Challenges of an established amateur sport: Exploring how wheelchair basketball grows and thrives through a sport development lense Joshua R. Pate1 Danielle Bragale1

1James Madison University

Wheelchair basketball has been played in the United States for more than 70 years, and the National Wheelchair Basketball Association (NWBA) governing body has professionalized the sport to some extent with a league and culminating annual championship for its eight divisions. However, teams continue to face challenges that characteristically align with those of amateur sport in addressing recruiting and retaining athletes. The purpose of this study was to examine how the amateur sport of wheelchair basketball grows and thrives in recruiting and retaining participants. Green’s (2005) theory of sport development was chosen as the lens for this study because of its focus on establishment of a sport for sustainability through athlete participation. An online open-ended questionnaire was sent to all 139 NWBA team contacts, with 28 responses representing multiple divisions within the league. Findings revealed that funding is the biggest challenge as teams offered little support for tournament travel or financial rewards for athletes. Teams recruited athletes through social connections and community presence, but offered little structure for their means of retaining athletes. These findings show the NWBA teams operate with challenges akin to amateur sport due to uncertainty of funding and athlete sustainability.

Introduction II veterans completing rehabilitation in heelchair basketball began California and Massachusetts (NWBA, in 1946 as a physical activity n.d.a). Recreational contests were Woption for injured World War held between veterans and doctors at

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Pate and Bragale, 2019 50 Table 1 competition and athletic demands due to a number of rules similarities to NWBA divisions ambulatory basketball. It is also a popular Division Number of programming element for inclusive Teams sport organizations that offer sport Division I 27 and recreation for people with physical Division II 33 disabilities although equipment can cost Division III 53 as much as $2,000 per sport wheelchair. Intercollegiate 16 While the sport has grown since its Women’s Division 10 inception in 1946 in the United States Total 139 and the NWBA has established structure for the sport in some ways, an aging rehabilitation facilities until a team from demographic in specific communities Birmingham, CA, traveled to the Corona with small populations and geographic Naval Station almost 30 miles away for what is recognized as the first contest between two wheelchair basketball teams Table 2 (NWBA, n.d.a). The sport grew within Veterans Administration hospitals, and in States/territory represented in the current study 1948 the National Wheelchair Basketball State/Territory Number of Teams Association (NWBA) was organized Alabama 1 under the direction of Tim Nugent at the Arizona 2 University of Illinois (Strohkendl, 1996). California 2 The NWBA serves as the governing Connecticut 1 body of competitive wheelchair Florida 2 basketball in the United States, with eight Illinois 4 divisions: Junior Division-Prep, Junior Kentucky 1 Division-Varsity, Division I, Division Maryland 1 II, Division III, Intercollegiate Men’s, Minnesota 1 Intercollegiate Women’s, and Women’s. As Missouri 3 of 2018 there were 139 teams competing Nevada 1 in the NWBA. Globally, wheelchair Texas 1 basketball continues to grow among Utah 1 people with disabilities and is played by Virginia 1 more than 100,000 people in more than Washington 2 80 countries (Hutzler, Barda, Mintz, & Wisconsin 1 Hayosh, 2016). * Puerto Rico 1 The sport is an attractive option for * Washington D.C. 2 athletes with physical disabilities seeking * Denotes U.S. territory

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Pate and Bragale, 2019 51 limitations presents challenges for the with disabilities: (a) unemployment or longevity of the sport’s development underemployment; (b) inability to walk (Hutzler et al., 2016). College campuses outdoors due to terrain and safety; (c) around the United States have slowly inability to walk long periods of time adopted wheelchair basketball at the for health benefits; (d) transportation recreational, intramural, club sport, to community fitness facilities; and (e) and varsity sport levels. The University lack of fitness facilities with accessible of Illinois’s varsity program was the equipment, classes, programs, or trained first to offer wheelchair basketball as a staff to adapt programs and services. competitive option for students. These barriers are a mix of both In all, 16 teams at 11 universities structural and psychological barriers. offered varsity wheelchair basketball Previously, however, Rimmer, Riley, competing in the NWBA Intercollegiate Wang, Rauworth, & Jurkowski (2004) division as of 2018. The NWBA, identified 10 categories of barriers however, is far broader than a college related to access to and participation campus and includes teams that have in physical activity that were primarily no support system from a university or structural barriers: (a) build and natural rehabilitation center. Still, the challenges environment; (b) cost/economic; that NWBA teams face as well as (c) equipment; (d) guidelines, codes, approaches to recruiting and retaining regulations, and laws; (e) information; (f) athletes to play competitive wheelchair policies and procedures; and (g) resource basketball have not been explored. It is availability. Additionally, Rimmer et al. important to identify and examine these identified psychological barriers such as challenges teams face to give the league emotional/psychological; knowledge, and teams a better grasp on establishing education, and training; and perceptions a pipeline for future athletes and keeping and attitudes. Comprehensively, these existing athletes. Thus, the purpose categories provide a framework for of this study was to examine how the common barriers in disability sport and amateur sport of wheelchair basketball specifically wheelchair basketball. grows and thrives in recruiting and Structural barriers are mostly related retaining participants.. to physical space such as access to a facility, equipment access or existence, Literature Review and funding for disability sport Disability Sport Barriers opportunities (Wilson & Khoo, 2013). Disability sport faces a myriad of One commonly identified barrier for challenges and barriers within the athletes with disabilities is accessing general public sports sphere. Rimmer transportation to a facility for those (2015) identified five categories of needing to travel long distances for barriers to physical activity for people either training or competition (Kean,

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Pate and Bragale, 2019 52 Gray, Verdonck, Burkett, & Oprescu, sport participation due to expenses of 2017). Transportation has been noted transportation and equipment. Even as a major factor that influences within the NWBA, athletes may be participation of athletes with disabilities responsible for their own transportation (Cottingham, Carroll, Lee, Shapiro, & and equipment expenses (e.g., sport Pitts, 2016; Darcy, Lock, & Taylor, 2016). chair). A way to offset funding gaps is Cottingham et al. (2016) also found that sponsorship, but Kean et al. (2017) found assistive transportation devices such that American athletes have difficulty as the wheelchair can limit an athlete’s securing wheelchair sponsorship even at access to exercising. the highest level of competition. Equipment access is another Other structural barriers have common structural barrier for athletes been found to prevent or stymie with disabilities (Rimmer et al., 2004). A disability sport participation, including lack of proper adaptive sports equipment organization and structure of disability for athletes prevents full inclusion of sport (Thomas & Guett, 2014), access participants (Burkett, 2010). More to sport websites (Cottingham et specifically, standard assistive devices al., 2016) and even an increasingly may not appropriately accommodate all aging population of participants (e.g., athletes due to the variance of disability limitations due to age; Ng, 2007). (Burkett, 2010). Athletes with high Thomas and Guett (2014) found support needs (e.g., power and manual that disability sport organization and wheelchair users) have identified that structures are problematic across Europe access to proper equipment is a barrier because they operate in silos divided by to their athletic performance (Darcy et issue rather than moving forward as one al., 2016). While access to equipment united movement. Still, legislation in is limiting, it is the cost of adaptive the United States such as the Americans equipment that prevents access as with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) has athletes with disabilities often do not implemented legal measures to ensure have the financial resources for high- equal opportunities for people with performance adapted equipment equal to disabilities, including opportunities to their high-performing expectations and participate in sport. Globally, Article 30 achievements (Kean et al., 2017). of the United Nations’ Convention on Thus, funding has emerged as a the Rights of Persons with Disabilities third common category of structural states that people with disabilities have barriers for disability sport (Rimmer et the right to participate in recreation, al., 2004). Cottingham et al. (2016) note leisure, and sport (un.org, n.d.). that because people with disabilities Although legislation exists to ensure are often underemployed, it hinders equal opportunities for people with their ability to financially support their disabilities, it has not reduced stigmas

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Pate and Bragale, 2019 53 and discrimination against athletes with Included in psychological barriers disabilities (Wilson & Khoo, 2013). is coaching. Athletes with disabilities Psychological barriers are another have found themselves training without type of constraint that prevent athletes coaches who are qualified, which with disabilities from participation Martin and Whalen (2014) found to and competing in sport. Psychological produce negative ramifications. Coaches barriers are barriers related to society’s of disability sport often face unique mindset, stereotypes, and service. challenges, such as not understanding Disability sport is stigmatized and not the athlete’s disability (Martin & Whalen, well-known because people are not 2014), scarce resources and learning informed. Disability sport content is not opportunities for coaches, and varying taught in the sport management college needs of coaches depending on how a classroom at the rate of other sport- sport is adapted (McMaster, Culver, & related content (Pitts & Shapiro, 2017), Werthner, 2012). For example, McMaster leaving aspiring sport management et al. (2012) point out that adaptive professionals without formal training on rowing and sailing require specific disability inclusion. adaptations for individual athletes based Sport organizations that do meet on their ability levels whereas wheelchair the structural and infrastructural rugby, tennis, or basketball require demands for accessibility often are minimal adaptive devices or altercations susceptible to unseen psychological to the athlete’s approach. McMaster barriers in the way they communicate et al. (2012) note that formalized or fail to communicate with people coaching education programs are scarce with disabilities. These organizations, for coaches without a disability who according to Darcy et al. (2016), fall are coaching in disability sport, thus short of meeting a marketing strategy forcing them to learn through secondary for customers or athletes with disabilities experiences. by not targeting campaigns to attract or Psychological barriers also inhibit serve that segment of the market. For coaching in disability sport. Wareham, example, an accessible athletic training Burkett, Innes, and Lovell (2017) facility may have structural accessibility reported that disability sport coaches felt but lack in service toward patrons with stigmatized, that coaching athletes with disabilities (Pate & Wallace Carr, 2017). disabilities could damage their reputation Even when athletes with disabilities do as an elite coach, and that outsiders have access, many do not feel accepted may question their capability as a coach as elite athletes, which Cottingham et al. because they were coaching athletes with (2016) and Hardin and Hardin (2004) disabilities. Furthermore, Wareham et al. described as barriers of legitimacy. (2017) found that coaches often feared

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Pate and Bragale, 2019 54 they may push their athletes too hard and success, ensuring growth in even the cause physical or psychological injury. most successful or popular disability These barriers, then, limit a coach’s sport is no simple approach. influence on the athlete. Research Context Disability Sport Facilitators Competitive wheelchair basketball has Alternatively, access to elite coaching primarily been a sport suited for people and guidance transforms into a facilitator with physical disabilities. Athletes with for some competitive athletes with the following impairments are eligible disabilities (Kean et al., 2017). Kean et al. to compete at the Paralympic level of (2017) found that successful programs wheelchair basketball: Ataxia, athetosis, for athletes with disabilities provide hypertonia, impaired muscle power, access to resources any other sport impaired passive range of motion, leg program would offer: athletic training, length difference, and limb deficiency physiotherapists, and medical support. (International Paralympic Committee, Furthermore, successful programs n.d.; Keogh, 2011). Wheelchair support athletes through biomechanical basketball’s classification system assigns research for optimal improvement points to each player between 1.0 and (Keogh, 2011) and have coaches well- 4.5, with 1.0 representing the most trained in how to work with athletes limited activity. A team may only have with disabilities through inclusion and a total of 14 points on the court at any preferred language choices, which given time (International Paralympic positively affect recruiting the athletes Committee, n.d.). (Kiuppis, 2018). While necessary for ensuring Other facilitators for elite disability inclusion and equal competition sport have been shown to be government among teams, the classification support systems (Brittain & Hutzler, system and eligibility requirements 2009; Guan & Hong, 2016; Kean et al., may also present limitations for those 2017; Wilson & Khoo, 2013). However, not eligible to compete or provide a Hammond and Jeanes (2017) found that competitive approach the game (ángel mainstreaming disability sport toward an Gómez, Pérez, Molik, Szyman, & equal plane as able-bodied sport involved Sampaio, 2014; Hindawi, Orabi, Arjan, risks as well, such as reduced funding and Judge, Cottingham, & Bellar, 2013; limiting who can participate in disability Vanlandewijck, Evaggeunou, Verellen, sport. Conversely, mainstreamed sports Houtte, Aspeslagh, & Zwakhoven, have been reluctant to accept disability 2003; 2004). Keogh (2011) highlighted sport into their organizations (Thomas a potential barrier of the classification & Guett, 2014). Given the number of system of penalizing athletes for their barriers and requirements for facilitating higher training status rather than their

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Pate and Bragale, 2019 55 disability, because the functional system Research has supported the notion classifies athletes based on their ability of that wheelchair basketball is, indeed, a variety of generic sporting tasks. amateur but with stability and structure Classification systems within other that establishes credibility (Berger, 2008). elite competitive disability sports such Embracing the amateur status is one as rugby have shown to be a barrier to option to enhance validity for the sport. participation, as well (Santos, Vigário, For example, Larkin, Cottingham, and Mainenti, Ferreira, & Lemos, 2017). Pate (2014) examined the feasibility Barriers such as these are necessary of college wheelchair basketball teams for competition, but ultimately present competing under the NCAA structure challenges to developing disability sport, and found that, due to Title IX and other specifically wheelchair basketball at funding constraints, women’s wheelchair the elite, competitive level within the basketball may have grounds to apply as United States. Furthermore, nuances an emerging sport for women. Faull and of the game itself have been found Jones (2018) established and validated a to be a barrier, such as the fact that tool to measure movement imagery for wheelchair basketball players shoot from wheelchair sport athletes, recognizing a seated position to the same rim height the importance of mental skills training as ambulatory basketball (Oudejans, within disability sport. Common ties Heubers, Ruitenbeek, & Janssen, 2012). among this previous research reinforces In spite of the barriers the sport that wheelchair basketball is an amateur itself has, wheelchair basketball has been system that operates with qualities of a viewed as an amateur sport with elite stable structure. and stable qualities often associated with professional sport. Hardin and Hardin Theoretical Foundation (2003) found that media coverage of Green’s (2005) theory of sport wheelchair basketball trivialized the development was chosen as the lens sport by featuring it in the community for this study because of its focus on section rather than sports section, establishment of a sport for sustainability and the researchers later found that through athlete participation. The theory athletes understood that being viewed argues that sport develops a broader as inspirational rather than for their acceptance by adopting policy through athleticism could be to their advantage the pyramid model. The pyramid model regarding visibility (Hardin & Hardin, addresses at least three key issues 2004). Still, athletes were frustrated that for athletes: Entrance, retention, and their sport was not received with respect advancement. that other sports garner (Hardin & Green argues that at least four Hardin, 2003; 2004). concepts are required to analyze how

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Pate and Bragale, 2019 56 individuals enter a sport: Recruitment, the sport and advance some of them into motivation, socialization, and high-caliber performers. commitment. Green points to soccer, Given the length of time wheelchair swimming, and baseball as examples of basketball has operated at the elite, sports that established youth leagues for competitive level within the United children to develop a commitment to States, and given the length of time the sport before adolescence when other the NWBA has served as the sport’s influential factors take over. Entrance governing body in North America, it may for athletes at a later age may depend on be assumed that the sport has achieved sponsored recruitment – when significant stability. However, the purpose of this others support and encourage athlete study was to examine how the amateur involvement – for sport development sport of wheelchair basketball grows (Brodkin & Weiss, 1990; Kay, 2000). and thrives in recruiting and retaining Green (2005) suggests that retention participants. The setting for this study of athletes requires action from both was within the NWBA with the following the athlete and the program. Athletes research questions guiding the work: must find value in the sport participation, 1. What are challenges faced by whereas programs must focus on social wheelchair basketball programs interaction, fitness, skill development, within the NWBA? and play while also catering to a range of 2. What are strategies for NWBA athlete talent rather than just the average teams to recruit wheelchair competitor (Green, 2005). Attracting basketball players with disabilities? athletes at all skill levels ensures greater 3. What are strategies for NWBA promotion of health and fitness benefits teams to retain wheelchair (Seefeldt, 1986; Siedentop, 2002; Wang, basketball players with disabilities? Pratt, Macera, Zhi-Jie, & Heath, 2004). For the purposes of this study, retention Additionally, it enlarges the pool of is when an athlete competed for a athletes from which elite sport may team one season and chose to return eventually seek recruitment (Green for a following season. RQ3 seeks to & Oakley, 2001; McNeill, Sproule, & understand how teams ensure athletes Horton, 2003). return the following season. Sport development is critical for the elite level of competition to elevate Methodology national prestige and strengthen sport The NWBA included 139 teams as an international tool for relations across five divisions according to and development (Houlihan, 1997). its website, www.nwba.org as of Furthermore, based on Green’s September 2017. Each program’s team pyramid model, the objective of sport representative was contacted via e-mail development is to recruit athletes into with an invitation to participate in the

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Pate and Bragale, 2019 57 study. E-mails were sent to 120 total related. Similar concepts were grouped contacts due to several teams having together and assigned an axial code that the same contact person (e.g., a college best described the grouped concept. program with multiple teams but one From there, data were again examined to primary contact). Seven e-mails were construct themes. returned as undeliverable, leaving 113 e-mails that were successfully sent. Findings and Discussion Initial invitations were sent August 30, There were 28 people who completed 2017. Reminder e-mails were sent one the questionnaire for a response rate week later on September 6, 2017. The of 24.8%. A general overview of questionnaire was closed on September the respondents showed 39.3% were 15, 2017. affiliated with a Division III team, which The questionnaire was developed may be attributed to a number of factors. based on the desire to address the Division III is for newer players seeking research questions guiding the current competition for development and study. A pilot questionnaire was sent to even recreation (NWBA, n.d.b). These a disability sport advocate and nine-year respondents may be eager to become wheelchair basketball program director involved in NWBA-related activity, eager for feedback. The questionnaire was to share their experiences and challenges, adapted based on information received and more eager to engage in discussion from the feedback and finalized for about their teams and players in hopes of the study. Participants were invited advancing and creating awareness. to complete an online open-ended Respondents’ teams were from 17 questionnaire focused on the profile of different states as well as Puerto Rico their wheelchair basketball program, and Washington D.C. Professional the challenges their program faced, and titles and their affiliation with the team recruitment and retention of athletes. were mainly head coach (n = 12) and Participants were not required to answer manager/coordinator (n = 8). The each question. respondents had been affiliated with the Data analysis began with open coding team for an average of 7.63 years with a of the data, searching for basic concepts range of 1 year to 41 years. Respondents and categories within the data. Open primarily held a bachelor’s (40.7%) coding was performed by highlighting or master’s (44.4%) degree. Around similar text and assigning the group a two-thirds of the participants (66.7%) code that best defined the concepts and identified with having a disability. categories. Analysis continued with axial coding where the researcher re-read the Team Profiles and Origins text to confirm open codes were accurate Teams averaged 13.7 players on the and examined how concepts were team with a range of 6-40. Programs

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Pate and Bragale, 2019 58 were fairly recently started, with 14 development and a pipeline of athletes having been formed since 2000, seven is established. Conversely, teams with since 2014. Most programs (71.4%) roots in personal interest or community examined in this study were not affiliated needs offer less structure for sustainable with a college or university. Of the entrance into the sport and may consider eight programs that were affiliated with alignment with an organization or a college or university, 50.0% offered support system for stronger connections partial scholarships; the other half to athletes. offered no funding or another type of The NWBA does not have policy financial assistance such as athlete grants. specific to athlete entrance; however, None of the programs offered full team origins show a structure in place scholarships. Of the remaining programs to ensure sustainability. People with not affiliated with a college or university, disabilities will always be present in 75.0% offered no funding for their rehabilitation centers, which are using players. Of the five programs that did sport within the rehabilitation process. provide funding for players, a range of Similarly, people with disabilities will 5-15 players received funding that ranged continue to seek higher education from as low as $50 to as high as a $5,000 opportunities, and disability sport in a grant. university setting can be used as a tool to Team origins were a mix among provide those opportunities. how they began: personal interest (8), Both rehabilitation centers and addressing a community need/desire (5), universities are environments that foster affiliation with rehabilitation centers (4), sponsored recruitment, where athlete affiliation with a university (2), evolution involvement is encouraged by significant from a previous team (2), and unknown others (Brodkin & Weiss, 1990; Kay, (1). Personal interest, community need, 2000). Individuals in rehabilitation and rehabilitation center connections centers can be surrounded by family and link to wheelchair basketball’s history others supporting their rehab efforts, with injured World War II veterans of which sport may be part. Individuals who formed the first competitive team in a college setting may be supported (NWBA, n.d.). both financially by scholarship and Green’s (2005) first key policy psychologically by family. Establishing issue of the pyramid model of sport programs supported by rehabilitation development emphasizes athlete entrance center and university infrastructure is into a sport; thus, identification of vital because wheelchair basketball is NWBA team origins in rehabilitation missing established youth leagues like centers and universities establishes a more traditional American sports with system through which athletes can be a system for advancement and athlete funneled to ensure the sport continues development (e.g., soccer, baseball;

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Pate and Bragale, 2019 59 Green, 2005). Still, it is unclear how else. Hard for us to compete many current wheelchair basketball against that. players in the NWBA may have been eligible for a youth program due to when We are not new any longer, so they acquired a disability. our team is more competitive and ready to make a push for nationals, Challenges Teams Face but our budgets have been cut Addressing RQ1, the biggest and in reality, we have less money challenge teams identified was funding today than when we started the to support travel and athletes, as well as program. Inexpensive gym space, the challenge of recruiting and retaining funding support for tournaments, athletes to play wheelchair basketball getting teams to come to [city] for without offering financial incentive or tournaments, and keeping adults reward. While understanding recruitment consistently engaged. and retention strategies were within the purpose of the current study, participants Funding, competing against larger identifying both as a challenge was not universities with scholarship assumed or anticipated. money and bigger budgets. We have immense difficulty finding funding. We want to travel Scholarship funding, access to for more tournaments (particularly campus resources on par with our because the women’s teams are able-bodied athletics programs. spread all over the country and playing against them always See Table 3 for a complete list of requires travel), but we need more participant quotes and their assigned funding for this. Our women are themes regarding challenges their teams not able to pay out-of-pocket for face. travel. How Teams Recruit Athletes Scholarships. Our team is funded Addressing RQ2, teams primarily well for what we need (travel, recruit athletes through social avenues equipment, etc.). But we are such as word-of-mouth and social media way behind when it comes to presence, as well as community presence scholarships or out-of-state tuition and traditional athlete recruiting visits waivers. We have had a number of (see Table 4). top recruits love our campus, love We ask anyone who looks like they our program, but cannot commit have a disability that we happen to because they are being offered see in our communities. scholarships to play somewhere

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Pate and Bragale, 2019 60 - - Quote in tournaments.” and play “Financial cost to travel for more tournaments (particu want to travel We immense difficulty finding funding. have “We the country against and playing teams are spread all over them always larly because the women’s out-of- are not able to pay Our women need more funding for this. but we requires travel), for travel.” pocket commitment.” “Funding and player “Our most pressing challenges are obtaining a gym and funding being the biggest for practices, are but since we for us, to come play A more recent challenge is getting new players challenge. it is hard to get them comfortableat the DI level before they can compete at this level.” “Funding, budget cuts to education and rising costs attend college.” are But we equipment, etc.). need (travel, for what we Our team is funded well “Scholarships. had a num have We or out-of-state tuition waivers. behind when it comes to scholarships way ber of our program, but cannot commit because they are love our campus, top recruits love Hard for us to compete against that.” somewhere else. to play being offered scholarships teams want nationally, and ranked doing well for a long time, “Since the team has been playing game.” each to be ready play have We a name for themselves. to beat our team and make “Financial and recruiting.” - Theme Funding Funding Funding / Retention Space / Funding Recruit ment Funding Funding / Recruitment Competition Funding / Recruiting Table 3 Table Teams Challenges for NWBA

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Pate and Bragale, 2019 61 - “We are not new any longer, so our team is more competitive and ready to make a push for and ready to make so our team is more competitive are not new any longer, “We than when we less money today have we been cut and in reality, but our budgets have nationals, started gym the program. funding support getting Inexpensive space, for tournaments, teams to adults consistently engaged.” and keeping come to [city] for tournaments, transportation to and from practices.” “Funding for travel, “Finding funding to get personal sport for players.” chairs competition fees: Entry Sponsors for paying need more gyms for training and playing. “We need to we United States, every competition in NWBA transportation. For hotels, airfare, fees, … spend a lot of money.” money and bigger“Funding, competing against with scholarship larger universities budgets.” funding, access to campus resources on par with our able-bodied athletics pro “Scholarship grams.” “Funding.” “Location of off and ability for our guys to take funding for tournament tournaments, travel work.” exposure.” travel, “Money, of Lack out-of-state tuition in particular. increases, “Tuition student-athletes that can get into our university.” “Recruiting and fundraising.” Funding Funding / Travel Funding / Equipment Space / Funding Funding Funding Funding Funding / Flexibility Funding Recruitment Recruitment / Funding

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Pate and Bragale, 2019 62 - - - Quote happen to see in our communi a disability that we they have who looks like ask anyone “We ties.” in the area who are women connections through other teams (someone might know make “We Clinic.” Basketball [local] Wheelchair like interested) and through local sporting events, We also are affiliated with a rehab hospital; this is our go-to option to recruit new players. “We a team composed ofhave professional (overseas), at the college, played who have individuals A lot of These being on the team assists in new players. players level. one Paralympic and even gone to the same university.” us have target high We I guidelines on recruiting. NCAA Division follow We recruit constantly. “We veterans.” seniors and wounded school of summer camp where a number have will go“We athletes attend. Our coach to junior tour meet with recruits and we at the national tourna teams play, naments around the area to watch ment.” at halftime of play rehab centers, and have visit hospitals, games, team] basketball [NBA “We and Girls Clubs.” Boys churches, against schools, fundraiser events of“Word mouth, social media, local news.” Theme Social Social / Community Hospital / Rehabilitation Reputation Recruiting Visits Recruiting Visits Community Social Table 4 Table Programs Recruit Athletes How NWBA

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Pate and Bragale, 2019 63 - - - “We are always recruiting! We attend different fairs, open events where we look for new people. look for new people. where we open events attend different fairs, recruiting! are always We “We friends and partners with the other hospitals in city and utilize them to help us also have We of And then there is word get new people. mouth. Our athletes are our best recruiters.” dem do presentations at college classes, We for exposure. participate events in community “We presentations at at colleges and high schools, halftime shows and colleges, os at high schools PT/OT clinics and hospitals.” We participate in disability sensitivity VA hospital. hand out fliers to rehab centers and the “We and Insta Twitter, Facebook, local businesses and non-profits, partner with several trainings, host tournaments media.” and invite gram. We and an agreement with the VA.” exhibitions at local schools, play a website, have “We Making rehabilitation centers. shopping malls, community, universities, “Clinicals at schools, RedGage, YouTube, Twitter, Facebook, like social networks videos and promote with postcards, and Google.” and talk with athletes.” travel, tournaments, host youth “Host summer camps, junior teams at tournaments staff throughout the season. Our coaching watch “We then con tacts those student-athletes they are interested in once become juniors high school.” referral …” “Word-of-mouth “Mainly word-of-mouth.” out to hospitals and other rehab centers!” and reaching “Word-of-mouth Community / Social Community Community / Social Community Community / Social Community / Recruiting Host Events Visits Recruiting Visits Social Social Social

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Pate and Bragale, 2019 64 “I go to junior tournaments and to the nationals recruit personally.” and Facebook.” “Word-of-mouth Word-of-mouth.” facilities. “Rehab and through our sports outreach, word-of-mouth, publications, “Through social media outlets, and fitness center.” nationals.” and NWBA tournaments, students at camps, “Meet with high school Quote on.” for them to play a team available have sure we make “We “They for the team camaraderie and opportunity regularly.” come back to exercise support players.” between “Team Recruiting Visits Social / Social Community Social Recruiting Visits Theme Meeting Expectations Camaraderie Camaraderie Table 5 Table Programs Retain Athletes How NWBA

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Pate and Bragale, 2019 65 “Hopefully, our team is doing a good that enough job at maintaining relationships with players “Hopefully, and administrative).” offering new positions for them (coaching in the past by played have support services and financial aid.” “Academic until they are done with school.” The student-athletes stay “No methods. hotel, entry and rental cars.” fee to tournaments, travel, for players’ raises funds to pay “Team “NA.” of along with evaluation “This need to do some work is an area where we our practices.” practices focused on improving included in decisions for tournaments, phone calls, “Weekly the end of towards skills with scrimmages scheduled Inclusion and encouragement to practices. participate Inclusion in the largest in the strength and conditioning programs. 3-on-3 basketball court our own have name] in [city]. We name]. [Event … [event in the tournament in the world an adult and a junior court.” have and we read and signed the code of the rules knows it fun. Everyone keep and have “We conduct. Not a recreational component to the club. also have We competitively. is expected to play everyone in mind and fun as the ultimate goal.Practices are designed with everyone That, of course, it.” knowing condition without even leads to our athletes getting in better physical Organize the Playing and encourage. funding because they are on limited income. “Provide game them.” really keeps Unsure / NA Academic Unsure / NA Unsure / NA Unsure / NA Unsure / NA Athletic Focus Camaraderie Funding

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Pate and Bragale, 2019 66 - “Federation paying: Entry fees to IWBF, NWBA; airfares; hotels; rental cars; uniforms NWBA; (back Entry paying: fees to IWBF, “Federation casters, pre-tape, tape, shorts); tubes, insurance; sport jerseys, equipment (tires, t-shirts, pack, clip straps).” academic support.” on academics and provide “Focus programs to support specialists for them while they are here; access to psychological “Academic any needs; high-quality athletic programs that support their growth.” “Sense of family.” to play.” just the hope that people will remain interested and motivated efforts, “No active it fun, and build a team-based environment.” make a quality experience, “Provide support.” “Academic “No method at this time.” Word-of-mouth.” facilities. “Rehab and reasonable pricing to participate.” coaching “Fair services them a better member Life skill training to make to support their studies. “Academic of society.” Funding Academic Academic Camaraderie Unsure / NA Camaraderie Academic Unsure / NA Unsure / NA Athletic Focus Academic

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Pate and Bragale, 2019 67 We make connections through semester of college. Those who did other teams (someone might focus on retaining athletes identified know women in the area who athlete camaraderie as well as offering are interested) and through academic support services for athletes in local sporting events, like [local] a university setting (see Table 5). Wheelchair Basketball Clinic. No active efforts, just the hope that people will remain interested We visit hospitals, rehab centers, and motivated to play. play at halftime of [NBA team] basketball games, and have This is an area where we need fundraiser events against schools, to do some work along with churches, Boys and Girls Clubs. evaluation of our practices.

We recruit constantly. We follow They come back for the team NCAA Division I guidelines on camaraderie and opportunity to recruiting. We target high school exercise regularly. seniors and wounded veterans. Team support between players. We watch junior teams at tournaments throughout the Academic programs to support season. Our coaching staff then them while they are here; access contacts those student-athletes to psychological specialists for that are interested in once they any needs; high-quality athletic become juniors in high school. programs that support their growth. How Teams Retain Athletes In response to RQ3 and how Academic services to support their teams retain athletes, a number of studies. Life skill training to make participants indicated they were unsure, them a better member of society. it did not apply to them, or they had no determined strategy to retain their Application to Theory of Sport athletes. This response is not surprising Development for college-affiliated teams that may Green’s (2005) pyramid model have scholarship options or captive suggests that action is required from participants who are enrolled in a both the athlete and the program for university. Scholarships are annually sport development. According to Green, renewed, but university enrollment athletes must find value in participation, serves as a natural retention strategy and that is seen through the challenges as students return for their sequential NWBA programs identified such as

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Pate and Bragale, 2019 68 funding. Funding has been among the recruitment and retention, according primary challenges for all disability sport to Green’s pyramid model, because it (Rimmer et al., 2004; Wilson & Khoo, promotes broader health and fitness 2013). More specifically, travel funding while recruiting young athletes into the for competition and basic participation pipeline for the elite level. has been identified as a barrier for Similarly, findings from the disability sport (Cottingham et al., 2016; current study showed that university- Darcy et al., 2016; Kean et al., 2017), affiliated NWBA programs expose as was identified by participants in the athletes to resources on campus that current study. support their athletic, academic, and While no program may be immune personal development through elite to such a financial challenge, participants training, tutors, and personal growth in the current study noted the funding opportunities, respectively. This supports challenge has prevented them from Green’s objective for sport development: recruiting athletes to play wheelchair to recruit athletes into a sport and basketball as well as retaining them advance them into high-performers. through a financial incentive. This Prior literature related to barriers and recruitment challenge relates to challenges in disability sport suggested Cottingham et al.’s (2016) finding that that communication with the disability underemployment of people with population has been inconsistent or disabilities presents financial barriers that incorrect through areas of marketing may prevent sport participation. Applied to the disability population or even to the current study, athletes without reporting on disability sport (Darcy et proper employment – or a consistent al., 2016; Hardin & Hardin, 2003; 2004), income – may not be available for service quality (Pate & Wallace Carr, participation on an NWBA team due to 2017), and acceptance in a social setting lack of financial support. (Cottingham et al., 2016). Furthermore, Green (2005) contends that programs elite coaching (Martin & Whalen, must emphasize social interaction and 2014), ability for coaches to adapt their personal development for a variety of approach (McMaster et al., 2012), and athletic skill levels. Kean et al. (2017) coaches inheriting stigma of disability found that athletes seek greater athletic sport (Wareham et al., 2017) have shown and personal development within to be barriers within disability sport. the connections of a team. NWBA None of these were supported through teams that operate as part of a more the current study as challenges to NWBA comprehensive wheelchair basketball teams regarding their ability to recruit program with multiple levels of and retain athletes. Participants in this participation (e.g., youth, developmental, study showed no indication of validation professional) are at an advantage for as a barrier to their success (Cottingham

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Pate and Bragale, 2019 69 et al., 2016), which is a sign of the sport’s infrastructure of a rehabilitation acceptance and increasing stability. hospital or a university recreation department reduce the barrier of facility Conclusion and equipment access. This type of The NWBA has operated as a infrastructure offers a solid foundation competitive wheelchair basketball league for teams, but it has not guaranteed since 1946 and endured growth that sustainable success through funding and indicates sustainability for both the therefore reinforces an amateur status. sport and the league. Deeper exploration NWBA teams recruit primarily into the challenges and barriers through social connections such as word- NWBA teams face, however, reveals of-mouth and social media presence that annual operation of a wheelchair while also attempting to be visible basketball team faces challenges akin within their communities. This approach to amateur sport due to the structural to recruiting athletes is opposite of barrier of funding. Funding may be a traditional athletic programs that sign challenge many sports face, but unique players into financial agreements for to wheelchair basketball is the travel their sport services (e.g., scholarships at required to compete in tournaments universities or contracts with professional due to transportation costs and entry teams). While some teams do have fees unseen under the collegiate or financial resources for scholarships and/ professional structure of most sports. or financial payment for athletes, the Other structural barriers such as majority do not and rely on athletes’ facility accessibility and equipment access dedication to the sport to lure them were not prominent findings from the into playing for the team. Therefore, current study, nor were psychological the social connections and community barriers. Thus, it is important to note visibility become the primary recruiting the structural barrier of funding tool for teams rather than the traditional emerges as the most important barrier means of recruiting. in competitive wheelchair basketball in Flipping the recruitment strategy order to ensure sustainable programs for makes retaining players a challenge athletes. for some teams. Nearly one-third of There must be a strong infrastructure participants in the current study did not and a sustainable funding plan in place identify a strategy to retain their players, for an elite competitive wheelchair which is a sign of poor strategy and basketball team to succeed because complacency for collegiate programs. resources and recruiting athletes are Collegiate programs may have the among the biggest challenges. NWBA university structure in place for ensuring teams that originated from an existing athletes are back for another semester,

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Pate and Bragale, 2019 70 but guaranteeing a consistent pipeline Limitations and Future Research of athlete interest is risky. Among those As with any research, there were participants who did offer a strategy, it limitations to the current study that primarily involved building relationships primarily focused on the sample and with teammates and offering personal their responses. The 28 participants support services (e.g., academic services offered insight into the challenges and for university-affiliated teams). Thus, recruitment and retention strategies teams are relying on soft connections for teams in the NWBA. However, rather than contracts to keep their team their responses were not detailed and functioning as a unit on an annual basis. the online questionnaire was not an Such a strategy is also risky considering environment that promoted dialogue the financial instability of people with between the researchers and participants disabilities (Cottingham et al., 2016). for follow-up inquiry. This would have Given the challenges of wheelchair provided richer data with perhaps basketball’s longevity (Hutzler et al., greater insight particularly into the 2016), growth and expansion must funding challenges that teams face. take into consideration that insufficient The researchers invited participants to planning for team sustainability (e.g., participate in a follow-up semi-structured funding and retaining athletes) may not telephone interview, but those who bode well for success of the sport or the indicated interest did not respond to NWBA. Implications to consider from researchers’ e-mails. this study are that teams should align Furthermore, 28 responses leaves with existing community organizations 111 NWBA teams that did not have that can leverage funding for grants representation in this study. Therefore, and scholarships while also providing it is difficult to generalize these findings community visibility. This type of to all NWBA teams. Generalization, alignment will work to address the weak however, is not a primary feature of infrastructure for those teams started qualitative study. Finally, the challenges from community needs or personal that NWBA teams face may not interest in order to establish a long- necessarily be representative of the term presence beyond that of the initial challenges that all wheelchair basketball interesting party. Furthermore, it can teams outside of the league face, establish credible funding opportunities regardless of the level of play. and community presence that work to The findings of this study did reveal both recruit and retain athletes through a greater need for exploration into a more robust pipeline for future athlete the funding models that wheelchair entrance and commitment to this basketball teams follow since financial amateur sports league. security was identified as the primary challenge. Participants in this study

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Pate and Bragale, 2019 71 indicated their teams either did not offer and women’s wheelchair basketball funding for athletes, offered some form teams. Journal of Sports Sciences, 32(11), of scholarship support, or offered some 1066-1075. form of grant funding. Greater insight Berger, R. J. (2008). Disability and the into a preferred model of funding for dedicated wheelchair athlete: Beyond teams and their athletes is necessary the “supercrip” critique. Journal of to fully explore wheelchair basketball Contemporary Ethnography, 37(6), 647- through the sport development model. 678. Finally, the current study revealed Cottingham, M., Carroll, M., Lee, D., that participants did not have a clear Shapiro, D., & Pitts, B. (2016). The strategy for retaining athletes. Greater historical realization of the Americans research is necessary to explore team with Disabilities Act on athletes with community and camaraderie, as the disabilities. Journal of Legal Aspects of current study identified this as a means Sport, 26, 5-21. of retaining athletes. Despite roots in Brittain, I., & Hutzler, Y. (2009). A strong infrastructure such as universities social-historical perspective on the and rehabilitation centers, participants’ development of sports for persons lack of strategy to retain athletes revealed with physical disability in Israel. Sport the potential for an inconsistent future in Society, 12(8), 1075-1088. for the team. Brodkin, P., & Weiss, M. R. (1990). Understanding community and Developmental differences in camaraderie on a team may allow other motivation for participating in teams to secure their athlete retention competitive swimming. Journal of Sport strategies for a stronger future under & Exercise Psychology, 12(3), 248-263. the present circumstances the league Burkett, B. (2010). Technology in faces as an organization operating under Paralympic sport: Performance amateur sport constraints. Furthermore, enhancement or essential for investigation into the makeup of athletes performance? British Journal of Sports on wheelchair basketball teams may Medicine, 44(3), 215-220. lead to greater understanding of when Darcy, S., Lock, D., & Taylor, T. (2016). and how athletes can get involved Enabling inclusive sport participation: in wheelchair basketball via youth Effects of disability and support programming and education to further needs on constraints to sport enhance a system of stability and growth. participation. Journal of Leisure Sciences, 39, 20-41. References Faull, A. L., & Jones, E. S. (2018). ángel Gómez, M., Pérez, J., Molik, B., Development and validation of Szyman, R. J., & Sampaio, J. (2014). the Wheelchair Imagery Ability Performance analysis of elite men’s Questionnaire (WIAQ) for use in

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