Journal of Human Evolution 61 (2011) 549e563

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Journal of Human Evolution

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Precision dating of the Palaeolithic: A new radiocarbon chronology for the Abri Pataud (), a key sequence

Thomas Higham a,*, Roger Jacobi b,c,1, Laura Basell a, Christopher Bronk Ramsey a, Laurent Chiotti d, Roland Nespoulet d a Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QY, UK b Department of Prehistory and Europe (Quaternary Section), The British Museum, Franks House, London N1 5QJ, UK c The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK d Département de Préhistoire du Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, UMR 7194, Musée de l’Abri Pataud 20, Rue du Moyen-Age, 24620 Les Eyzies-de-Tayac, France article info abstract

Article history: This paper presents a new series of AMS dates on ultrafiltered bone gelatin extracted from identified Received 26 October 2010 cutmarked or humanly-modified bones and teeth from the site of Abri Pataud, in the French Dordogne. Accepted 29 June 2011 The sequence of 32 new determinations provides a coherent and reliable chronology from the site’s early Upper Palaeolithic levels 5e14, excavated by Hallam Movius. The results show that there were some Keywords: problems with the previous series of dates, with many underestimating the real age. The new results, AMS dating when calibrated and modelled using a Bayesian statistical method, allow detailed understanding of the Ultrafiltration pace of cultural changes within the Aurignacian I and II levels of the site, something not achievable Bayesian modelling before. In the future, the sequence of dates will allow wider comparison to similarly dated contexts elsewhere in Europe. High precision dating is only possible by using large suites of AMS dates from humanly-modified material within well understood archaeological sequences modelled using a Bayesian statistical method. Crown Copyright Ó 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction Châtelperronian and the Aurignacian, and to test models of ‘acculturation’ or the independent development of Upper Palae- A proper understanding of the cultural and behavioural changes olithic ‘modern’ behaviour by Neanderthals. As such, debates over that accompanied the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition in these issues have run for decades with little or no resolution Europe is predicated upon a reliable chronological framework. The (Mellars, 1973, 1989, 1999, 2004, 2005, 2006; White, 1982; d’Errico pattern of dispersal by anatomically modern humans in Western et al., 1998; Zilhão and d’Errico, 1999, 2003; d’Errico, 2003; Europe, the spread of the Aurignacian and the subsequent disap- Teyssandier et al., 2006; Zilhão, 2006). pearance of Neanderthals, can only be disentangled with a solid Sadly, the databases of radiocarbon dates that are available for and reliable chronology. Radiocarbon dating is the most important sites from the period are filled with many dates that are now chronometric method for the period, but since the inception of the known to be problematic or at least potentially quite problematic. method, dates have been plagued by problems of precision, a lack of Recent work has shown that there are severe doubts regarding the calibration and associated difficulties encountered during the reliability of the majority of the radiocarbon dates obtained thus measurement of samples with low levels of remaining 14C. A lack of far on material dating to the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic of precise dates has made it impossible to compare the appearance of Europe. The problems are mainly related to consistent under- similar items in different regions and track cultural changes (Pettitt, estimating of the true age for specific samples, which are almost 1999). In addition, it has been extremely difficult to work out the certainly due to the difficulties in effectively decontaminating temporal relationship between transitional industries such as the samples of bone from the deleterious effects of modern carbon contamination (Higham et al., 2006, 2009; Higham, 2011). Simi- larly, there have been significant challenges in overcoming the effect of the radiocarbon background limit. It is only comparatively * Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (T. Higham). recently that programmes to attempt to quantify the background 1 Deceased. limits for dating bone beyond 40,000 BP (before present) have

0047-2484/$ e see front matter Crown Copyright Ó 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.06.005 550 T. Higham et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 61 (2011) 549e563 been developed (see Hedges and Pettitt, 1998). Given that the successfully been decontaminated of the modern carbon taken up transition is thought to lie between about this age and during the burial history of the sample (Higham, 2011). w35,000 BP, one can see that the potential for age underestima- tion is only too real. Chappell et al. (1996) have drawn attention to this problem in dating archaeological contexts approaching the The Abri Pataud radiocarbon limit. Further problems are inherent in the lack of careful selection of material and the use of bulked samples for The Abri Pataud is a key archaeological sequence in Les Eyzies- dating prior to the accelerator era. de-Tayac, in the French Dordogne. The site itself sits at the base of Recent work suggests that the problems specific to pre- imposing limestone cliffs flanking the Vézère River (Fig. 1). Pataud treatment chemistry, however, are being overcome. We have was discovered at the end of the 19th century but it was not until worked to develop and apply newer methods, including using an the 1950s that extensive and deep excavations took place under the ultrafiltration protocol in our collagen extraction (Brown et al., direction of Hallam L. Movius (Movius, 1977). These excavations 1988; Bronk Ramsey et al., 2004; Higham et al., 2006), as well as were rigorous and innovative, and the recording techniques used at utilising more rigorous ABOx-SC preparation methods for dating the time have allowed subsequent workers to reconstruct the charcoal (Bird et al., 1999; Higham et al., 2006, 2009). We inherit excavated sequence in great detail (Chiotti and Nespoulet, 2007). a legacy of problematic data, and so to address this we have been Movius and his team discovered a rich Upper Palaeolithic sequence working on redating some of the key western European sequences some 9 m deep, which contained 14 discrete occupation horizons, within the orbit of a larger project (funded by the Natural Envi- spanning the Aurignacian to the Gravettian and (Fig. 2). ronment Research Council of the UK). Perhaps as many as 70% of Importantly, the archaeological levels that were excavated are previous radiocarbon dates may be aberrant at some Middle to separated by sterile deposits (Eboulis) that may correspond to Upper Palaeolithic sites (Higham, 2011) and those that are not are periods when the shelter was abandoned or fell out of use. These saved usually by having very large quoted uncertainties. At some give some surety that there is little post-depositional mixing sites, all of the dates are almost certainly erroneous, and at others between the archaeological layers. There are nine discrete Auri- perhaps 40% are questionable. As we shall see, the Abri Pataud is no gnacian levels that span the Aurignacian I and Aurignacian II exception in all of this. The principal reason is apparent when one (Chiotti, 2005). The site has been a key reference for understanding compares radiocarbon dates of samples prepared before and after the changes in lithic and bone technology through this period, as the application of ultrafiltration, in the case of bone, and ABOx, in well as placing the occupations in a proper climatic context by the case of charcoal. Very often, the newly treated samples are reference to faunal and pollen changes through the sequence significantly older, which we take to mean that they have more (Movius, 1975, 1977).

Figure 1. Location of the site of Abri Pataud, Les Eyzies-de-Tayac, Dordogne, France. T. Higham et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 61 (2011) 549e563 551

Figure 2. Detail of excavated levels at the site (drawing R. Nespoulet and L. Chiotti, graphic by Claude Lecante). Numbers in black boxes refer to Layer numbers within the Abri Pataud sequence. Note the fact that they are separated by sterile layers, and the splits between levels 4 and 5, front and rear.

Nine archaeological levels constitute the Aurignacian part of the 1984; Nespoulet, 2000); Final Gravettian (also called Proto- sequence. The first six levels (14e9) correspond to the early Auri- (Level 2)) with large blades and backed bladelets gnacian or Aurignacian I, characterised by a predominance of (Nespoulet et al., 2008); and (Lower?) Solutrean (Level 1; Movius, scrapers (particularly carinate scrapers) and retouched blades 1977). (including Aurignacian blades). The evolved Aurignacian is repre- sented by levels 8e6. Among these levels are found two different Radiocarbon dating facies of the Aurignacian II. One, in level 8, is a facies with a domi- nance of scrapers (including numerous nose-ended scarpers) and This paper focuses on the chronology of the key Aurignacian Dufour bladelets of the Roc de Combe subtype. The other, in level 7, and Early Gravettian layers of the site. Producing a reliable is characterised by burins and particularly burins busqués (Chiotti, radiocarbon chronology is crucial because lithic sequences from 2005). Level 6, the last Aurignacian level, sits within the variable many other sites dating to the period are compared against the range of Aurignacian III and IV technocomplexes, whose precise Pataud sequence, since it is so extensive and deep, and it is one of techno-typological definition changes according to different the key Périgord sites. A large group of previous dates have been authors (Chiotti, 2005). For some, this assemblage heralds the early obtained (Table 1 and Fig. 3). Movius applied the radiocarbon arrival of the Gravettian tradition (Pesesse, 2010), for others it is method widely at the site. The dates initially appeared to make a final Aurignacian. The acknowledged Gravettian part of the reasonably good chrono-stratigraphic sense. Later dating using sequence includes four levels: 5 to 2. The oldest, level 5, which is up accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) in Oxford in the early 1980s to 1 m thick, is the most important of the sequence. It corresponds showed some variable results, but overall there remained a good to an early Gravettian with Gravette points. The deeper subdivision level of agreement with the previous conventional chronology of this level (Level 5 Front Lower), which contains fléchettes de from most of the dated levels (Mellars and Bricker, 1986; Bricker Bayac, is attributed to the Bayacian, considered to be earlier than and Mellars, 1987). We consider it likely, however, that serious the Gravettian with Gravette points (Bricker, 1995; Bosselin, 1996). doubt must be attached to the vast majority of the results from The end of the Pataud sequence, not discussed in this paper, these lower levels. This is because of the predominance of dates of includes the Middle Gravettian (Level 4) with successively one burnt bone and extracts thereof. The treatment procedure applied Noailles burins facies (termed Noaillien) and one Raysse burins in Groningen in the 1950s and 1960s for the dating of burnt bone facies (termed Rayssian) (David, 1985; Pottier, 2005); Recent usually followed that used for charcoal, or similar plant-derived Gravettian (Level 3) with Microgravette points (Bricker and David, materials, and involved an acid-base-acid (ABA) treatment 552 T. Higham et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 61 (2011) 549e563

Table 1 temperatures of w800 C(Shipman et al., 1984). Variability in the Previously available radiocarbon ages from the site of Abri Pataud. temperature of the heating, however, will introduce significant Lab code Context Material Radiocarbon Ref. variation in this. In low carbon burnt bone, there is a reasonable age BP possibility that one is dating a mixture of pyrolised collagen and Gx-1372 5 Rear Upper: Lens H-3 Burnt bone 26 340 450 2 sediments, which can sometimes be found within the interstices GrN-4477 5 Rear Lower: Lens K-1 Collagen 26 600 200 1 of the bone. Often, we find low amounts of carbon remaining in GrN-4662 5 Rear Lower: Lens K-1 Burnt bone 27660 260 1 the charred bones that have been dated. When dating collagen, extract GrN-4634 5 Rear Lower: Lens K-1 Burnt bone 28150 225 1 analytical measurements regularly applied at the ORAU allow an residue assessment of the integrity and preservational state of the OxA-169 5 Rear Lower: Lens K-1 Collagen 28400 1100 3 collagen extract to be made. With burnt bone, however, there are amino acids no similar measures. Our experience shows that when dating GrN-4631 5 Front Middle-1: Lens R-1/2 Collagen 21780 215 1 samples from Middle to Upper Palaeolithic contexts, burnt bone Ly-300 5 Front Middle-1: Lens R-1/2 Collagen 22000 1000 Ly-100 5 Front Middle-1: Lens R-1/2 Collagen 23800 800 often underestimates the real age by up to several thousand years. GrN-5009 5 Front Middle-1: Lens R-1/2 Burnt bone 23350 170 4 In the case of the Abri Pataud, therefore, it is likely that the ages extract previously obtained on this material are likely to be mostly too GrN-5012 5 Front Middle-1: Lens R-1/2 Burnt bone 26050 310 4 young. residue Gx-1371 5 Front Middle-1: Lens R-3 Burnt bone 25815 330 The Oxford amino acid dates (Mellars and Bricker, 1986; Gowlett OxA-581 5 Front Middle-1: Lens R-3 Collagen 26000 1000 3 et al., 1987) were prepared using a method in which the collagen amino acids was hydrolyzed and treated with activated charcoal before the W-151 5 Front Lower-2 Burnt bone 23600 800 separation of the amino acids using cation-exchange columns W-191 5 Front Lower-2 Burnt bone 24000 1000 (Gillespie and Hedges, 1983; Gillespie et al., 1984). The method was Gx-1369 5 Front Lower-2: Lens V-2 Burnt bone 26720 460 Gx-1370 5 Front Lower-2: Lens W-1a Burnt bone 27545 320 used prior to 1989. Since the Abri Pataud dates were obtained, other OxA-582 6 Lens 1 Collagen 24340 700 3 methods have been applied, which suggest that these dates, amino acids measured as they were at the inception of the AMS method, can OxA-688 6 Lens 1 Collagen 19700 350 3 sometimes be unreliable. Therefore, their accuracy is questionable. amino acids OxA-689 6 Lens 1 Collagen 26600 800 3 Similar doubts exist for other collagen dates in other radiocarbon amino acids facilities in the light of more recent work on improving the puri- OxA-690 6 Lens 1 Collagen 26600 800 3 fication of the extracted collagen (Higham et al., 2006). amino acids The Groningen charcoal dates are probably the most reliable of GrN-3105 7 Hearth W-1 Charcoal 29300 450 1 the previous corpus of dates, but there are only three of them, from GrN-4531 7 Hearth W-1 Collagen 31800 310 1 GrN-3117 7 Hearth W-1 Charcoal 32800 450 1 a hearth in Level 7. Vogel and Waterbolk (1967) reported that GrN- GrN-3116 7 Hearth W-1 Charcoal 32900 700 1 3105 was only treated with acid, and too young because it did not GrN-6163 8 Ash 31800 280 5 have the full pre-treatment chemistry. GrN-3117 was treated fully GrN-4326 11 Burnt bone 32000 800 1 with an ABA treatment, and was considered reliable, whereas GrN- extract GrN-4309 11 Charred bone 32600 550 1 3116 is the humic component of the charcoal and potentially linked GrN-4310 12 Burnt bone 31000 500 1 with exogenous carbon, therefore an unreliable age. Recent work residue has shown that an ABA pre-treatment is sometimes not sufficient to GrN-4327 12 Burnt bone 33000 500 1 decontaminate samples of Palaeolithic charcoal. At sites in , extract and , for instance, we have shown that ABA-treated GrN-4719 12 Burnt bone 33260 425 1 residue samples tend to be younger than the true age, where indepen- GrN-4610 14 Burnt bone 33300 760 1 dent evidence exists (Higham et al., 2009; Douka et al., 2010). extract Depending on the degree of post-depositional contamination in the GrN-4720 14 Collagen 33330 410 1 contexts from which these samples came, then, there is a possibility GrN-4507 14 Burnt bone 34250 675 1 residue that they could be underestimating the age as well. We conclude that of the 33 available radiocarbon ages from Pataud, only one is 1) Vogel and Waterbolk (1967).2)Pottier (2005).3)Gowlett et al. (1987).4)Vogel likely to be reliable (GrN-3117), and even that could be and Waterbolk (1972).5)Bricker (1995). Laboratory prefixes in the table are: GrN: Centre for Isotope Research, Groningen (Vogel and Waterbolk, 1963, 1967, 1972; a minimum age. Movius, 1963, 1977); Gx: Geochron Laboratories (Bricker, 1973); Ly: Centre de A new bone determination obtained in 2005 seemed to confirm Datation par la RadioCarbone, Lyon; OxA: Oxford laboratory (Gowlett et al., 1987), that the ages of many of the previously obtained samples from the W: U.S. Geological Survey (Rubin and Suess, 1955). lower Aurignacian levels were underestimates by several thousand 14C years (Higham et al., 2006). With this in mind, we decided to resample the sequence from levels 5e14, particularly focussing on (Vogel and Waterbolk, 1967; Evin, 1990). Often, two samples were the lower horizons. dated from each bone: an ‘extract’ (the fraction soluble in the base solution) and a ‘residue’ (the insoluble material remaining after Methods the application of basic solutions); the former used as a check on whether there were possible contamination-based effects. Vogel Initially, we planned to date directly samples of osseous bone and Waterbolk (1967) usually concluded that the oldest of the implements, such as points, from the Abri Pataud sequence, but paired dates was more likely to be the most accurate. We know these were smaller than expected and had evidence for extensive now that burnt bone is often an unreliable sample type for dating glues and preservatives on the surfaces from conservation work. the Palaeolithic because it is usually difficult to determine This could influence the accuracy of radiocarbon measurements. precisely what is being dated. The bulk of the remaining material We decided instead to focus on humanly-modified and cut bone. is usually pyrolised collagen. The high temperatures usually Our first selection of samples in 2007 covered levels 6e14. Later, associated with burning remove the inorganic crystalline material from these levels and level 5 was resampled to improve hydroxyapatite structure of the bone, which melts at the Bayesian model that we generated (see below) and obtained T. Higham et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 61 (2011) 549e563 553

Figure 3. Previous radiocarbon dates from the site of Abri Pataud (see text for details).

more samples in 2008. The details of the samples obtained are Oxford method (Higham et al., 2006; Brock et al., 2010), comprising shown in Table 2. In addition to the cut bone, several bone a decalcification with 0.5 M HCl, a 0.1 M NaOH wash, then re- retouchers were identified and sampled for direct dating. acidification using 0.5 M HCl. Each step was interspersed with Each of the bones and teeth were sampled using an NSK Electer rinsing using distilled water. Gelatinisation of the collagen was GX drill with a tungsten carbide drill bit. Approximately 500 mg of undertaken using weakly acidic pH3 water at 75 C in an incubator bone or tooth dentine was taken for analysis. Bone collagen was for 20 h. The supernatant was recovered using an EziFilterÔ.We extracted from whole bone or tooth dentine using the manual ultrafiltered all samples using a VivaspinÔ 30 kD MWCO ultrafilter 554

Table 2 Details of the samples selected for radiocarbon dating and the conventional ages determined.

OxA/OxA-X CRA Error Level Subdivision Culture Artefact number Trench Square Species Element Part Comments 21585 28180 270 5 Rear lower - I1 Early Gravettian AP5FR15090 III D NID, medium-sized Long bone Fragment of medial shaft Retouchoir herbivore 21586 28230 290 5 Rear upper - H3 brown Early Gravettian AP5FR22683 IV E Rangifer tarandus Radius Fragment of distal shaft Cutmarks 21587 28150 290 5 Front lower - W1 Early Gravettian 5F3600 III B Rangifer tarandus Metacarpal III-IV Fragment of proximal Cutmarks epiphysis & proximal shaft 21588 28250 280 5 Front middle - R3 Early Gravettian AP5R24897 IV-East A Rangifer tarandus Central þ fourth Whole bone Cutmarks tarsal 2225e38 26780 280 5 Front upper - Q4 Early Gravettian AP5FF38866 IV-South A Rangifer tarandus Femur Fragment of proximal shaft Cutmarks East 21681 31200 400 6 Evolved Aurignacian 6F6959 DII II D Equus ferus Upper cheek tooth Unerupted upper cheek tooth Broken 549 (2011) 61 Evolution Human of Journal / al. et Higham T. 22778 31850 450 6 Evolved Aurignacian 6F6977 CIII III C NID NID Fractured diaphyseal fragment Humanly smashed 21676* 31250 400 6 Evolved Aurignacian 6CIV sac 71 NID NID Small diaphyseal fragment Cutmarks 21677* 31270 390 21583 32400 450 7 e Evolved Aurignacian 7F6641 III E Bos/Horse Femur/humerus Fragment of medial shaft Retouchoir 21584 32200 450 7 e Evolved Aurignacian 7F6767 III D Bos/Horse Long bone Fragment of shaft Cutmarks 2276e20 32150 450 7 Evolved Aurignacian 7F6640 EIII III E Equus/Bovine Humerus/Femur Cutmarks 21680 32850 500 7 Evolved Aurignacian 7F6779 DIII III D Bovini Femur Diaphyseal fragment Retouchoir 21582 31300 400 8 e Evolved Aurignacian 8F6533 III D Large/medium-sized Rib/vertebra Fragment Cutmarks herbivore 2276e19 33050 500 8 Evolved Aurignacian 8F6559 D-EIII-IV III-IV D-E Rangifer tarandus Tibia Diaphyseal fragment of Cutmarks right tibia 21673 33400 500 9 Early Aurignacian 9F6462 CIII III C NID Animal bone Cutmarks 21679 33650 500 10 Early Aurignacian 10/11 F6416 DIII III D Equus ferus Right M1/M2 Fractured right M1/M2 Humanly tooth smashed 21601 34150 550 11 e Early Aurignacian 11F702 III A Bos/Bison Humerus Fragment of medial shaft Retouchoir 21602 33500 500 11 e Early Aurignacian 11F1768 IV C Horse Metatarsal III Fragment of proximal epiphysis Retouchoir 21580 33550 550 11 e Early Aurignacian 11F1813 III B Horse Metapodial III Fragment of proximal shaft Retouchoir 21581 33550 550 11 e Early Aurignacian 11F1861 III B Rangifer tarandus Tibia Fragment of medial shaft Cutmarks e e 12 Early Aurignacian 12F6275 II/III B Horse Tibia Fragment of proximal shaft Cutmarks 563 21670 33450 500 12 Early Aurignacian 12F6340 BII II B Rangifer tarandus Radius Diaphyseal fragment Cutmarks 21671 34300 600 12 Early Aurignacian 12F6290 BII/III II/III B Rangifer tarandus Femur Fragment from anterior face Retouchoir of mid shaft 21672 34050 550 12 Early Aurignacian 12F6334 BII II B Equus ferus Metapodial III Fragment of proximal Cutmarks articulation right metacarpal III 21598 34750 600 13 e Early Aurignacian 13F5955 IV B Rangifer tarandus ? Long bone Fragment of medial shaft Cutmarks 21599 34850 600 13 e Early Aurignacian 13F6011 III B Rangifer tarandus Tibia Fragment of proximal shaft Cutmarks 21600 34200 550 13 e Early Aurignacian 13F6030 IV B Rangifer tarandus Metatarsal III-IV Fragment of medial shaft Cutmarks 21578 35750 700 14 e Early Aurignacian 14F3521 II/III B Rangifer tarandus Femur Fragment of medial shaft Cutmarks 21579 35000 600 14 e Early Aurignacian 14F3567 III B Rangifer tarandus Scapula Glenoid cavity Cutmarks 21596 34500 600 14 e Early Aurignacian 14F3831 III B Rangifer tarandus Tibia Fragment of medial shaft Cutmarks 21597 35000 650 14 e Early Aurignacian 14F4073 III B Rangifer tarandus Radius Fragment of shaft Cutmarks The samples are all humanly-modi fied, in the form of cut bone and broken teeth, or are artefacts (retouchers). *denotes duplicates. T. Higham et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 61 (2011) 549e563 555

(see Bronk Ramsey et al., 2004; Higham et al., 2006). The >30 kD OxA-X, rather than OxA- numbers, but overall the collagen yields fraction was freeze-dried and weighed into pre-combusted tin were acceptable. Ultrafiltration reduces collagen yields compared capsules for later analysis. This fraction was used for all of the AMS with other techniques, but we think that this allows us to exclude dates in Table 1. potentially problematic, poorly preserved samples. C:N atomic Combustion of the pretreated gelatin was achieved using ratios were all within 3.1e3.3, which is within our range of 2.9e3.5. a Europa Scientific ANCA-MS system consisting of a 20e20 IR mass %C yields on combustion were consistently high, as expected. The spectrometer that is interfaced to a Roboprep or Carlo-Erba CHN vast majority of the collagen yields are acceptable, the analytical sample converter unit. This operates in a continuous flow mode data is within our required specification, the radiocarbon results with a He carrier gas. This allows us to obtain d15N and d18O, appear consistent by level, and there appear to be few outliers nitrogen and carbon contents, and C:N ratios within several when viewed by eye. minutes of the injection of the samples in the Elemental Analyser 13 (EA). d C values in this paper are reported with reference to vPDB. Calibration We do not report d15N values due to the fact that we did not use specific nitrogen standards in our combustions. Graphitisation of Calibration of radiocarbon has proven particularly problematic CO2 was achieved using the standard ORAU method that is outlined within Marine Oxygen Isotope Stage 3 (MIOS3). In 2004, INTCAL04 in Dee and Bronk Ramsey (2000). The Oxford accelerator facility was published, with a curve allowing calibration back to 26,000 cal and the AMS setup is described by Bronk Ramsey et al. (2004). BP, based on preliminary data mainly from coral and foraminifera Radiocarbon dates were corrected for chemistry preparation using (Reimer et al., 2004). In this paper, we use the INTCAL09 dataset, a new background correction described by Wood et al. (2010) and which spans back to 50 ka cal BP (Reimer et al., 2009). A note of are expressed as conventional radiocarbon ages BP after Stuiver and caution is warranted regarding the use of calibration in this period. Polach (1977). Calibration is an ongoing process and new datasets are expected in the next few years. Beyond w12,550 BP, we rely predominantly on Results a curve constructed mainly from marine contexts such as the Lake Cariaco basin sediment record in Venezuela (Hughen et al., 2004, We have obtained 31 new AMS determinations. These are 2006), corals from the Bahamas and Atlantic Ocean (Fairbanks shown in Table 3. All analytical data associated with each of the et al., 2005) and foraminifera from a core taken off the Atlantic dated bones is also provided. Three bones yielded collagen below coast of Iberia (Bard et al., 2004), so the calibration data is not our minimum required threshold of 1.0% weight. These were given terrestrially based, nor absolute, and must be tuned to other dated

Table 3 Radiocarbon determinations from the Abri Pataud.

OxA Material Species CRA þ/ Used Yield %Yld %C d13C(&)CN 2276e19 Bone Rangifer tarandus 33050 500 610 5.50 0.9 43.3 20.2 3.2 2276e20 Bone Animal 32150 450 630 4.27 0.7 43.0 20.0 3.3 22778 Bone Bovid/horse 31850 450 610 6.62 1.1 43.0 20.7 3.2 15216 Bone NID 35400 750 620 7.63 1.2 41.5 18.7 3.2 21578 Bone Rangifer tarandus 35750 700 500 6.32 1.3 43.6 18.8 3.3 21579 Bone Rangifer tarandus 35000 600 610 26.8 4.4 45.3 18.2 3.3 21580 Bone Horse metapodial 33550 550 547 6.30 1.2 41.0 19.7 3.1 21581 Bone Rangifer tarandus 33550 550 566 7.90 1.4 40.1 19.1 3.2 21582 Bone Large/medium-sized herbivore 31300 400 645 6.40 1 40.4 19.7 3.2 21583 Bone Bos/horse femur/humerus 32400 450 517 8.20 1.6 41.0 19.6 3.1 21584 Bone Bos/horse long bone 32200 450 533 9.20 1.7 41.0 19.7 3.2 21585 Bone Medium-sized herbivore 28180 270 522 14.52 2.8 40.2 19.0 3.1 21586 Bone Rangifer tarandus 28230 290 448 13.0 2.9 39.8 18.7 3.1 21587 Bone Rangifer tarandus 28150 290 490 10.3 2.1 40.9 18.8 3.2 21588 Bone Rangifer tarandus 28250 280 496 14.0 2.8 40.7 19.0 3.1 2225e38 Bone Rangifer tarandus 26780 280 502 3.50 0.7 41.3 18.8 3.2 21596 Bone Rangifer tarandus 34500 600 500 5.96 1.2 42.0 20.4 3.2 21597 Bone Rangifer tarandus 35000 650 500 11.1 2.2 40.8 18.2 3.1 21598 Bone Rangifer tarandus 34750 600 520 9.89 1.9 42.3 19.0 3.2 21599 Bone Rangifer tarandus 34850 600 520 7.97 1.5 42.3 18.5 3.2 21600 Bone Rangifer tarandus 34200 550 400 9.03 2.3 42.7 19.0 3.2 21601 Bone Bos/bison humerus 34150 550 570 8.50 1.5 41.9 20.2 3.1 21602 Bone Horse metatarsal III 33500 500 540 11.58 2.1 42.9 20.6 3.2 21670 Bone Rangifer tarandus 33450 500 610 14.83 2.4 45.6 19.2 3.3 21671 Bone Rangifer tarandus 34300 600 600 6.80 1.1 43.7 19.1 3.2 21672 Bone Equus ferus 34050 550 610 11.43 1.9 44.7 20.9 3.2 21673 Bone Animal 33400 500 600 13.38 2.2 43.7 20.0 3.2 21676 Bone Animal 31250 400 540 8.30 1.5 50.0 20.1 3.3 21677 Bone Animal 31270 390 630 11.80 1.9 48.9 20.2 3.3 21679 Tooth Equus ferus 33650 500 1240 13.26 1.1 45.8 20.9 3.2 21680 Bone Bovini 32850 500 1260 14.44 1.1 47.2 20.4 3.2 21681 Tooth Equus ferus 31200 400 600 15.02 2.5 43.1 20.9 3.2

CRA is conventional radiocarbon age, expressed in years BP, after Stuiver and Polach (1977). Stable isotope ratios are expressed in & relative to vPDB with a mass spectrometric precision of 0.2&. Gelatin yield represents the weight of gelatin or ultrafiltered gelatin in milligrams. %Yld is the percent yield of extracted collagen as a function of the starting weight of the bone analysed. %C is the carbon present in the combusted gelatin. CN is the atomic ratio of carbon to nitrogen and is acceptable if it ranges between 2.9 and 3.5. There are three samples with OxA-X- prefixes, which are given in preference to OxA- numbers when there is a problem with the pre-treatment chemistry, AMS measurement or when there is a novel or experimental protocol applied in the dating. In the cases here, the samples produced an overall yield of <1% wt. collagen. We consider the results accurate, however. 556 T. Higham et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 61 (2011) 549e563 proxies. In addition, there are uncertainties regarding the reservoir effects for these datasets and how much of an offset is inherent compared to the terrestrial and atmospheric 14C record. There are indications that during DangaardeOeschger cycles and Heinrich events, our assumptions regarding constancy in reservoir offsets may be false (Reimer et al., 2009). Given the nature of climatic variations through MOIS3, this is a potentially significant area of uncertainty. Close to the radiocarbon background, it becomes difficult to achieve precise results, there are fewer dated samples and so there are larger errors on the curves. It is important, however, to interpret our results in sidereal years, not least because of the importance of comparing against other datasets such as the Greenland ice records, and local climate proxies where applicable, as well as results of ages determined using other techniques which do not require calibration, such as uranium series and lumines- cence. We have therefore used INTCAL09 to calibrate our AMS radiocarbon results. With these caveats in mind, we offer the interpretation below as a preliminary statement on the dating of this site in the expectation of future improvements in calibration. Recent reanalysis of the key Lake Suigetsu terrestrial lake sediment sequence in suggests that the correlation between INTCAL09 and the Suigetsu sequence is close (Staff et al., 2010) and this encourages us to press ahead with using the current curve. One advantage is that the methodology we use (Bayesian statistics) is widely tested and the modelling that we have undertaken can easily be repeated with different calibration datasets expected in the future. We anticipate that while there will be updates to the dataset we used, it will not involve significant changes to the general shape and age-depth characteristics of the model derived.

Bayesian modelling

A Bayesian modelling framework and OxCal 4.1 (Ramsey, 2001; Bronk Ramsey, 2009a) were used to analyse the radiocarbon data. This approach enables the incorporation of archaeological strati- graphic information along with the radiocarbon likelihoods obtained, within a statistical model. This method has been outlined in previous publications (e.g., Buck et al., 1996; Bronk Ramsey, 2009a). The model we developed is shown in Fig. 4. It consists of a series of phases, represented by the successive excavated niveau or levels, and boundaries between them. We have amalgamated lenses and sub-units within single phases in our model. Each phase is separated by two boundaries, because there are sterile layers between each level. We have labelled the end boundaries in the model Eboulis, and the start boundaries after the levels above them. The boundary Eboulis 6/7, for instance, marks the end of Level 7 and the start of the Eboulis, or sterile level between 6 and 7, while the boundary ‘Start 7’ represents the start distribution of Level 7. We only included GrN-3117 from the previous corpus of dates within the model (see above), as well as all of the new Oxford series published here. OxCal uses an MCMC simulation method to successively sample the solutions to Bayes theorem, which is the basis for the Bayesian approach. The data in the model are the radiocarbon measure- ments, or ‘likelihoods’. The priors in the model are composed of the relative sequence information known a priori from the careful Figure 4. Schematic of the Bayesian model. The model consists of the sequence of excavation undertaken by Movius and his team. We know, for archaeological levels and sterile layers (Eboulis) within the site. The first column shows example, that Level 8 is younger than Level 9, and we are able to the relationship between the events: which ones are constrained to lie before others. Each black line is an individual constraint. The second column shows the groupings utilise this ordering information mathematically. The data is imposed. Finally, on the right hand side, all of the phase boundaries are shown as part transformed using the calibration curve and forms a new distri- of a single large site phase. This defines the model shown in Fig. 5. bution, called the posterior. The internal consistency of the poste- rior distributions in the model can be tested using agreement us to question their position or reliability. In this paper, we used an indices. Posterior distributions that appear reasonable in terms of outlier detection method (Bronk Ramsey, 2009b) that allows the modelled framework applied yield high agreement indices, a probabilistic measure of the degree to which samples appear to be whereas those that appear to differ produce lower indices, leading outliers within the overall model. We used a t-type outlier model, T. Higham et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 61 (2011) 549e563 557 with prior probabilities set at 0.05. In reality, the agreement and outlier approaches produce similar results, so the results of the outlier modelling are reported here. The Pataud model was run six times to assess its reproducibility. We used 20e30 million sampling iterations for each of the models. The final model is shown in Fig. 5 and the data from one of the runs of the model is given in Table 4. The models were very reproducible. MCMC algorithms may sometimes experience convergence prob- lems, which indicate that the model finds many different incom- patible solutions and so is slow to calculate, or converge. The convergence values for the Pataud model were, however, uniformly high (Table 4: average 99.8). This suggests a robust model. The results of the outlier analysis are shown in Table 5. We found that there were two partial outliers in the model. Statistically speaking, we would expect one in 20 determinations to be an outlier, so the results suggest that there is little outside of expected statistical variability influencing the data. One of the outliers was from level 5 (OxA-X-2225-38 with a posterior outlier probability of 42.9% compared with the prior of 0.05%), the ancient Gravettian level. The other results from this level were in close agreement at w28,000 BP. The bone that furnished OxA-X-2225-38 was from the upper part of the Front section of Level 5. During excavation, Level 5 was divided into two parts; Rear and Front, owing to a debris cone that was excavated between the two. Movius (1977) suggested that the rear sector was the principal occupation zone, with the Front section predominantly used as a refuse deposit. Although there are few determinations, it is possible that either the Front section is later or that it is composed of a more mixed assemblage, and includes material from a later occupation during Level 4. The complexity of the Level 5 deposit, and the relationship between the different lenses in Front and Rear section could be tested with more AMS dating. The other explanation concerns the pre-treatment chemistry of the sample, which was characterised by a low % collagen yield of <1%. This is why the sample in question was given an OxA-X- prefix. In our experience, this is considered less signif- icant and we favour the first explanation. The other partial outlier was OxA-21582 (39% prob.). There was nothing unusual about this sample in its chemical pre-treatment, and all of the data we collected are no different from the other samples in the series. It may be a statistical outlier. Both samples are slightly too young with respect to the sequence. Overall, however, the sequence discloses no significant problems, and there is a consistency in the ages and their stratigraphic depth, which is reflected by the low incidence of outliers. An example of this is the duplicate dating of a small diaphyseal fragment of cutmarked bone from Level 6. We dated this sample twice, as a check on reproducibility, and obtained two results of 31250 400 BP and 31270 390 BP. They are in obvious agreement at 1s. Taken together, this type of information, and the acceptable diagnostic measures from pre-treatment chemistry and AMS measurements, gives great confidence in the reliability of the results and the Bayesian model.

Discussion

As mentioned above, boundaries mark the start and end dates of Eboulis through the sequence as well as archaeological levels Figure 5. Bayesian age model for the Abri Pataud sequence produced using OxCal 4.1 (Fig. 5). These boundaries are not dated themselves, but are (Bronk Ramsey, 2001, 2009a, b). The radiocarbon ages are calibrated using the interim produced as part of the modelling as probability distribution INTCAL09 dataset (Reimer et al., 2009). See Fig. 4 for the model schematic. The indi- vidual radiocarbon likelihoods are illustrated by the lighter shaded distributions and functions (PDFs). They allow us to provide temporal constraints for the darker outlines represent the posterior probability distributions (i.e., the results when events occurred, began or ended, through the archaeological after the Bayesian modelling). The data is compared further against with the NGRIP sequence. GICC05 d18O record tuned to the Hulu spelaeothem chronology of Wang et al. (2001) We have tentatively compared the new chronological sequence (after Weninger and Jöris, 2008). Greenland interstadials are numbered where rele- vant and discussed in the text (data from Andersen et al., 2006; Svensson et al., 2006, with the NGRIP d18O palaeotemperature profiles recorded in the 2008). No Greenland stadials are given. Note the shaded area is the H4 event, dated at Greenland ice, which we show in Fig. 5. Again, it is important to 39.6e38.9 ka BP (estimated duration 700 300 years; Wang et al., 2001; Svensson state that this is a tentative assessment, largely because there are et al., 2006). 558 T. Higham et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 61 (2011) 549e563

Table 4 Calibrated age ranges and results of age modelling for the Abri Pataud sequence.

Calibrated age range Calibrated age range Modelled range Modelled range Convergence

(68.2% prob.) (95.4% prob.) (68.2% prob.) (95.4% prob.)

From To From To From To From To Eboulis 4/5 32680 30930 32890 30660 98.3 OxA-21585 32880 31970 33200 31610 32830 32060 33060 31670 99.8 OxA-21586 32960 32010 33280 31610 32850 32070 33100 31670 99.8 OxA-21587 32860 31920 33200 31570 32830 32040 33060 31640 99.8 OxA-21588 32970 32050 33290 31640 32850 32080 33100 31690 99.8 OxA-X-2225-38 31360 31070 31560 30910 32840 31110 32990 31050 99.4 Niveau 5 Start 5 33260 32360 34110 31960 99.6 Eboulis 5/6 35890 34970 36360 34320 99.7 OxA-22778 36840 35510 37460 35110 36350 35410 36510 35220 100 OxA-21681 36280 35220 36530 34960 36200 35400 36420 35140 100 OxA-21677 36280 35310 36550 35000 36220 35390 36430 35160 100 OxA-21676 36280 35290 36550 34980 36210 35390 36430 35150 100 Niveau 6 Start 6 36550 35820 36730 35440 99.9 Eboulis 6/7 36840 36490 37070 36260 99.9 GrN-3117 38010 36740 38630 36570 36930 36610 37170 36510 99.9 OxA-X-2276-20 37410 35740 38380 35400 36910 36580 37160 36450 99.9 OxA-21680 38370 36800 38730 36550 36930 36610 37170 36500 99.9 OxA-21584 37430 36310 38440 35500 36910 36590 37160 36460 99.9 OxA-21583 37580 36470 38550 35700 36910 36590 37160 36480 99.9 Niveau 7 Start 7 37040 36670 37320 36570 99.9 Eboulis 7/8 37260 36780 37580 36640 99.9 OxA-2276-19 38470 37110 38850 36620 37400 36880 37720 36720 99.9 OxA-21582 36300 35320 36570 35010 37380 36850 37700 36690 99.9 Niveau 8 Start 8 37550 36960 37880 36760 99.9 Eboulis 8/9 37870 37230 38190 36970 99.9 OxA-21673 38770 37430 39370 36750 38010 37370 38310 37100 99.9 Niveau 9 Start 9 38150 37490 38450 37200 99.9 Eboulis 9/10 38400 37760 38640 37450 99.9 OxA-21679 39040 37590 39950 36970 38520 37910 38710 37590 99.9 Niveau 10 Start 10 38620 38050 38800 37690 99.9 Eboulis 10/11 38780 38320 38940 37930 99.9 OxA-21581 38950 37450 39930 36810 38850 38420 39030 38060 99.9 OxA-21580 38950 37450 39930 36810 38850 38420 39030 38060 100 OxA-21602 38860 37500 39560 36800 38840 38420 39030 38060 100 OxA-21601 40050 38570 40690 37590 38860 38440 39050 38070 99.9 Niveau 11 Start 11 38940 38510 39170 38170 99.9 Eboulis 11/12 39120 38650 39450 38430 99.9 OxA-21672 40050 38460 40600 37430 39240 38750 39570 38570 99.9 OxA-21671 40180 38670 40960 37750 39250 38760 39580 38580 99.9 OxA-21670 38810 37460 39460 36780 39230 38730 39550 38540 99.9 Niveau 12 Start 12 39390 38840 39760 38660 99.9 Eboulis 12/13 39780 39130 40130 38900 99.8 OxA-15216 41310 39650 41840 38890 39960 39300 40300 39050 99.9 OxA-21600 40060 38610 40760 37670 39960 39290 40270 39030 99.9 OxA-21599 40630 39150 41250 38710 39960 39300 40280 39040 99.9 OxA-21598 40490 39040 41210 38640 39960 39300 40270 39050 99.9 Niveau 13 Start 13 40140 39430 40470 39150 99.8 Eboulis 13/14 40470 39730 40790 39390 99.7 OxA-21579 40850 39370 41340 38800 40660 39890 40970 39510 99.6 OxA-21578 41640 40230 42080 39230 40700 39910 41020 39510 99.6 OxA-21597 40890 39330 41420 38750 40660 39890 40980 39510 99.6 OxA-21956 40280 38840 41180 38100 40640 39870 40950 39510 99.6 Niveau 14 Eboulis de base 40880 40020 41280 39590 97.5

The modelled data is illustrated in Fig. 5.

significant uncertainties in the NGRIP layer counting, which form Greenland are synchronous with changes in western Europe the basis for the chronological sequence, although these are fully (Blaauw et al., 2010). Finally, the age model used in the INTCAL09 quantified (Andersen et al., 2006). In addition, there are uncer- curve is tuned to the Hulu record, whereas NGRIP is layer tainties regarding the degree to which climatic changes in counted. For this reason, we use the NGRIP data tuned to the Hulu T. Higham et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 61 (2011) 549e563 559

Table 5 38,000 cal BP. Level 8, for example, commences at Outlier probability results. 37,550e36,960 cal BP. By this time, there is a wider faunal spectrum Element Prior outlier probability Posterior outlier probability being exploited by the occupants of the site, with a variety of species OxA-21956 5 4 still extant in the modern Dordogne, including birds and amphib- OxA-21597 5 4 ians, as well as some cold-adapted species such as the dormouse, OxA-21578 5 4 the common vole, pipit and chough. Four salmon vertebrae were OxA-21579 5 4 also recovered (Bouchud, 1975). Although large mammals are rare, OxA-21598 5 4 OxA-21599 5 4 there are the remains of red deer, reindeer, horse, bison and wild OxA-21600 5 4 boar. Pollen evidence (Donner, 1975) suggests that Level 8 and 7 OxA-15216 5 4 comprise a more wooded environment with birch, pine, oak and OxA-21670 5 5 a variety of herbaceous plants although we ought to exercise caution OxA-21671 5 4 when interpreting these data. More recent work showed that only OxA-21672 5 3 OxA-21601 5 4 Level 11 yielded reliable palynological signals (Fellag, 1998). OxA-21602 5 4 By Level 6, which seems to correlate with the return to stadial OxA-21580 5 4 conditions immediately before GIS7 (dating to 35 4807 661yrs B2K: OxA-21581 5 4 Andersen et al., 2006), pollen indicates the return of a more open OxA-21679 5 4 OxA-21673 5 4 landscape and probably colder climates once more. Taken together, OxA-21582 5 39 the radiocarbon age model and the evidence obtained from the OxA-2276-19 5 4 archaeological data (fauna) from the site appear in very good OxA-21583 5 3 agreement with the Hulu tuned NGRIP record. OxA-21584 5 3 The age model offers us the possibility of attaching precise dates OxA-21680 5 4 OxA-X-2276-20 5 3 to the emergence within the sequence of some of the key marker GrN-3117 5 4 fossils of the Aurignacian, such as split-based bone points, lozangic OxA-21676 5 3 points, as well as Dufour bladelets and burins busqués. In Level 11, OxA-21677 5 3 for example, the first osseous bone artefacts appear, including two OxA-21681 5 3 OxA-22778 5 4 split-based bone points, one of the signature artefacts of the Auri- OxA-2225-38 5 42 gnacian (Chiotti et al., 2003). The modelling suggests that this OxA-21588 5 3 phase began between 38,940e38,510 cal BP (68.2%) and OxA-21587 5 3 39,170e38,170 cal BP (95.4%). It would be interesting to compare OxA-21586 5 3 this age distribution against others dated using similar techniques OxA-21585 5 3 to determine the chronological relationships among these artefacts. fi In the rst column are the prior outlier settings, and in column two are the posterior This is something we are currently working on. New ages and age probabilities obtained after the modelling of the results. There are two results with slightly higher outlier probabilities after modelling. In a large sequence of deter- models are required from other similar types of sites, however, minations such as this, statistically speaking, one would expect one in 20 samples to before this can be achieved. Single dates on single objects are not be an outlier. able to provide the age resolution for precise comparison. The boundary between Level 9 and Level 8 is important, since Level 8 marks the inferred beginning of the Aurignacian II (Evolved Cave spelaeothem chronology in our comparison after Weninger Aurignacian) technocomplex and the appearance of a large corpus and Jöris (2008) and as used in CalPal. of burins (particularly burins busqués) and Dufour bladelets of the The results suggest that occupation at the Abri Pataud began Roc de Combe subtype (Chiotti, 2000, 2005). Chiotti (2000) showed between 40,880e40,020 cal BP, this being the boundary for the using refitting methods how these bladelets were manufactured Eboulis de base, just prior to the start of the occupation of Level 14. from nosed endscrapers. Their precise use remains obscure. They Comparison of this PDF against the NGRIP record implies that this may have been used as composite bladelets attached to projectile initial occupation may have taken place during a colder climatic points. These artefacts start appearing in significant number in regime. The only interstadial event of significance is the GIS9 event Level 8 and our results show that this occurs between at c. 40 ka cal BP on the NGRIP timescale and this is the smallest and 37,550e36,960 cal BP (68.2%) or 37,880e36,760 cal BP (95.4%). This shortest such event during this part of MOIS3. This concurs with the age appears to fit within the latter part of GIS8, the long warmer faunal evidence in Level 14, which is dominated by reindeer (98.7% interstadial that comes after the H4 event. of the faunal elements). Reindeer continue to be important in the The model suggests that between the latest Aurignacian level faunal spectrum of levels 13 and 12 (98.7 and 71% of the faunal (6) and the initial Gravettian (Level 5), there is a hiatus. We corpus, respectively). This suggests that the climate continued to be calculate that this ranges between 1850 and 3250 years (68.2% cool. We correlate tentatively the occupation of levels 13, 12 and prob.), so it is a substantial period during which there appears to be possibly 11 with the stadial conditions of the H4 event and no human presence at the site. Of course it is impossible to discount Greenland Stadial 9 (GS9), which we show on Fig. 5. The age of H4 is the presence of people at other sites, but Pataud was abandoned for 39.6e38.9 ka cal BP (Wang et al., 2001; Svensson et al., 2006). The a long period. The origins and chronology of the Gravettian in palynological studies that have been undertaken suggest that the southern and central France have been widely debated by French environment during this period is likely to be cold and steppic with colleagues. Some scholars have suggested that the tanged ‘Font- few trees (Chiotti, 2005), and arid and cold to the south and towards Robert’ points found at site such as Maisières-Canal, just to the Iberia (Sepulchre et al., 2007). It is interesting that the site appears to north of Mons in southern , are earlier than those found be occupied through this period of exceptionally difficult climate. with Gravette points in early Gravettian levels in central and south- The fauna of Levels 10 and 9 are very poor and it is difficult to western France (Djindjian and Bosselin, 1994; Djindjian, 2003). draw firm conclusions that are more widely applicable. The dates for They suggested that this might have resulted from the movement these levels, and for that of Level 8, however, appear to us to of people south in the face of much colder temperatures after GIS5 correlate with the interstadial conditions of Greenland Interstadial 8 (triggered by the cold that followed this so called ‘Maisières (GIS8) with respect to the NGRIP record (Fig. 5), starting at c. Interstadial’)(Djindjian and Bosselin, 1994). Another hypothesis, 560 T. Higham et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 61 (2011) 549e563 with more or less complex cultural scenarios, suggests that older Initially, we took the new ultrafiltered date of OxA-15217 Gravettian could have evolved locally from the Aurignacian. In this (29000 370 BP, Higham et al., 2006) as suggesting an occupa- case, there would be no substantial cultural break between the tion for the D2h Early Gravettian level that we correlated tenta- Aurignacian and Gravettian (Pesesse, 2010). This scenario is tively with GIS6, but subsequent dating has yielded inversions in currently difficult to argue based on radiocarbon, and at Pataud, it the anticipated sequence of radiocarbon dates and complicated the could be contradicted by the long hiatus between level 6 and 5. chronology. Further correlation of the Fontirobertian of central and Understandably, given the uncertainties in the radiocarbon south-west France with other Gravettian sequences in northern evidence, Delpech and Texier (2007) suggest the challenges of and eastern Europe therefore requires more research. The present wider correlation with other Gravettian contexts are too great to be evidence suggests that Pataud Level 5 ought to be placed within met. They suggest, however, on the basis of faunal analysis that GIS5, and that Level D2h may fit either contempora- there are three faunal biozones visible in the Gravettian between neously with it, or slightly earlier. More work is needed. w29e23,000 BP. They conclude that the Gravettian reached Another area of interest is the overall length of time over which northern Aquitaine at a time of milder, interstadial climate, with Abri Pataud was occupied. Our analysis suggests that the Auri- temperate forest species and ungulates visible in the archaeological gnacian 1 lasted between 2600 and 3600 years (at 68.2% prob.), this record from this time. The Gravettian continued in a cooler climate, being the difference between the start of Level 14 and the end of the and under cold and dry steppic conditions. Our results show that Eboulis prior to Level 8. The Aurignacian II occupation spans Level 5 at Pataud appears to be synchronous with the increased between 1290 and 2400 years (68.2% prob.). Of course this is the temperatures of GIS5 (Fig. 5) and therefore provides support for total span of time, within which discrete re-occupations occurred their suggestion. that were almost certainly of shorter duration. Just how short is We may compare this age estimate with recently published difficult to be sure about, but we have quantified the intervals results that we have obtained from the site of Maisières-Canal between the starts and ends of individual phases within the (Jacobi et al., 2010), supported by a detailed stratigraphic analysis Bayesian model and these are consistent in suggesting that many of (by our colleague Paul Haesaerts). Like Pataud, the Gravettian the dated levels may have been relatively brief occupations. In occupation of the site appears to have been equivalent to GIS5. This Fig. 6, we show calculated ranges for these parameters within each appears to us to provide interesting evidence for a broadly of the important Abri Pataud phases (see Table 6 for the data). What contemporary phase of occupation at this time in these two is interesting is that in all cases, the distribution peaks towards the regions. It would seem that the Gravettian was established in shortest part of the PDF. Level 8, for instance, produces a range of Aquitaine by the time of GIS5, and possibly earlier. Bouchud (1975) 0e270 years (68.2% prob.). This span is brief and invites us to lists red deer, roe deer, large bovid, horse, ibex, chamois, amongst entertain the possibility that this occupation may correspond with others in his examination of the fauna of Level 5, albeit within a short period of time. We suspect that the length of occupation a dominant reindeer assemblage. Taken together, the palae- could correspond to a brief seasonal presence of people at the site oenvironment at this time probably comprised a mixed mosaic and therefore diagnosing age precisely will remain forever beyond landscape of forested areas and more open steppe-like zones, the reach of radiocarbon dating. Faunal remains from earlier pha- a moist climate lacking the extremely harsh and cold conditions of ses, in level 11 for instance, suggest winter and summer occupa- previous periods (Vannoorenberghe, 2004). tions may have occurred, of a repeated but short duration (Sekhr, The radiocarbon chronology of La Ferrassie and its palae- 1998; Chiotti et al., 2003). Layers 14 and 12 provided similar data oclimatic sequence assumes importance in this discussion (Bosselin (Sekhr, 1998; see also the data summarized in Chiotti, 2005). In and Djindjian,1994), because La Ferrassie has a Fontirobertian level. contrast, evolved Aurignacian levels (8, 7 and 6) have yielded scant There are serious doubts about the current chronology of La Fer- faunal remains, so there is no seasonal data available, but analysis rassie, however, (cf. Bertran et al., 2008) and because of this we of the lithic evidence is not inconsistent with the occupation being have been re-examining it and obtaining new 14C measurements. rather short as well. Only Level 7 has delivered more complex

Figure 6. PDFs for the span of occupation for each of the principal levels at Abri Pataud (see Table 6 for the data). These data are obtained by modelling intervals from the start to end of each boundary bracketing individual phases in the model. T. Higham et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 61 (2011) 549e563 561

Table 6 the Dordogne may be a type of refugia during this period, since Ranges for the intervals between the start and end boundaries of each principal occupation, based on our chronometric model, appears to continue Aurignacian level at the Abri Pataud. through it. By Level 11, around 38,900e38,500 cal BP and therefore Level Age ranges at Age ranges at just towards the end of stadial conditions and the H4 event, new 68.2% prob. 95.4% prob. forms of bone technology in the form of split-based points appear at fi Level 6 0e940 0e1980 the site for the rst time. By the time of the next interstadial, GIS8, Level 7 0e300 0e720 occupants utilising an evolved Aurignacian technocomplex are Level 8 0e270 0e650 present, in Level 8. This occurs from w37,500e37,000 cal BP. Once e e Level 11 0 260 0 620 more, novel lithic forms, such as Dufour bladelets of the Roc de e e Level 12 0 320 0 750 fi Level 13 0e390 0e880 Combe subtype, appear. Level 6 is the nal Aurignacian level at the Level 14 0e410 0e1030 site and appears coeval with the end of GIS8 and the return to colder stadial conditions. Humans do not return to the site until much Data is rounded to the nearest 10 years. These results are illustrated in Fig. 6. later, during the Gravettian, and when they do it appears to be at the same time coeval as the appearance of people with a similar tech- habitat structures that may equate with longer durations of nocomplex in areas to the north and east, in and Belgium, settlement, but this is not certain. Using Bayesian mathematics and where occupation occurs during GIS5. modelling, our dating precision is naturally towards the absolute highest level of the technique. What is clear from our results is that Acknowledgements Level 8 is certainly not a long-term multi-generational occupation, and this conclusion may fit other levels as well. We acknowledge the entire team at the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, University of Oxford, particularly F. Brock, M. Conclusions Humm, D. Baker, A. Bowles, B. Emery, P. Leach and J. Davies. The Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) (grant NE/D014077/ New radiocarbon dating, involving the pre-treatment of bone 1) funded this work. We acknowledge, with gratitude, the help of using an ultrafiltration protocol, as well as the application of Dr. C. Vercoutère (Paris), Dr. R. Dinnis (Sheffield) and Mrs. Margaret Bayesian modelling to the results, has provided for the first time Chapman (Cheddar) for discussions and in helping us sort and a precise chronological sequence for Aurignacian levels 6e14, and select good material for dating at the Musée de l’Abri Pataud. We Gravettian level 5, at the site of Abri Pataud. Previous dates are thank Olaf Jöris (Neuwied) and Bernhard Weninger (Köln) for shown to be almost completely unreliable. 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