department. In addition to enforcing the laws this. Department has assumed another duty-

- 89 - the promotion of aviation. To this end, speakers from the

Department have talked to groups of individuals throughout the

State, explaining the safety of Connecticut-aviation and urging active participation in the industry. In 1929 the State Airport

Commission was created. The urgent need of a State-owned airport was found in the requirement of the 43rd Division Aviation,

Connecticut National Guard, to have a landing field and reason- able facilities for their annual summer encampment. For this purpose 375 acres at Groton were purchased by the State and the

Airport has been developed by the State Airport Commission and named Trumbull Field after ex-Governor Trumbull, in honor of his interest and activity in aviation. This airport frequently has been used for commercial purposes. The only other State-owned 271 landing field is at Nlantic. In 1934 there were, In all, eighteen airports, landing fields, and seaplane bases in Con- necticut, other than the two belonging to the State, of which seven airports were privately owned and nine were owned by municipalities. In 1934 -SHfth-e number of registered aircraft in Connecticut totalled 163.

Advisory In 1929 an Advisory Board on Aeronautics was Board on Aeronautics created to assist the Commissioner of

Aeronautics in carrying out his duties. This board consists of the Commissioner of Motor Vehicles, the senior' air officer of the 43rd Division of the Connecticut National Guard, the State flight surgeon and four additional members who are appointed by the Governor. Its purpose is chiefly advisory in matters of policy with respect to the promotion and development of aviation

* From chart furnished by H. Jackson Tippet. ## Received by courtesy of the Commissioner of Aeronautics.

- 90 - • 272 in Connecticut,

New England In 1936 New England had about 700 miles airways; light and of airways over which are operated regular radio beacons scheduled lines. The National Airways

Company operates in conjunction with the Boston and Maine Rail- road, and the American Airlines Company serves southern New

England, operating eight round-trips daily between Boston and

New York via Hartford and New Haven. On the Boston-New York, i Boston-Albany, and Boston-Providence-Hartford-New York routes light beacons have been adequately provided to enhance the safety of travel. New England is also served by three radio broadcast- ing stations (Boston, New York, and Albany), each of which operates radio beacons having an effective range of 100 miles.

These three station273s cover the lines operated by the American Airways Company.

91 - REFERENCE NOTES

1. Trumbull, J. Hammond, Memorial History of Hartford County, Connecticut, 1633-1884, v. 1. (1886)•

2. Ervlng, Henry W., The Connecticut River Banking Company (1925).

3. Ibid.

4. Trumbull, p. 17.

5. Erving, p. 19.

6. Ibid. ' .

7. Ibid.

8. Ibid., p. 20.

9. Ibid., pp. 21 and 30.

10. Burpee, Charles W., History of Hartford County,

Connecticut, v. 1, 1633-1928, (1928) p. 74.

11. Trumbull, pp. 226-7.

12. Erving, pp. 29-30.

13. Trumbull, pp. 226-7.

14. Burpee, pp. 654-5.

15. Erving, p. 83.

16. Proceedings The Vermont Historical Society for 1915-16.

17. Stilesv,. Henr1, (1891)y R., .Anoien t Windsor, Connecticut, 1635-1891, 18. Ibid,

19. Oaulklns, Frances Manwaring, History of New London, Connecticut 1 ed., (1852).

20. Ibid.

21. Colonial Records of Connecticut, 1689-1706, v." IV, p. 156.

22. Ibid., 1744-1750, v. IX. NOTES (Continued)

23. Records of the State of Connecticut, 1782-1784, v. III.

24. Osborn, Norris Galpin, History of Connecticut, v. 4. (1925)

25. Caulkins, 2nd ed., p. 232.

26. Ibid., p. 234

27. Ibid., pp. 235-6.

28. Hurd, D(1882),p. Hamilton. 207, Histor. y of New London, Connecticut, 29. Ibid, > 30. Ibid., p. 208

31. The Mariners Savings Bank, Whaling Days in New London, (1924), p. 1.

32. Ibid.

33. Hurd, p. 208.

34. Ibid., p. 182.

35. Ibid,, p, 208.

36. The Mariners Savings Bank, p. 3.

37. Ibid., p. 6

38. Caulkins, Prances Manwaring, History of Norwich,

Connecticut, (1874).

39. Lester, William Jr., A Sketch of Norwich, (1832).

40. Caulkins, pp. 310-11.

41. Ibid., pp. 475-8,

42. Ibid.

43. Ibid., p. 489.

44. Ibid., p. 478.

45. Ibid., p. 488,

46. Ibid,, p. 483,

47. Ibid,, p. 491. NOTES (Continued)

48* BuBois, W.E.B., The Suppression of The African Slave- Trade to The United States of America, 1638-1870, (1868), pp. 28 and 37.

49. Fowler, W. 0., Local Laws in Massachusetts and Connecticut, (1872), pp. 124-5.

50. Log Book of Slave Traders Between New London, Connecti- cut and Africa, Connecticut State Library.

51. Acts and Laws of Connecticut, (ed. 1784), pp. 233-4.

52. Osborn, p. 5. 53. Atwater, Edward E», History of Colony of New Haven, (1881), p. 208. New Haven Historical Society Papers, v. 3, (1882).

54. Osborn, p. 6.

55. Cf. #53, pp. 189-190.

56. Ibid., p. 191.

57. Cf. #53, New Haven Historical Society Papers.

58. Osborn, p. 7«

59. Cf. #53, p. 173.

60. Ibid.

61. Ibid., pp. 115 and 167.

62. Ibid., p. 173.

63. Ibid., p. 203.

64. Ibid., p. 161.

65. Cf. #53, v. 1, (1865), p. 101.

66. Lathrop, Cornelia Penfield, Black Rook, Seaport, of Old Fairfield, 1644-1870, (1930), p. 1

67. Schenck, Mrs. Elizabeth Hubbell, The History of Fair- field, 1639-1818, (1889), p. 214.

68. Lathrop, p. 13. NOTES (Continued)

69. Bridgeport Independent Leader, Bridgeport As It Has Been, part 1, December issue, 1890, p. 4*

70. Ibid.

71. Ibid.

72. Selected Chapters on the History of Bridgeport, (1936). p. 15.

73. Oroutt(1887), Samuel, p,. Histor145. y of The City of Bridgeport. 74. Selected Chapters on The History of Bridgeport, (1936). p« 75. Bridgeport Independent Leader, issue of March, 1891, p. 1

76. Stiles, Henry R., History of Ancient Wethersfield, v. 1, (1904), pp. 538-551.

77. Ibid., pp. 543-4.

78. Ibid. m. Ibid., p. 645.

80. Ibid.

81. Ibid.

82. Ibid. i 83. Osborn, p. 9.

84. Stiles, History of Ancient Wethersfield, v. 1, p. 538.

85. Field, David D., Statistical Account of The County of Middlesex, (1819), p. 40.

86. Stiles, History of Ancient Wethersfield, v. 1, (1904), p. 538.

87. Field, p. 40.

88. Ibid.

89. Ibid. NOTES (Continued)

90® Beers & Company, J® B», History of Middlesex County, (1884), p. 223.

91* Ibid.

92. Stiles, History of Ancient Wethersfield, v. 1, (1904), pp. 36-7.

93. Beers & Company, p. 386.

94. Field, p. 68.

95. Ibid., pp. 70-3.

96. Stiles, History of Ancient Wethersfield, v. 1, (1904), p. 638. ) . p . 97. Todd, Charles Burr, In Olde Connecticut, (1906), pp. 107-8.

98. Ibid.

99. Ibid.

100. Stark, Charles R., Groton, Connecticut, 1705-1905, (1906)

p. 332.

101. Hurd, pp. 674-6.

102. Ibid.

103. Orcutt, Samuel, History of Derby, Connecticut, (1880),

pp. 262-3.

104. Sherwood, Albert F., Memories of Old Derby, (1924), p. 119.

105. Roekey, J. L., History of New Haven County, Connecticut,

v. 2, (1892), pp. 379-80.

106. Ibid. p. 380.

107. Ibid.

108. Ibid.

109. Ibid.

110. Ibid., p. 109.

111. Mead, Spencer P., Ye Historic of Town of Greenwich,

(1911), p. 332,

112. The Greenwich Press, Greenwich, Old and New, (1935).

113. Mead, p. 333. NOTES (Continued)

114. Mead, p, 335*

115* Osborn, pp. 468-9.

116. Ibid.

117. Dayton, Frederick Erving, Steamboat Days, (1925), p. 31.

118. Ibid., p. 109.

119. Ibid., p. Ill*

120. Ibid., pp. 111-12. \

121. Ibid., pp. 112-113.

122. Ibid., p. 113.

123. Ibid., pp. 113-114.

124. Ibid., pp. 116-19.

125. Ibid., pp. 119-20.

126. Ibid., pp. 120-22.

127. Ibid., pp. 122-4.

128. Ibid., pp. 126-135.

129. Ibid., p. 137.

130. Ibid., p. 138.

131. Ibid., p. 141.

132. Ibid., p. 142.

133• Ibid., pp. 142-4.

134. Ibid., p» 146,

136. Ibid., p. 146*7.

136. Ibid., pp. 147-8.

137. Ibid., p. 150.

138. Ibid., p. 152.

139. Ibid., p. 153.

140. Ibid., p. 153. NOTES (Continued)

141. Ibid., p. 154.

142 • Ibid. | pp. 98-101.

143. Ibid., p. 101.

144. Ibid.

145. Ibid.

146* Ibid., p. 102.

147. Ibid., pp. 102-103.

148. Ibid.* p. 104.

149. Ibid., p. 159.

150. Ibid.

151. Ibid., p. 162.

152. Ibid.

153. Ibid.

154. Ibid., p., 163.

155. Ibid., p. 164.

156. Ibid., p. 169.

157. Ibid., p. 152.

158. Ibid.

159. Ibid.

160. Ibid., p. 154.

161. Withington Sidney, The First Twenty Years of Railroads Connecticut, (1935)j this work, in pamphlet form, was published for the Tercentenary Commission of Connecticut., p. 1 and pp. 13-14.

162. Ibid., p. 14.

163. Ibid. •

164. Clark, George L., A History of Connecticut, (1914). p.

165. Morse, Jarvis Means, A Neglected Period of Connecticut History, 1818-1850, (1933), p. 20. NOTES(continued)

166• Withington, p. 8.

167. Harte, Charles Rufus, Some Engineering Features of The Old Northampton Canal, 49th Annual report of The Connecticut Society of Civil Engineers, p. 22.

168• Clark, p. 414.

169. Morse, pp. 270*1•

170. Ibid., p. 271.

171. Ibid., p. 11.

172. Ibid., p. 271.

173. Wlthington, p. 2.

174. Ibid., pp. 2, 15, 16.

175. Clark, pp. 415-6.

176. Wlthington, pp. 17-18.

177. Harte, pp. 27-28.

178. Ibid., pp. 22-23.

179. Stiles, Henry R., The History and Genealogies of Ancient Windsor, Connecticut, v. 1, (1891), pp. 507-8.

180. Ibid.

181. Report of Connecticut Rivers, Harbors and Bridges Commission, (1912), p. 31.

182. Wlthington, pp. 18-19.

183. Parsons, Francis, A History of Banking ih Connecticut, (1935), pp. 15-16.

184. Wlthington, p. 6.

185. Morse, pp. 271-2.

186. Ibid., pp. 269-70.

187. Ibid., p. 272*

188. Wlthington, pp. 19-20*

189. Ibid., p. 20. NOTES (Continued)

190* Second Annual Report. General Railroad Commissioners, Hartford, (1955), pp. 12-14.

191. Morse, p. 274.

192. Withington, p. 25.

193. Ibid., pp. 25-6.

194. Ibid., p. 21.

195. Ibid., pp. 7-8.

196. Osborn, pp. 499-502.

197. Ibid., p. 603.

198. Ibid., pp. 502-3.

199. Clark, p. 418? also Withington p. 4.

200. Clark, p. 418; also Public Acts of Connecticut, 1853,

Chapter 74, pp. 132-145.

201. Withington, pp. 12-13.

202. Morse, pp. 271-2.

203. Second Annual Report, pp. 4, ll?13i.

204. Clark, p. 418.

205. Withington, p. 26.

206. Ibid., pp. 26-7.

207. Ibid., p. 28.

208. Ibid.

209. Osborn, pp. 491-2.

210. Withington, p. 28.

211. Ibid., p. 30.

212. Ibid. 213. Osborn, p. 509. NOTES (Continued)

215. Ibid., pp. 509-10.

216. Ibid., pp. 510-11.

217. Ibid.

218. Ibid., p. 469«

219. Moody's Railroads, (1928) p. 1398.

220. Trumbull, p. 515.

201. Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Science, (1918), p. 14.

222. McVeagh, Rogers, the Transportation Act, 1920, (1923), pp. 3 and 13.

223. Proceedings Connecticut Society of Civil Engineers, v. 6, (1919), p. 36.

224. Ibid., pp. 36-7.

225. Splawnof , RailroadsWalter M,. W.(1928), Governmen, p. 391t .Ownershi p and Operation 226. Wilson, G. Llpyd, Coordinated Motor-Rail Steamship Transportation, (1936), p. 175.

227. Moulton, H. G., The American Transportation Problem, (1933), p. 690.

228. Annals Of American Adademy of Political and Social Science, (1918), p. 60.

229. United States Code Annotated, transportation seotion.

230. Ibid., June 6, 1936, p. 24, col. 2.

231. Ibid., Nov. 14, 1935, p. 29, col. 7.

232. Ibid., April 18, 1936, p. 28, col. 2.

233. Ibid., Oct. 11, 1936, Sec. 3, p. 3, col. 1; also Oct. 24,

1936, p. 25, col. 1.

234. Ibid., Dec. 13, 1936, Sec. 3, p. 7, col. 1.

235. Clark, p. 419.

236. Osborn, pp. 517-19. NOTES (Continued)

237. Osborn, p. 522.

238. Ibid., pp. 823-4.

239o Encyclopedia Americana, v. 20, (1929), p. 241.

240. Ibid., p. 490.

241. Ibid., p. 461.

242. Ibid., ed, 1936, p. 682.

243. Ibid,; also Osborn, p. 526.

244. Encyclopedia Americana, p. 683.

245. Ibid.

246. Ibid. / 247. Ibid.,, (1936), v, 3, p. 684,

248. Osborn, p, 528.

249. Burpee, p. 527.

250. Osborn, pp. 528-30.

251. Ibid. 252. Pope Manufacturing Company, An Industrial Achievement, (1907), pp. 29, 49, 59, 75,

253. Burpee, p. 528.

254. Pound, Arthur, The Turning Wheel, (1934), p. 442.

255. Burpee, p. 528.

256. Osborn, p. 528.

257. Pound, p. 442.

258. Osborn, p. 528,

259. Ibid,, pp. 532-3.

260. Osborn, p. 531.

261. Ibid., pp. 534-6. NOTES (Continued)

2629 Osborn, p, 536*

263* Ibid*

264, Ibid,, p. 537,

265, Burpee, v, 2, p, 867,

266, Ibid,, pp, 867-8,

267, Ibid,, p. 867,

868, Ibid,, p, 868,

269. Ibid,, p, 871,

270o Moody's Manual of Investments, (1936), p, 2947,

271, Connecticut State Register and Manual, (1934), pp, 153-156,

272, Ibid,, p. 157,

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