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Analysis for Commonly Prescribed Non-Sedating Antihistamines ⇑ Michael E

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Analysis for Commonly Prescribed Non-Sedating Antihistamines ⇑ Michael E Analytical Chemistry Research 3 (2015) 1–12 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Analytical Chemistry Research journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ancr Analysis for commonly prescribed non-sedating antihistamines ⇑ Michael E. El-Kommos, Samia M. El-Gizawy, Noha N. Atia, Noha M. Hosny Department of Pharmaceutical Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Assiut University, Assiut 71526, Egypt article info abstract Keywords: A comprehensive review with 185 references for the analysis of commonly prescribed members of an Cetirizine important class of drugs, non-sedating antihistamines (NSAs), is presented. The review covers most of Ebastine the methods described for the analysis of cetirizine (CTZ), ebastine (EBS), fexofenadine (FXD), ketotifen Fexofenadine (KET) and loratadine (LOR) in pure forms, in different pharmaceutical dosage forms and in biological Ketotifen fluids. The review covers the period from 1991 till now. Loratadine Ó 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/). Contents 1. Introduction. ........................................................................................................ 2 2. Chemistry . ........................................................................................................ 2 3. Pharmacokinetics of NSAs . ..................................................................................... 2 4. Official methods of analysis . ..................................................................................... 3 5. Reported methods of analysis . ..................................................................................... 3 5.1. Titrimetric methods . ........................................................................................... 3 5.2. Spectroscopic methods . ........................................................................................... 3 5.2.1. Ultraviolet spectrophotometric methods . ............................................................. 3 5.2.2. Visible spectrophotometric methods . ............................................................. 4 5.2.3. Flow injection analysis . ................................................................................ 6 5.2.4. Spectrofluorimetric methods ................................................................................ 6 5.2.5. Chemiluminescence methods ................................................................................ 6 5.2.6. Atomic absorption spectrometric methods . ............................................................. 6 5.3. Chromatographic methods . ........................................................................... 6 5.3.1. Thin layer chromatographic methods . ............................................................. 6 5.3.2. High-performance liquid chromatographic methods ............................................................. 6 5.3.3. Gas chromatographic methods . ............................................................. 6 5.4. Capillary electrophoretic methods . ........................................................................... 7 5.5. Electrochemical methods........................................................................................... 7 6. Conclusion . ........................................................................................................ 8 Disclosure . ........................................................................................................ 8 Conflict of interests. ..................................................................................... 8 Appendix A. Supplementary data . ..................................................................................... 8 References . ........................................................................................................ 8 Abbreviations: NSAs, non-sedating antihistamines; CTZ, cetirizine; EBS, ebastine; FXD, fexofenadine; KET, ketotifen; LOR, loratadine; NBD-Cl, 4-chloro-7-nitrobenzo-2- oxa-1,3diazole; DDQ, 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyano-p-benzoquinone; CLA, chloranilic acid; CAT, chloramine-T; MAG, malachite green; XFF, xylene cyanol FF; NBS, N-bromo- succinimide; TCNE, Tetracyanoethylene; FDSFS, first derivative synchronous spectrofluorimetric method; SDSFS, second derivative synchronous spectrofluorimetric method; FIA, flow injection analysis; NPs, nanoparticles; IS, internal standard; DMF, dimethyl formamide; FID, flame ionization detector; CI, chemical ionization; beta-CD, beta-cyclodextrin; CZE, capillary zone electrophoresis; MWCNT, multi-walled carbon nanotube. ⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +20 88 2411520; fax: +20 88 2332776. E-mail address: [email protected] (N.M. Hosny). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancr.2014.11.003 2214-1812/Ó 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/). 2 M.E. El-Kommos et al. / Analytical Chemistry Research 3 (2015) 1–12 1. Introduction meaning that they do not cross the blood–brain barrier and act mainly outside the central nervous system, that is why they H1-receptor antagonists (H1-antihistamines) that competi- produce very little or no sedation. tively block histamine at H1-receptors have been used in the c- Third generation antihistamines includes some newly pro- treatment of allergic conditions for many years. Clinically useful duced non-sedating antihistamines that are selective isomers or H1-antihistamines such as phenbenzamine, pyrilamine, and active metabolites of older second-generation antihistamines, diphenhydramine were introduced in the 1940s. Currently, H1 and intended to have increased efficacy with fewer adverse drug antihistamines constitute the second most commonly used class reactions. Third-generation H1-antihistamines such as deslorata- of medications after antibiotics, with more than 40 varieties used dine, that results via an oxidative process of LOR. This is metabolite in clinical practice worldwide [1]. does not reach the CNS in significant concentrations. Another drug H1-antihistamines are traditionally classified into six groups, belongs to this group is fexofenadine (FXD) which is the carboxylic based on their chemical structure to [2]: acid metabolite of terfenadine. FXD accounts for the antihistaminic properties of terfenadine but does not have the antiarrhythmic side a- Alkylamines: drugs within this group typically possess signif- effects of terfenadine. icant sedative actions, although paradoxical stimulation can The older first generation antihistamines are associated with occur, especially in children. Brompheniramine and chlor- troublesome sedative and antimuscarinic effects, and are often pheniramine are typical alkylamine antihistamines. termed ‘sedating antihistamines’. The newer generations of b- Monoethanolamines: they have pronounced sedative and antihistamines, which are essentially devoid of these effects, antimuscarinic actions but a low incidence of gastro- are correspondingly termed as ‘non-sedating antihistamines’ intestinal effects. Examples include clemastine and (NSAs) [2]. diphenhydramine. NSAs are of potential value in the management of allergic c- Ethylenediamines: these antihistamines are selective H1- rhinitis in which they relieve nasal and conjunctival itching, antagonist. They cause moderate sedation (despite having sneezing and rhinorrhoea. They are also useful in the treatment weak CNS effects), gastric disturbances, and skin sensitiza- of acute and chronic urticaria [1]. NSAs down regulate allergic tion. Antazoline, mepyramine and tripelennamine are inflammation directly by interfering with histamine action at examples. H1-receptors on sensory neurons and small blood vessels. d- Phenothiazines: phenothiazine antihistamines have signifi- They also decrease the antigen presentation, expression of cant sedative, and pronounced antiemetic and antimuscari- pro-inflammatory cytokines and cell adhesion molecules, and nic effects. Promethazine is a typical example. chemotaxis. In a concentration-dependent manner, they inhibit e- Piperazines: this group of antihistamines possesses moderate mast cell activation and histamine release; although their sedative and significant antiemetic actions. Piperazine deriv- mechanisms of action involved have not yet been fully delin- atives include cetirizine, cyclizine, and hydroxyzine. Cetiri- eated, down regulation of the accumulated intracellular calcium zine causes less sedation than other members of this group. ion seems to play a role [3]. f- Piperidines: they cause moderate or low sedation and are In the last few years, there was no comprehensive review pub- highly selective for H1 receptors. Examples include azata- lished covering all different analytical techniques used for the dine, cyproheptadine, and non-sedating antihistamines determination of NSAs. So the present review comprises references (astimazole, desloratadine, ebastine, fexofenadine, lorata- covering the period from 1991 till now. The high importance of this class of drugs prompted us to review the most important recent dine, and terfenadine). methods for their analysis in pure forms, in different pharmaceuti- cal dosage forms and in biological fluids. This classification is, however, of limited clinical relevance, and currently H1-antihistamines are classified as [1]: a- First generation; also known as ‘sedating antihistamines’, 2. Chemistry First-generation H1 antihistamines such as alimemazine,
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