WATER QUALITY OF THE UPPER GREAT LAKES

INTERNATIONAL JOINT COMMISSION

MAY 1979 FIRSTPRINTING (MAY 1979)

Reportavailable from:

UnitedStates Section InternationalJoint Commission 1717 H Street, N. W. Washington, D.C. 20440

Canad ian Sect ion International Joint Commission 100 MetcalfeStreet Ottawa,Ontario KIP 5M1

GreatLakes Regional Office InternationalJoint Commission 100 Ouellette Avenue Windsor,Ontario N9A 6T3

ii TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TI TLE PAGE

LIST OF TABLES vii

LIST OF FIGURES ix 1 SUMMARY 1 2 I NTRODUCT ION 5 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE UPPER LAKESREFERENCE QUESTIONS THE UPPER LAKESREFERENCE GROUP Organization StudyPlan Costand Time

3 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE UPPER LAKES AND ITS BASIN 9 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS 9 PHYSICAL LIMNOLOGY 10 WaterBudget 10 ThermalRegime 13 Circulation 13 SEDIMENTCHARACTERISTICS 14 CHEMICALCHARACTERISTICS 18 LakeHuron, Georgian Bay, andNorth Channel 18 LakeSuperior 19 BACTERIOLOGY 29 AQUATIC BIOLOGY 3.9 FISHERIES 20

4 WORKSHOPSAND PUBLICHEARiNGS 23

INITIAL HEARINGS 23 F INAL HEAR INGS 25

iii CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

29 5 STATUS OF THE UPPER LAKES WATER QUALITY FINDINGS FOR SPECIFIC GEOGRAPHIC AREAS 30 LakeSuperior Basin 30 Thunder Bay 30 Duluth-SuperiorHarbor 37 Western Arm of LakeSuperior 39 Ontar io North Shore 42 MichiganSouth Shore 43

LakeHuron Basin 44

St. MarysRiver 44 NorthChannel 45 CottageCountry Shoreline of Georgian Bay 46 Sagi naw Bay 47 MainLake Shoreline 50

WHOLE-LAKEFACTORS 51 Nutrient Enrichment ( Phosphorus) 51 OrganicContaminants 53 Metal s 55 DEGRADATIONFROM ATMOSPHERIC INPUTS 55 OTHER ISSUES 56

5 ANSWERS TO THE REFERENCE QUESTIONS 59 REFERENCE QUESTION 1 59 REFERENCE QUESTION 2 59 REFERENCE QUESTION 3 60 REFERENCE QUESTION 4 64 Phosphorus 64 PersistentSynthetic Organic Compounds 64

7 NONDEGRADATI ON 67 FRAMEWORKFOR WATER QUALITY PRESERVATION 67

iv CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

7 cont Id. ACHIEVEMENT OF NONDEGRADATION 69 Educati on and Pub 1 ic Attitudes 70 TechnologicalDevelopment 71 InformationRequirements 71

8 RECOMMENDATIONS 73

APPENDIX A - TEXT OF REFERENCETHETOINTERNATIONAL 75 JOI NTCOMMISSI ON TO STUDYPOLLUTION PROBLEMS OF LAKE HURONAND LAKE SUPERIOR

APPENDIX B - MEMBERSHIP OF THEUPPER LAKES REFERENCE 77 GROUPAND ITSCOMMITTEES

APPENDIX C - PERSONSPRESENTING BRIEFS OR TESTIMONY 81 ATTHE COMMISSION'S PUBLIC HEARINGS ON THEUPPER LAKES REFERENCE

APPEND1 X D - RECOMMENDATI ONS 85 UPPERLAKES REFERENCE GROUP

APPENDIX E - METRICTERMINOLOGY AND CONVERSION FACTORS 91

V

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

1 WATER WITHDRAWALSFROM THE UPPER LAKES 11

2 INDUSTRIALUSES OF UPPER LAKES WATER IN 1976 11

3 CHARACTERISTICS OF THEUPPER LAKES 12

4 RESIDENCE AND FLUSHINGTIMES 12

5 POINT-SOURCEDISCHARGERS TO OBSERVEDPOLLUTED OR DEGRADED 33 AREASOF LAKE SUPERIOR

6 POINT-SOURCEDISCHARGERS TO OBSERVEDPOLLUTED OR DEGRADED 34 AREAS OF LAKE HURON

7 TOTAL PHOSPHORUS CONCENTRATIONS IN THEUPPER LAKES 35

8 PRESENT AND PROJECTED PHOSPHORUS LOADINGS TO THE UPPER LAKES 36

9 MUNICIPAL AND INDUSTRIALDISCHARGERS FOR WHICHREMEDIAL 61 PROGRAMS ARE RECOMMENDED

10 ESTIMATEDCAPITAL COSTS FOR WASTE TREATMENT 62

vii

LIST OF FIGURES

F I GURE PAGE

1 LAKESUPERIOR - SUMMER SURFACECURRENTS 15

2 LAKE HURON - SUMMER CIRCULATIONINTHE EPILIMNION 16

3 PREVAILINGCIRCULATION INSAGINAW BAY 17

4 LOCATION MAP OF LAKESUPERIOR 31

5 LOCATION MAP OF LAKE HURON 32

6 DISTRIBUTION OF TACONITETAILINGS INLAKE SUPERIOR BASED 40 UPON VISUALEXAMINATION OF SURFACESEDIMENT SAMPLES

7 WESTERN LAKESUPERIOR AVERAGE CONCENTRATIONS OF AMPHIBOLE 41 ASBESTOSFIBRES IN POTABLE WATER INTAKES

ix

1. SUMMARY

On April 15, 1972 the Governments of Canada and theUnited States requestedthe International Joint Commission todetermine the extent and causes of pollutionin LakesSuperior andHuron, identifypracticable remedial measures? recommendand measures preventto further degradation. These questionshave been addressed and reported upon b

The Commission findsthat the overall water quality of the UpperLakes is excellent,but there are many sources of pollutionwhich should be reduced or eliminated if theexisting high quality is to bemaintained. The Commission alsofinds that transboundary pollution occurs in the St. MarysRiver as a resultof the discharge of phenolic substances by the Algoma SteelCorporation and bythe City ofSault Ste. Marie, Ontario.

Wateruse problems occur inseveral areas, particularly in SaginawBay on LakeHuron and Duluth-Superior Harbor on LakeSuperior, as a result of inputs ofnutrients, primarily phosphorus, and oforganic substances. The nutrient inputsto SaginawBay arealso degrading the openwaters ofsouthern Lake Huron. Bacteriologicalwater quality degradation was found in many localized nearshoreareas, with violations of the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement objectivesoccurring at several locations. Violations of the Ontario criterion forradium in drinking water supplies continue to occurat Serpent Harbour on theNorth Channel, Water quality inthe western arm of LakeSuperior is adverselyaffected by asbestos inputs from Reserve Mining Company.

Inthe St. MarysRiver, the sediments are contaminated with phenolic sub- stances,oil, cyanide, iron, and zinc, and thewaters are contaminated with phenolicsubstances and cyanide,discharged from Algoma Steel Corp. Sedi- ments,water, and fishin many othernearshore areas ofboth lakes also exhibitunacceptably high concentrations ofheavy metals and toxicorganic substances as a resultof their discharge, both intentionally and inadvert- antly,into the environment. Because ofthe nature ofthe use of some of thesesubstances, it isdifficult toprevent their unintentional escape. Further,because toxic organic substances are present in atmospheric and land runoffinputs as well as pointsource inputs, they also constitute whole-lake problems.

The Commission recommends that Governmentsimplement regulatory and remedialmeasures toeliminate these problems and torestore water quality. The Commission also recommends thosesurveillance, monitoring, and research activitieswhich are necessary to assure restoration andmaintenance of water quality.

Notwithstandingthese instances of pollution, the overall water quality of themain bodies of the UpperLakes is much betterthan both the Agreement

1 objectives and thefederal, state, and provincialstandards. The Commission considers it imperativethat the Upper Lakesbe maintained at theirpresent highquality if existing and future uses are to bemaintained.

TheCommission recognizesthat this goal may be difficultto attain if economicgrowth and developmentare to accommodatedbe and if pollution controltechnology islimiting. TheCommission recommends, therefore,that allexisting activities and all plannedor potential development that may lead towater quality degradation be subjected to an analysisthat will ensurethat degradation will beprevented. Proponents ofdevelopment should be required to assureGovernments, before they are given approval toproceed with such development,that degradation will notoccur.

To avoiddegradation, the Commission recommends thatphosphorus concen- trationsin the effluents of municipal and industrialdischarges, as well as thephosphorus content of detergents, be limited. The Commission alsorecom- mendsa policy wherebyphosphorus loadings will bemaintained orreduced, whileaccommodating future growth, inorder toensure that the phosphorus loadingto the UpperLakes does notincrease in the future and is reduced as muchas practicable.

Inputsof several metals to certain areas have been identified as poten- tiallyharmful to human health,aquatic life, and theenvironment. The Commission recommends minimizingthe discharge ofthese materials inthese areas untiltheir effects canbe determined.

Persistenttoxic organic substances represent an urgentproblem because of theiressentially irreversible effects. TheCommission recommends banningthe manufacture,import, anduse ofcertain of these substances, including PCB's, PBB's, aldrin,dieldrin, DDT and itsderivatives, and otherpersistent, highly toxicsubstances, whose entryinto the environment is difficultto control, if their use ispermitted. As forother such substances with known deleterious effects,the Commission recommends strictregulatory control to prevententry intothe environment. TheCommission also recommends thatthe producers of new organicsubstances be required to demonstrate the safety of these sub- stancesbefore they are used,and theuse ofsubstances presently being produced,but whose safetyis not yet known, should be restricteduntil such safety canbe established. TheCommission urges Governments to develop and adoptmutually acceptable or compatible methods of determining the persistence and toxicity of such compounds.

The Commission also recommends furtherefforts to determine clearly the extentof the health hazard posed by asbestos in drinking water so thatappro- priatestandards and objectivescan be established and appropriatecontrols implemented.Because ofthe possible harmful effects of asbestos on health, the Commissionapplauds the U.S. federalcourt decision that Reserve Mining ceasedischarging tailings into Lake Superior andrecommends thatsteps be takento minimize erosion from the tailings delta.

TheCommission identifiesfor future acti'm new concernswhich have arisen fromthe study by the Reference Group. Theirstudy indicates that atmospheric inputs may beresponsible for up to 40% ofthe loadings of certain pollutants to thelakes, including phosphorus, heavy metals, toxic organic contaminants, and sulphurdioxide, which contributes tothe acid rain phenomenon.The Commission recommends thatthe contribution of atmosphericinputs toGreat

2 Lakeswater qualitydegradation beaddressed by the Governments on a scale broadenough topermit tracing of significant sources of these inputs to the lakes,especially as many ofthe sources ma,v belocated outside of theBasin.

The study has also shown that, if thegoals of condegradation and restora- tionare to bemet, society mustdevelop new and innovativetechnologies. Thesemust eventuallyinclude resource conservation methods as well as new treatmentprocesses. The Commissionperceives the role of the Governments to be one of encouraging and coordinatingdevelopment and implementation of these measures and of providingincentives toward this end. Thereare many initia- tivesavailable to Governmentswhich they must employ if theobjectives of the GreatLakes Water Quality Agreementare to bemet and nondegradation achieved.

3

2. INTRODUCTION

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

The GreatLakes represents the largest single system of fresh water in the world,amounting to approximately one quarterof the world supply of fresh surface water. Because ofthis vast supply and itsavailability as a unique transportation s,ystem, theGreat Lakes provided a gatheringpoint for a sig- nificant segment ofthe economies ofboth Canadaand theUnited States. How- ever,with man's continued encroachment and settlementinthe Great Lakes Basin came increaseduse and eventualdegradation of these waters from their originalconditions.

As a resultof the concerns about boundary waters, the Governments of the UnitedStates and Canada signedthe Boundary Waters Treaty in 1909, under whichtheInternational Joint Commission was established. An essential provision of theTreaty is that neither country shall pollute the water to the injury ofhealth or property of the other. One ofthe first references to the Commissionunder theTreaty came in 1912 and was promptedby the prevalence of typhoidfever arising from contaminated drinking water. The Commission report- ed in 1918 that"the situation along the frontier . . . isgenerally chaotic, everywhereperilous and in some casesdisgraceful and veryintense along the shores of theDetroit and NiagaraRivers.'' Sewage fromcities and industries was foundto be themajor cause of pollution, with waste treatment the appro- priate remedy. The report recommended thatthe Governments '' . . . confer uponthe International Joint Commissionample jurisdictionto regulate and prohibitthis pollution of boundary waters." The introductionof chlorination ofdrinking water, however, eliminatedthe threat of typhoid fever and post- ponedinvestment in wastetreatment facilities. No action was thereforetaken to implementthe Commission's recommendations.

In 1946, the Commission was requestedtoenquire into the pollution problems of theconnecting channels ofthe Great Lakes (the St. Marys, St. Clair,Detroit, and NiagaraRivers). Inits 1950 report,the Commission recommended specificwater qua1it.y objectives designed to restore and maintain thesewaters. These objectives were subsequently adopted inboth countries and became an integralpart of their pollution abatementprograms. Construc- tionof new and expandedwaste treatment facilities improved the situation, butthe addition of wastetreatment facilities was latein comingand didnot keeppace with the rapid population growth and industrialexpansion.

Recognizingthat water quality inthe Great Lakes was continuingto deteriorate,the Governments in 1964requested the Commission toinvestigate thecondition of the LowerLakes; reportthe extent, causes, and localities of pollution; andrecommend remedialmeasures. Inits 1970report, the Commis- sion recommended waterquality objectives for LakeOntario, Lake Erie, the internationalsection of the St. LawrenceRiver, and theirconnecting chan- nels. The reportfurther urged that the Governmentsenter into agreement on programs and measures achieveto these objectives. Another recommendation

5 was thatthe Governmentsstudy the remaining boundary waters - LakeHuron and LakeSuperior. As a result,the Governments entered into the 1972 GreatLakes Water Quality Agreement and, atthe same time,initiated a referenceto study LakeHuron and LakeSuperior and toidentify pollution and degradationof those 1akes.

The Governments indicatedin their terms of reference (Appendix A) that sinceLake Michigan is wholly within the United States, it should be consid- eredonly as a tributary to LakeHuron. UPPER LAX3 'IEFERENCEQUESTIONS

BY letterof April 15, 1972, the Commission was requestedto enquire into and to report upon thefollowing questions:

1. Arethe waters ofLake Superior andLake Huron being polluted on eitherside of the boundary to an extent(a) which iscausing or is likely to cause injuryto health orproperty on theother side ofthe boundary; or(b) whichiscausing, or lik'2ly to cause, a degradationof existinglevels of water quality in these two lakes or in downstreamportions of the Great Lakes System?

2. If theforegoing questions are answered inthe affirm- ative,to whatextent, whatby causes, and in what localitiesis such pollutiontaking place?

3. If theCommission should find that pollution theof characterjust referred to is taking place, whatremedial measureswould, inits judgement,be most practicable to restore and protectthe quality of the waters, and what wouldbe the probable cost?

4. In theevent that the Commissionshould find that little or no pollutionof the character referred to is taking placeat the present time, what preventive measures would in its judgement,be most practicable to ensure that such pollution does notoccur in the future and whatwould be theprobable cost?

The completetext of the reference to the Commission isgiven in Appendix A. THE UPPER LAKES REFERENCE GROUP ORGAN I ZAT I ON The Commissionappointed the Upper Lakes Reference Group in November 1972 toundertake the appropriate studies to answerthese questions and toreport itsfindings to the Commission,which would, inturn, report to the Govern- ments.

The ReferenceGroup was composed offourteen scientists and engineers of variousdisciplines from the federal, state, and provincial governments. The ReferenceGroup, inturn, organized a number of workgroups to conductthe

b proposedstudies, using the reference questions as a guidefor developing a detailed stud,yplan. The membership ofthe Reference Groupand its work groupsis given in Appendix B.

STUDY PLAN

The plancontained six study items:

StudyItem I: Compilebackground information on thegeological, hydro- logical, and climatologicalcharacteristics of the UpperLakes and their basins;compile material on demographicand economic conditions and devel- opments relatedto human activities; and considerthe extent to which each influenceswater quality.

StudyItem I1 : Surveythe open watersof the Upper Lakes. The Reference Groupsought information on bothwater quality conditions and lakeproces- seswhich affectwater quality and materialstransport. The surve.yswere designedto establish baseline or reference levels of theconstituents withwhich future water quality could becompared.

StudyItem 111: Investigatethe sources and characteristics of theinputs of materialswhich could adversely affect the water quality of the Upper Lakes.This information was used to assess the need for remedi a1 programs to reduce or prevent pol luti on.

StudyItem IV: Investigate human, geographic,and water resource inter- relationships,in order to better understand the influence of population, economic activities,technology, sociology, and policylegislation, and changes in these, on thewater qual i.ty of the UpperLakes.

StudyItem V: Identify and describepollution or degradation of nearshore waters,harbours, andembayments.

StudyItem VI: Evaluatethe data collected in the openwater and sediment surveys.With a betterunderstanding of present openwater conditions and materialstransport processes, the Reference Group coulddevelop total- lake management alternatives.

COST AND TIME Conduct ofthe study required 3% yearsofconcerted effort and the involvementof well over 200 personsfrom the scientific andacademic com- munities. The totalcost of the study was approximately 14 milliondollars. The ReferenceGroup presented Volume I of itsreport, Summary and Recommenda- tions,to the Commission inJuly 1976.However, completionof the detailed reports onLake Huron (Volume 11) and Lake Superior (Volume 111) required more thananother year.

The Commissiondeferred completion ofits report to Governments on the UpperLakes study inorder to present the Reference Group's findings and the Commission'srecommendations to Governments inlight of the findings and the recommendations ofthe companionstudy conducted by thePollution from Land Use ActivitiesReference Group, whichpresented its report to the Commission inJuly 1978; and inconsideration of the revised Great LakesWater Quality Aqreement,signed on November 22, 1978.

7

3. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE UPPER LAKES AND ITS BASIN

The majorcontributions of the Reference Groupwere tocharacterize the waters of the UpperLakes and todescribe man's impacts on these waters. Their studyalso provided new insightsinto the dynamicsand thefactors affecting the LakeHuron and Lake Superior systems. Exemplifying these insights are the accumulation and magnificationofcontaminants inthe aquatic life ofthe lakes,the complexity of lake circulation patterns and materialsdispersion, and theimportance of atmospheric inputs. The studyprovides a referencepoint againstwhich the effects of future population growth and technologicaldevel- opment canbe measured. The detaileddescriptions of the social andeconomic, physical, and limnologicalcharacteristics of the UpperLakes are given inthe three-volumereport of the Reference Group. The majorfindings are presented inthis chapter. DEMOGRAPH IC CHARACTER I ST I CS The population of theLake Superior and the Lake Hu,ron Basinsnumbered 2,800,000 in 1970 and isprojected to increase to 4,300,000 bythe year 2020. Almostthe entire increase will occur inthe LakeHuron Basin.

Most ofthe population of the LakeSuperior Basin, which totalled 686,000 in 1970, isconcentrated around the western end of the lake in and aroundthe citiesof Duluth, Minnesota and Superior,Wisconsin (combined 1970 population ofabout 140,000), and in Thunder Bay, Ontario(1971 population ofabout 112,000). The presentbasin population is expected to increase only marginal- ly, reaching 712,000 by 2020.

The 1970Lake Huron Basin population of 2,200,000 isprojected to increase byabout 64% to 3,600,000 by2020 and will beevenly divided between Canada and theUnited States. Major population concentrations in the United States arein the Saginaw RiverBasin, including the cities of Flint, Bay City, and Saginaw;and on theCanadian side in the Sudbury area. The three U.S. cities containmore than two-thirds of the population on the U.S. sideof the basin; Sudburycomprises about one-sixth of the Canadian total.

Majoreconomic activitiesin the LakeSuperior Basin relate to wood, pulp, and paperproduction; mineral extraction (iron, copper, and nickel); and recreation(hunting, fishing, and skiing).

The majoreconomic activities ofthe Lake Huron Basin relate toagri- culture,mineral extraction and refining, and theproduction of consumerand durable goods.Relzreation alsois economically important. Since World War 11, theeastern Georgian Bay areahas rapidly evolved as the"cottage country" ofOntario. Here thetransient summer populationexceeds the permanent popu- lation.

Forestscover more than 90% ofthe LakeSuperior Basin and thenorthern partof the LakeHuron Basin. Crop and pastureland accountfor about two-

9 thirds of theland use in the southern portion of the Lake Huron Basin. The q1,alityof runoff water from forested lands is usually higher than that from agriculturallands.

LakeSuperior is used as a sourceof potable water by 19 communities and LakeHuron by39 communities. The largestmunicipal users of Lake Superior waterare Thunder Bay and Duluth. The largestmunicipal users of Lake Huron waterare Saginaw,Bay City, Midland, and Port Huron,Michigan; andLondon, Sarnia,and Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario. Present and projectedwithdrawals from thelakes are summarized in Table 1.

Municipalwastewater dischargedis toboth the Upper Lakes and their basins.In the Lake Superior Basin, sewered communities represent 53% ofthe totalbasin population and 85% ofthe total urban population; in the Lake HuronBasin they represent 49% and 85%, respectively.

The majorindustrial water uses inthe LakeSuperior and theLake Huron Basinsinclude pulp and paper,mining, manufacturing, and thermalelectric powergeneration. The quantitiesofwater used are summarized inTable 2. Industrialwater use is projected to increase significantly, but a number of factors,including technological improvements in processes and theapplication ofclosed systems, could decrease water use considerably. PHY SI CAL L I MNOLOGY The majorbasin characteristics of the UpperLakes are summarized in Table 3.

An understanding of thephysical properties of the UpperLakes is essen- tialin determining the movement, residencetime, rate of dispersion, and fate ofmaterials discharged into the lakes, and thereforethe impact ofthese materials on waterquality. For example,because bothLakes Superior and Huron havelong residence and flushingtimes but relatively short mixing times (3 yearsfor LakeSuperior), the input of persistent materials, such asPCB's, rapidly results in a long-termwhole-lake problem.

The principal components of physicallimnology are the water budget, thermalregime, and circulation.

WATER BUDGET The sourcesof water to a lake and thetime that the water remains in the lakeare major factors in determining the impact on and thefate of materials dischargedinto it. Landdrainage and directprecipitation into the lake make up allof the inputs to LakeSuperior and about 45% ofthe inputs to Lake Huron,Georgian Bay,and theNorth Channel. Flows through the St. Marys River and theStraits of Mackinac comprise the remaining inputs to Lake Huron.

The netflow of water through the Straits of Mackinac is from Lake Michi- gan to LakeHuron. However, theexchange ofwater between the two lakes oscillates and isextremely complex, withthe total volume transportedin eitherdirection being up to 40 timesthe net flow. In the exchange between GeorgianBay and LakeHuron, surface water usuallyis directed towards Georgian Bayand thedeeper hypolimnion water to LakeHuron; seiches and long surface waves acceleratemixing between thewater bodies and result in

10 TABLE 1

WATER WITHDRAWALS FROM THE UPPER LAKES (cubicmetres per day)

L MUNICIPAL INDUSTRIAL" LAKE 1970 2020 1976 -___

SUPERIOR Canada 72,000 84,000 1,440,000 UnitedStates 91,000 218,000 4,620,000

HURON Canada 232,000 340,000 3,668,000 UnitedStates 254,000a I1,090, OOOa 5,140,000

a. Excludes a Detroitwater ;Upply intake located in Lake Huron and whichhas the capability to withdrawup to 1,510,000 m3/d.The presentDetroit withdrawal is about 5% ofcapacity and will notbe increasedsignificantly in the near future.

b.The magnitude of futureindustrial withdrawals will depend inpart upontechnological change and application of closed systems. Projectedwithdrawals are therefore not presented here.

TABLE 2

INDUSTRIALUSES OF UPPER LAKESWATER IN 1976

WATER USE, IN C BIC METRES PER DAY LAKE HURON INDUSTRIAL CATEGORY LAKE SUPERIOR-___ Canada U.S. Canada U.S. -

Pulpand Paper 723,000 - 230,000 - Mining 53,000 2,165,000 522,000 62,800 Manufacturing and 122,000 !i03,400 656,000 2,240,000 Miscellaneous ThermalElectric Power 546,000 1,953,000 2,260,000 2 ,840,000

TOTAL 1,444,000 4,621,400 3,668,000 5,142,800 I11 TABLE 3

CHAZACTEKISTICS OF THE UPPER LAKES

LAKE LAKE HURON GEORGIAN NORTH SUPERIOR !(TOTAL) BAY CHANNEL LakeSurface Area, km2 82,3.03 59,570 15 ,108 3 ,950 Vo 1ume , km3 11 ,920 3 ,539 660 88 DrainageBasin Land Area, km2 127,687 131,313 45,893 34 ,250 Elevation, m 183 176 176 176 Mean Depth, m 145 59 44 22 Maximum Depth, m 406 229 165 84

L

XESIDENCE AND FLUSHING TIMES^

RESIDENCE TIME FLUSHINGTIME LAKE ( YEARS) (YEARS)

LakeHuron (Whole Lake) ’4 17 Lake Huron (Main Body 9 14 Georgi tin Bay 7 8 NorthChannel 2 2 LakeSuperior 113 177

a. Basedon gross flows throughthe connecting channels.

12 flushing and residencetimes shorter than would be indicated by net flows. The exchange ofwater in both directions through the Straits of Mackinac and in theinchannel between Lake Huron and GeorgianBay also results thein exchange ofconstituents in both directions.

The residencetime of water in a lakeis the volume ofthe lake divided by totalinputs; the flushing time is thevolume divided by the outflow. Values forthe UpperLakes are summarized in Table 4. The longerthe residence and theflushing times, the longer the time required for a laketo recover from theinput of a contaminant. If theannual rate of input of a persistent non- degradablematerial is greaterthan its rate of removal, that material will accumulate inthe lake. For example, the177-year flushing time for Lake Superior means thatonly about 0.56% of a nondegrading,nonsettleable, non- evaporatingcontaminant is removedeach year through the St. MarysRiver. It iscalculated that about 500 yearsis required for 95% recoveryfrom the loading.

THERMALREGIME

The thermalregime is important when consideringthe extent of dispersion ofmaterials discharged tothe lakes. The cyclicannual variation inthe distributionof water temperature and density,temperature and heattransfer, thermalbars, upwellings and sinkings, and densitycurrents all affect the dispersion and mixingof materials.

Verticalmixing in the offshore waters is limited mainly to the spring and fall overturns. At othertimes the development of a horizontaltemperature gradientor thermocline effectively stratifies the water and inhibitsvertical mixinbetween the epilimnion (top layer of water) and thehypolimnion (bottom layer,9 . Heat transferaffects current speedsand thusthe rate of dispersion of materials.Epi 1 imni on current speeds increase as thesurf acewater tem- peratureincreases while hypolimnion current speedsremain more constant becauseheat and momentum transportare inhibited by the thermocline.

Thermalbars, which generally occur inthe spring and early summer, separate warmer nearshorewater from the cooler and denseroffshore water. Thus,a thermalbar tends to confine materials entering a nearshorearea and temporarilyintensifies water quality degradation in the embayment.

An upwe 11 ing occurs when surf acewater is moved away by wi nd-induced currents,permitting cold hypolimnion water to move tothe surface. Up- wellingsare common alongwindward shores, particularly along the northwest shore of LakeSuperior. Hypolimnion water isusually richer in nutrients than thedisplaced surface water and thereforealters the temperature and chemical characteristicsof the water of the coastal zones in a complexmanner.

CIRCULATION Althoughwater circulation is caused primarilyby wind and bydifferences inthe density of thewater, other contributing factors include currents from tributaryinputs, inflow through major channels, precipitation, waves, variationsinatmospheric pressure, upwellings and sinkings, and spring and f a1 1 overturns.

13 The generalcirculation patterns of Lakes Superior andHuron (Figures 1 and 2, respectively)are characterized b.y shore-parallelcounterclockwise circulation.Perturbations such as stormscan temporarily interrupt this pattern.

Saginaw Bay, themost important embayment of LakeHuron as a sourceof materialinput, has circulationpatterns which are extremely dependent on a number offactors, including circulation of LakeHuron, bay geometry, wind speed and direction,flow from the SaginawRiver, ice cover, and a thermal bar.Their relative importance varies according to a number of factors. With a prevailingsouthwesterly wind, water flows from Lake Huron to the inner bay throughthe deepchannel on thenorth side of the Bay, pastthe mouth of the Saginaw River and outto Lake Huronalong the south shore of the Bay (Figure 3). Much of thewater entering SaginawBay fromLake Huron "short circuits" beforeflushing the inner bay; thus, the residence time of water in the inner bay(four months) is double the residence time of the Bay as a whole. The southwestcorner of the inner bay, being nearly stagnant, has a longerresi- dencetime. Both ice cover in winter, and a thermalbar across the mouth of SaginawBay inthe spring, inhibit water movementand allowfor contaminant accumulation,especially thein inner bay. However, otherfactors offset theseconditions to some extent. The thermalbar dissipates as thewater temperatureincreases, and water movementand dispersionincrease; by June, SaginawBay isalmost completely flushed out due to storms and highspring flowsfrom the Saginaw River. SED I MENT CHARACTER I ST I CS The distribution and compositionof sediments provide an indicationof the source,dispersal, and fateof nutrients, heavy metals, and toxicorganics. Sedimentsare related to the post-glacial evolution of the basins, generally reflectingthe natural characteristics of the local bedrock geology. Compa- rison of thecomposition ofrecent sediments with older, deeper sediments allowsidentification of those materials causedby man's activities in the UpperLakes Basin. The uptake of heavymetals and toxicorganics from the sedimentsby benthic organisms can contribute to contaminant problems in fish.

Chemistrymeasurements fororganic carbon and of theoxidation potential ofthe sediments confirm the oligotrophic ("healthy") nature of Lake Superior. More recently depositedsediments are higherin phosphorus,which indicates thatthe sediments are an effective"sink" for phosphorus inputs.

Similar measurements in LakeHuron sediments indicate that the southern sectorsof both Lake Huron andGeorgian Bay have suffered a declinein water quality due toincreasing lake productivity. Thesesouthern basins show lower oxidationpotentials and increasedorganic matter, contrary to what would be expectedfrom the textural properties of the sediments of the southern basins. Inaddition, higher levels of total phosphoruswere observed inthe southern basinsediments of Lake Huron, likely due to enrichmentcaused by man.

The concentrations of tracemetals in the sediments of the UpperLakes are generallyhigher inthe depositional basins than inthe non-depositional zones.This implies that metals areusual1,y associated with the finer sediments. Lead, cobalt, cadmium, and strontiumlevels are similar inthe sedimentsLakeof Superior, Lake Huron, and Georgian Bay. LakeSuperior

14 15 FIGURE 2- LAKE HURON - SUMMER CIRCULATION IN THE EPILIMNION

16 FIGURE 3- PREVAILING CIRCULATION IN SAGINAW BAY

17 sedimentshave a hjghercontent of copper, zinc, nickel, chromium,and vana- dium.These differencesare, ingeneral, natural. However, elevatedlevels oflead occur in some openwater sediments; the Reference Group indicated that thiscould be attributableto lead additives to gasoline which haveentered thelake through atmospheric deposition.

Althoughpast discharges ofmercury from chlor-alkali plants and from miningactivities are documented and havedegraded a number ofnearshore areas (seeChapter 5), therock formation underlying much of the UpperLakes naturallycontains mercury, and theobserved elevated levels of mercury in open-watersediments as well as inf,ish are in large part a natural phenomenon. CHEMICAL CHARACTER I ST I CS Chemicalparameters include nutrients, dissolved oxygen, major ions, and organics. Water qualityobjectives havebeen establishedfor many ofthese to protectvarious water uses and aquaticlife. The chemistryof the waters of the UpperLakes is determinedby a number ofnatural and cultural phenomena, includingthe geology of the basin, inputs from other water bodies, inputs fromtheatmosphere, andinputs from man's activities. Their relative importancevaries with geographic location.

Differentareas of each ofthe UpperLakes displaydifferent chemical characteristics.Differences canalso occur with season and withdepth. Thereforethe Reference Group"segmented" the UpperLakes intoareas exhib- itingreasonably homogeneous waterquality, for the purpose of establishing a baseline and determiningareas affected by man.

LAKEHURON, GEORGIAN BAY, AND NORTH CHANNEL The chemicalcharacteristics ofnorthern Lake Huronare influenced by inflowsfrom Lake Superior and fromLake Michigan. Saginaw Bay strongly influencesthe chemical limnology of southern Lake Huron.

The openwaters are oligotrophic, when consideringthe concentrations of phosphorus,nitrogen, reactive silicate, and dissolved oxygen.Higher phos- phorusconcentrations, compared tocentral Lake Huron, are, however, present nearSaginaw Bay, inthe regions receiving inputs from Lake Michigan, and in theKillarney Bayand FrenchRiver areas ofGeorgian Bay. Nitrate concen- trations are highbut show significantdepletion during the summer. Withthe exception of localimpacted areas, discussed in Chapter 5, thenearshore watersof allthree basins are also oligotrophic.

The observedconcentrations ofmajor ions (calcium, magnesium,sodium, potassium,alkalinity, chloride, and sulphate)inthe openwaters of Lake Huronare typical of water of excellent quality. Nearshore water quality is similar to openwater water quality.

Nickel,lead, manganese,cadmium, chromium, iron, and zincconcentra- tionsin water are uniform and belowharmful levels; high concentrations of copperhave occasionally been found in central LakeHuron for noknown reason.

Organics,including PCB'sand organochlorine and organophosphorus pesticides,are largely non-detectable inthe openwater column, although phenolicsubstances and some chlorinatedhvdrocarbons have been detected in Some nearshorewaters receiving municipal and industrialdischarges (see Chapter 5).

18 LAKE SUPERIOR The chemistryof Lake Superior is dominated by natural inputs. The present lowconcentration of nutrients both in the openand thenearshore waters con- firmsthe highly oligotrophic nature of the lake. Several localized areas of nutrientenrichment, as a result of municipal and industrialdischarges, are identified and discussed in Chapter 5.

Lake Super,ior isalmost homogeneous withrespect to major ions; concen- trationsare essentially unchangedsince the first measurementswere made in 1885. Boththe openand thenearshore waters are devoid of harmfulconcen- trations of nickel,lead, manganese, cadmium, chromium, iron, and zinc;only iron andmanganese aresignificantly higher in the western arm ofthe lake.

No tracesof any of 1.5 organophosphoruspesticides s0ugh.t were found in theLake Superior water column within the quantification capabilities of the analyticalprocedures. Similarly, no organochlorinepes,ticides theof 17 sought and no PCB'swere found. A number oforganics, including phenols, are present,however, in watersadjacent tomunicipal and industrialdischarges (seeChapter 5). BACTERIOLOGY Because totalcoliform and fecalcoliform bacteria counts are not suffi- cientlysensitive to cover all circumstances and allwaters, fecal strepto- cocci and heterotrophicbacteria analyses were alsoused tobetter charac- terizethe bacteriological water quality ofthe UpperLakes. Results of analysesof the openwaters of the Upper Lakes indicate not only no pollution, butalso in many casesthe concentrations of the indicator species of bacteria areless than the analytical limit ofdetectability.

Severalinshore areas exhibit bacteriological water quality pollution or degradation.These are detailed in Chapter 5. AQUATIC BI OLOGY The biological community, composed ofphytoplankton, zooplankton, benthic flora and fauna,and macrophytes, reacts measurably tosubtle changes in water quality,thereby producing an assessment ofwater quality which is based upon the abundanceand thediversity ofbiological species. The natureofthe biological communityalso, inpart, determines the health of the fishery.

The phytoplanktoncomposition in the openwaters of Lake Huron proper is similarto whatmight be expected in a largeoligotrophic system in the early statestress.of Zooplankton and benthicflora and faunaalso indicate oligotrophicconditions. However, some nearshoreareas, particularly Saginaw Bay, arestressed andhave a heavilyimpacted biota with blue-green algae predominating.Observed values ofchlorophyll a, an indicatorof the total amount ofalgae present in a body ofwater, were highest in LakeHuron north and south of SaginawBay.

Phytoplankton,zooplankton, and benthic populations in the open waters of Georgian Ba,y indicateoligotrophic conditions. Nearshore waters are also characterizedby oligotrophic plankton types except inlocal areas such as Midland Bayand Penetang Bay where conditionsare well into themesotrophic range. The NorthChannel biological communities are similar to those in the openwaters of LakeHuron.

19 Biologicalcommunities ofthe open watersofLake Superior indicate an oligotrophiclake. Nearshore waters differ slightly; however,populations are lowenough inall areasto indicate oligotrophic conditions. Only localized embayments likeDuluth-Superior Harbor show signsof stress due toenrichment; bothzooplankton and benthosof Duluth-Superior Harbdr have species indicative ofeutrophic conditions (see Chapter 5). FISHERIES Historically,both LakesHuron and Superiorwere characterized by native fishcommunities typical ofoligotrophic lakes. Inboth lakes the original fishstocks havebeen very substantially depleted. Long continued intense exploitationby man, coupledwith the destabilizing influence of strong competition and predationbysuch exotic species as thealewife, rainbow smelt, and sealamprey have played a majorrole in depleting the stocks. The extentto which deteriorating water quality has contributedto the depletion ofnative fish stocks is unknown.

Levelsof contaminants in fish help determine the acceptability of the fishfor human consumption. The levelsalso serve as anotherindicator of the overallwater quality of the UpperLakes, because persistenttoxic organics and mercurybioaccumulate infish tissue. In many cases,contaminants are found in fish eventhough they cannot be detected inthe water column.

Contaminantsfound infish taken from the openwaters of LakeSuperior includemercury, PCB's, DDT and itsderivatives, dieldrin, and otherchlorin- atedorganics. The concentrationof mercury in large, whole lake trout taken fromseveral open-water locations were inexcess ofthe health-protection guidelineadopted by both countries. No othertrace metals pose a recognized riskto human health. The concentrationof PCB's in wholelake trout taken fromthe openwaters approaches orexceeds the existing Canadian and the proposed U.S. guideline of 2 mg/kg, hut does notexceed the existing U.S. guidelineof 5 mg/kg. Mean levelsof PCB's inskinless fillets of one sub- species,fat lake trout, caught atseveral nearshore locations, however, do exceedthe 5 mg/kg guide1i ne (seeChapter 5). A1 thoughconcentrations of total DDT in wholelake trout werehigh, a substantialfraction of DDT and its derivativesis removed when thetrout is dressed for sale so thatthe edible portions do notviolate the U.S. andCanadian guideline. Similarly, dieldrin, thoughexceeding the U.S. andCanadian guidelinein whole lake trout, did not exceed the guideline in edibleportions.

The levelsof contaminants in fish taken from the open watersofLake Huronare similar to those in fish from the open watersof Lake Superior. PCB levelsin whole fishtaken from the open watersof northwestern Lake Huron approachor exceed the 2 mg/kg guideline,suggesting a possiblerelationship withthe high PCB levelsobserved in LakeMichigan. Inaddition, concentra- tionsof mercury andPCB's in samples ofchinook salmon, rainbow trout, wall- eye,and northernpike taken from nearshore waters occasionally approach 01' exceed human healthguidelines.

The presenceof many otherexotic organic compounds infish indicates that the UpperLakes ecosystem has been and continuesto bedegraded. Moreover, even at lowconcentrations, many persistentsynthetic chlorinated organic contaminantsare known to have chronic,sublethal effects on thefish andon man as a consumer ofthat fish (see Chapter 5). However, whilethe levels disclosedin the Reference Group's study (1974-75) were generallylower than

20 thoselevels whichat adverse effects have been conclusively determined, scientific assessment to determineadverse effects at low levels is ongoing. Thus, thepresently established levels of safety, as reflectedin the Water Quality Agreement objectives,should be continually reviewed.

Pointsources to account for the observed concentrations cannot be identi- fied because ofmixing and dispersal mechanisms withinthe lakes. In addition, nonpointinputs (atmosphere and landrunoff) are significant contributors to thetotal input to the UpperLakes. However, some probablepoint sources for some specificcontaminants are discussed in Chapter 5.

21

4. WORKSHOPS AND PUBLIC HEARINGS

Upon receiptof the reference to characterize the UpperLakes and identify pollution and degradationproblems, the Commission held five ,initial hearings in 1972and 1973 inorder to invite the public to present its views prior to thestart of the field investigations by the Reference Group.

Followingcompletion theof study, the Reference Grouppresented its findings and recommendations tothe Commission atits 1976Annual Meeting on theGreat Lakes Water Quality Agreement, held in Windsor,Ontario. Inorder tobring the findings of the study clearly to the attention of the public and toreceive a more critical assessment ofthis material, the Commission then heldsix public education and informationworkshops before holding its final hearings. It enteredinto a contractwith a non-profitUnited States-Canadian public awareness and participationorganization to hold three workshops in eachcountry to explain the contents of the Reference Group's report and its recommendations and toinform the public about the Commission's hearing pro- cess and how effectiveinput to the hearings could be made. Publichearings on theReference Group's report were then held in 1977 at six locations in the Basin.

All interestedparties were invited to express their views and present documentaryevidence atthe hearings. TheCommission alsoaccepted written submissionsfollowing the public hearings. Statements were made byelected representatives,private individuals, citizens' groups, business andindus- trialrepresentatives, and officialsfrom federal, state, provincial, and municipalagencies. The names ofthose persons who gavetestimony atthe hearingsare listed in Appendix C.

Verbatimtranscripts of all hearings and copiesof all written statements areavailable at the Commission officesin Ottawaand Washington, D.C., and at theCommission's Regional Office in Windsor, Ontario.

TheCommission has reviewed thetestimony given at the public hearings and allwritten submissions at or following the hearings. INITIAL HEARINGS The initialpublic hearings for the study of the UpperLakes were heldat Thunder Bay, Ontario, December 5, 1972;Duluth, Minnesota, December 7, 1972; Bay City, Michigan,January 8, 1973; SaultSte. Marie, Ontario, January 22, 1973;and London, Ontario,January 24, 1973. Some comments directedtoward the UpperLakes study were also received at a hearing on Pollutionfrom Land Use Activitiesat Toronto, Ontario, January 25, 1973.

Ingeneral, witnesses were concerned with local pollution problems and the effectof pollution on localwater quality. Many witnesseswere concerned particularlywith the discharge from the Reserve Mining Company. The tes- timonypresented to the Commission atthe initial hearings is summarizedbelow.

23 Many witnesses at the initial hearingswere concerned with particular problemsidentified forspecific geographic areas, such as poorquality drinkingwater at Thunder Bayand turbidityin SaginawBay. These areas, as well as SaultSte. Marie and theReserve Mining Company, were identified b.y government officials as beingproblem areas. The need formunicipal sewage treatmentplants was seen as immediate, and municipal,state, and provincial officialssuggested that senior? levelsof governmentshould provide adequate funding.

Urbangrowth was thoughtto add topollution problems,and it was stated thaturban growth should bebalanced with the growth ofwaste treatment facilities.

As indicated above, a majorpublic concern was thepotentially harmful effectsof the, discharge of taconite tailings into LakeSuperior from the ReserveMining Company atSilver Bay, Minnesota. Some witnessesurged that thedischarge from Reserve Mining should be halted immediately. One witness was concernedthat the tailings contained asbestiform fibres, which might causecancer when ingested.Other witnesses believed that the discharge had no effect on waterquality, and thatthis hadbeen shown byprevious studies. Mostwitnesses, however, believed thatthe discharge warranted careful investigationin the study.

Testimony was receivedat the hearings concerning the economic impacts of pollutioncontrol. TheCommission was toldthat Governmentsshould aid indus- try inthe costs of pollution control. Representatives of industry stated that theinstallation of waste recovery systems was noteconomical, and that more incentives wererequired. Current allowable write-offs were not thought to be high enough,and it was suggestedthat the Commissionexamine subsidies and incentivesother than those for municipalities.

Othergroups were concerned that the high costs of pollution control mighc beused as an economic weapon byindustry. The Commission was toldthat, in some cases,workers were being forced to choose between the environment and theirjobs. There was concernfor the economic an,d personaleffects of indus- tryclosing down because ofpollution control requirements.

Regardingwater quality standards, one witnessstated that there should be mandatorycompliance with pollution abatement laws bymunicipalities and industry, but it was noted thatpollution abatementshould be carriedout withoutthe creation of economic disparities. It was suggestedthat water qualitystandards should be set for areas where pollutants entered the lakes, therebymaintaining an overallhigh standard of waterquality. Another wit- nessstated that known sourcesof pollution should be eliminatedimmediately and thereshould be no furtherpollution of LakeSuperior. It was suggested thatthe Commissionurge Governments to imposeenvironmental standards on proposeddevelopment projects forthe Upper Lakes. Ambient water quality standardswere not seen as providing as direct an enforcementtool as would effluentstandards. One officialobserved that Ontario hadwater quality criteria,but had no philosophynondegradation.of Problems caused by different methods ofcontrol in Canada and the U.S. werenoted.

Withrespect tothe general approach ofthe study, it was statedthat hasicresearch was neededregarding Lake Superior. Continuous monitoring of thelakes was thoughtto be requiredin order to better identify problem areas

24 and toassist in finding solutions to problems. Another suggestion was that the Commissionshould concentrate itsefforts on reducingthe causes of pol- lutionrather than remedying the effects.

Anotherissue that received much comment atthe hearings was pollution fromvessel wastes. It was generallythought that stricter controls were needed, and it was suggestedthat the problem might be controlled by the use of wastewaterholding tanks on all vessels.Several municipal officials identifiedvessel wastes as a pollutionproblem and statedtheir desire for stricterregulations. One statedthat Lake Superior might be designated a no-dischargezone.

Severalwitnesses were concerned with the potential effects ofnuclear power plants on 'the UpperLakes and specificallynoted the problem of thermal pollution. It was statedthat power plantsshould not be built on thelakes, and proposedpldnts should be relocated. It was suggestedthat more research bedone intothe effects of thermal pollution. One witnesshoped that the Cornhissionwould recornend cooling standards for Naste heat discharges from thermal generat ing pl ants.

The Commission was toldthat more publicinformation was necessaryand that a governmenteducation program would help inpromoting individual aware- ness. It was believedthat local awareness ofpollution problems was not as great as it shouldbe. F I NAL HEAR I NGS The finalround of public hearings was heldat Superior, Wisconsin, June 20 and 21, 1977;Thunder Bay, Ontario, June 22, 1977;Houghton, Michigan, June 23, 1977; SaultSte. Marie, Ontario, July 13, 1977;Collingwood, Ontario, July 13, 1977;and Sag'lnaw, Michigan,July 14,1977.

Mostof the witnesses who testifiedtold the Commission thatthe Reference Grouphad carriedout an excellentstudy and thatthey agreed with the majo- rity ofthe Group's recommendations.

Severalwitnesses made comments concerningthe methodology ofthe Ref- erenceGroupls study. It was statedthat there were insufficient data, as therewere no baseline values for water quality. One witnessquestioned the analyticaltechniques used formeasuring contaminants fish.in There was concernexpressed that not enough was presently known aboutthe effects of asbestosfibres. It was alsostated that morework needed to be done regard- ingthe atmospheric input of metals into the lakes. It was notedthat stan- dardization was requiredfor definitions regarding asbestos, for sampling methods,and fordetermining parameters for water quality objectives. One witness was concernedbecause the effect of air pollutants on waterquality hadnot been emphasized, and that airstandards should also be developed to protectwater quality.

Regardingthe general approach of the study and potential recommendations, severalwitnesses expressed the opinion that a macroenvironmentalperspective was needed,and that a basin-wide,oroverall ecosystem approach should be used. One governmentalwitness expressed the belief that there should be harmonioususe offisheries resources with aquatic and terrestrialecosys- tems.Another witness stated that theReference Group's recommendations

25 shouldreflect a greaterdegree ofpolitical reality. Another stated that financialcost estimates should be associatedwith the recommendations. There were several comments tothe effect that there should be a continuingevalu- ationof objectives and an ongoingreview ofstandards and ofgovernmental action.

Therewere manycomments regardingpotential water qual ity standards. It was statedthat standards for Lake Superior should consider the effects on futureindustry. Concern was expressedby a municipalofficial that controls consideredappropriate for large urban and industrialcentres could affect the alternativesfor growth and development ofsmaller centres. Comments byindus- try representativeswere that standards should be flexible but still maintain theintegrity of the natural resources, and thatreasonable control technology mightbe taken into account, as opposed tozero discharge. In general, it was feltthat controls and standardsshould be implemented in a flexible system.

Many witnessesstated their support for a policyofnondegradation in orderto maintain the present high qua1it.y of the waters of the UpperLakes. One witness was notcompletely supportive of nondegradation since he believed there was a lackofevidence toindicate the implications ofthe current levelsof discharge into the Upper Lakes. A representativeof industry was opposed to a nondegradationpolicy, ashe believedsuch a policywould inhibit theattainment ofother social and economicgoals ofequal priority. One witnesscriticized what he sawas a philosophyof trying to improve discharges intothe lakes rather than trying to eliminate them. Anotherwitness stated thatall dumping intothe lakes should be eliminated.

Representativesof the soap and detergentindustry expressed concern with theReference Group's recommendation regarding the reduction ofphosphorus inputsto the UpperLakes by banning phosphorus from detergents. They stated thatimplementation of that recommendation would not significantly improve the qualityof the water in the UpperLakes and wouldput hardships on thepublic. They alsostated that the most effective means ofreducing phosphorus inputs tothe lakes would be atthe waste treatment plants. Chemical removal of phosphorus at theseplants was saidto be sufficientatpresent to meet currentstandards.

A large number ofenvironmental associations expressed concern over the atmosphericinputs of toxic materials into the Upper Lakes. Particularcon- cern was expressedregarding the proposed power generatingplant at Atikokan, Ontario and thelong-range transport of pollutants from Sudbury.

Representativesof the shipping industr,y stated that shipping wastes made a verysmall contribution to the total input of waste into the lakes. Personal wastesfrom vessels were seen as a minimalcontribution tothe whole and existingregulations werethought tobe sufficient. The UnitedStates and Canadianregulations for shipping wastes, while not identical, were said to be compatiblebecause they achieved the same goal.Other witnesses were concerned aboutwinter navigation and potentialoil spills, and believedthat there shouldbe more stringent requirements regarding spills.

Regardingnuclear wastes and radioactivity, it was statedthat the assim- ilativecapacity of Lake Superior for radioactivity should be \identified and common UnitedStates/Canada standards for radioactivity should be established. Severalwitnesses stated that the possibility of using thermal waste heat for municipalheating should be explored.

26 A number ofrepresentatives of environmental groups expressed concern that theexisting legislation concerning the environment was notbeing enforced. It was statedthat industries should be finedfor lack of compliance, and that the"polluter should pay" for clean-ups.

Several comments were made atthe hearings regarding the desire for a greater amount ofpublic information and publiceducation. Appreciation was expressedfor the efforts of the Commission forgreater public participation throughthe pre-hearing workshops. It was statedthat public education should gohand-in-hand with any new environmentallegislation.

The issueof erosion was discussedby several witnesses. It was believed thatcareful shoreline development and control of dredgingwould lessen erosion. Some witnessesstated that more carefulregulation of lake levels wouldalso be beneficial.

Otherwitnesses stated that the highest priority should begiven to the potentialeffects on human health of constituentsfound in the water; there- fore,the best treatment should be applied to wastewater in order to ensure a safewater supply. Commentwas alsoreceived regarding the need for a greater emphasis on recycling and recoveryof waste materials rather than on water, land,or air disposal. One industrialrepresentative stated that the recom- mendationregarding discharge of metals, if implemented,would put his copper company outof business.

27

5. STATUS OF THE UPPER LAKES

Forpurposes ofthis study, the Reference Group classifiedwater as nondegraded,degraded, polluted.or Nondegraded water definedis as high qualitywater which showsno significant change as a resultof human activity. Degradedwater shows theeffects of human activitythat may resultin occa- sionalviolations of water use objectives, which are designed to protect the mostsensitive water use. Pollutedwater shows frequent or severeviolations ofwater quality for which remedial programs are required.

Pollutionor degradation occurs when a waterbody is unable toassimilate thematerial discharged to it withoLtadverse changes in waterquality. The abilityto assimilate a dischargedwaste material without an adverseeffect depends on threefactors: the quantity and thepersistence of the material discharged and thephysical characteristics of the receiving water body.Per- sistencerefers to the ability of a substance toresist breaking down into an innocuous f orm.

Harbours andembayments compriseonly a smallfraction of the total volume of a lake,but impairment most often occurs there because these are the receivingwaters for most point source discharges. Further, the geography and thebathymetry of each harbour or emba,yment resultin a restrictionin the exchange ofthe receiving water with water from the adjacent portion of the lake.This allows a pollutantdischarged into a harbouror embayment to build up andup impactthat area. Water exchange patterns and thereforepollutant dispersalare unique to eachgeographic area; they are also complex and not wellunderstood.

In some casesthe quantity and/or the persistence of the material dis- chargedalso results in measurable pollution or degradation effects in the water,sediment, or fish in the adjacent nearshore zone ouxide the harbour or embayment. Inextreme cases,measurable degradation from point sources can be detectedin the open waterof the lake itself. Thus, what isdischarged must be considerednot only forits impact on theimmediate receiving water but alsofor its potentialfor contributing to impairment in the open lake.

The waterquality of the Upper Lakes was evaluatedby the Upper Lakes ReferenceGroup with regard totwelve factors: nutrient enrichment (phos- phorus),microbiology, metals, organic contaminants, solids, asbestos, spills, lakelevel regulation, dredging, vessel wastes, thermal inputs, and radio- activity.This chapter details the Reference Group’s findings.

As foundby the Reference Group, the Commission findsthat several loc- alizedareas of the Upper Lakes have been adversely impacted by one or more of thetwelve abovementioned factors, indicating that their local assimilative capacity has beenexceeded. Formost discharged materials, effects have generallynot been detectedbeyond the immediate receiving waters. Moreover, in mostcases, these factors do notappear to havecaused any injuryto the healthor property of the other country. They do, however,adversely affect waterquality and can also limit theability of theUpper Lakes to handle futureinputs.

29 Threefactors were identified as alsobeing potential whole-lake concerns: nutrientenrichment from phosphorusloadings, persistent synthetic organic contaminants,and metals. The adverseeffects ofthese factors can include limitations onhuman consumptionof water and fish, as well as possibleloss offisheries and recreationalopportunities and thecapacity forfuture growth.With respect to two of thesethree factors - toxics and metals - the assimi 1 at ive capacity of the entire 1 akehas been or may soonbe exceeded. In thesecircumstances, the Commission believesthat continued inputs of these substances on eitherside of the border will likelyadversely affect health and property on theother si de of theborder.

Findingsregarding pollution and degradationfrom the twelve factors identified aboveare firstdetailed for specific affected local geographic areasof the UpperLakes; these areas are identified on Figures 4 and 5 for LakeSuperior and Lake Huron, respectively. Transboundary impacts are noted where relevant.This chapter then considers whole-lake aspects of nutrient enrichment,organic contaminants (toxics), and metals.Lastly, because the atmosphere is a majorrecognized pathway for materials input, the effects of airbornepollution on waterquality are discussed. WATER QUAL I TY F I NDI NGS FOR SPEC IF IC GEOGRAPH IC AREAS The ReferenceGroup identified numerousareas ofreported pollution or degradationcaused by discharges from municipalities and industriesand/or by nonpointinputs. Theseareas and thepoint source dischargers into themare listedin Tables 5 and 6 for LakeSuperior and LakeHuron, respectively. Majorcauses ofpollution are discussed in detail in thissection. Table 7 provides a listof localized phosphorusconcentrations, while Table 8 shows theReference Group's present and projectedphosphorus loadings to the Upper Lakes.

LAKE SUPERIOR RASIN THUNDER BAY

The innerharbour and theadjacent section of theouter harbour of Thunder Bay arecontaminated by local industrial and municipalwastewater discharges. The mostseriously affected area is the lower Kaministikwia River and thearea around its mouth.Remedial programs have been implemented toalleviate some ofthe identified concerns; however, futuregrowth will increasethe stresses onThunder Bay.

The total phosphorusconcentration in Thunder Ba.y (Table 7) increased considerablybetween 1970 and 1974, but it was notpossible, on the basis of thelimited phytoplankton production data available, to dray specific conclu- sions on thesignificance theof higher phosphorus level. The dissolved oxygenconcentration has remained high, indicating noshift toward eutro- phication. The factorscontrolling the trophic state in Thunder Bay arenot known; therelatively low water temperature may beimportant inpreventing adverseeffects.

Because there hasbeen no change observed inthe trophic state of Thunder Bay, no nutrientremoval from municipal wastewaters (which account for 20% of thephosphorus input) or from industrial wastewaters (which account for 25% of theinput) is planned. With the predicted growth of the Cit,y of Thunder Bay, increasednutrient input is expected to occur. This could provide a critical

30 a

31 32 TABLE 5

POINT-SOURCE DISCtiARGE2S To OBSERVED POLLUTED OR DEGEADEDAREAS OF LAKESUPERIOR

RECEIVING WATER POINT SOURCE DISCHARGER OR LOCATION

Thunder Bay Abitibi Paper Co. (3 mills-Thunder Bay, Fort William, and Provincial) Canada MaltingLtd. GreatLakes Paper Co. IndustrialGrain Products Ltd. Northern Wood PreserversLtd. ThunderBay Sewage TreatmentPlanta

Duluth-SuperiorHarbor U. S. Steel Corp. (Duluth) F SuperiorFiber Products Inc. (Superior) Superior Sewage TreatmentPlant WesternLake Superior Sanitary District Sewage TreatmentPlantb

Western Arm of ReserveMining Co. (Silver Bay) LakeSuperior OntarioNorth Shore - Jackfish Bay KimberlyClark of Canada Ltd.(Terrace Bay) Nipigon Bay DomtarPackaging Ltd. (Red Rock) NipigonTownship Sewage TreatmentPlant RedRock Township Sewage TreatmentPlant PeninsulaHarbour American Can of Canada Ltd.(Marathon) MarathonTownship Sewage -reatmentPlant

South Shore - Ontonagon Ontonagon Sewage TreatmentPlant Hoerner,Waldorf Corp. Marquette Marquette Sewage Plant Mun isi ng Munising Sewage TreatmentPlant KimberlyClark Corp.

" a. This sewage treatmentplant (STP) was completed in 1978and replacedthe North STP and theSouth STP. b. The WesternLake Superior Sanitary District STPwas completed in 1978and will become fullyoperational during 1979. This new plantreplaced the following directdischargers to Duluth-Superior Harbor: Potlatch Corp. (Cloquet), Cloquet STP, Conwed Corp. (Cloquet) , Continental Oil Co. (Wrenshall),Fairmount STP, MainDuluth STP, Scanlon STP, Carlton STP, Wrenshall STP, Jay Cooke State Parkand STP, Gary New Duluth STP, and Smithville STP. 33 .. -

"" TABLE tj

POINT-SOURCE DISCHARGERS To OBSE~VEDPOLLUTED OR DEGRADED AREAS OF LAKEHURON

RECEIVING WATER OR LOCATION POINT SOURCEDISCHARGER

St. Marys River SaultSte. Marie, Ontario Sewage TreatmentPlant Algoma Steel(Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario) Abitihi Paper Co. (SaultSte. Marie, Ontario) DomtarChemical (SaultSte. Marie, Ontario)

~ ~ . ~. ~~.~~ -~ ~ . ~ ~ NorthChannel - SeroentHarbour Elliot Lake Sewage TreatmentPlant Rio AlgomMines (Elliot Lake) DenisonMines (Elliot Lake) SpanishRiver Mouth Eddy ForestProducts (Espanola) R1 ind Rlver BlindRiver Sewage TreatmentPlant

~ ~~ -~ "" ~" CottageCountry Shoreline of Georgian Bay - Collingwood Collinqwood Sewage TreatmentPlant C? 1 1 ingwood Sh ipyard Penetang-MidlandArea PortMcNicoll Sewage TreatmentPlant Penetanguishene Sewage TreatmentPlant Midland Sewage TreatmentPlant FenetanguisheneMental Health Hospital Parry Sound Parry Sound Sewage TreatmentPlant Owen Sound Owen Sound Sewage TreatmentPlant Tobermory St. Edmunds-Tobermory Sewage TreatmentPlant

SaginawBay, including Alma Sewage TreatmentPlant dischargersupstream in Bay City Sewage TreatmentPlant the Saginaw RiverBasin BridgeportTownship Sewage TreatmentPlant Buena Vista Township Sewage TreatmentPlant Dow Chemical(Bay City) Dow Chemical(Midland) Flint Sewage TreatmentPlant Flushing Sewage TreatmentPlant General Motors Corp. (BayCity) General Motors Corp., Buick(Flint) GeneralMotors Corp., Fisher Body (Flint) GeneralMotors Corp., Chevrolet (Flint) GeneralMotors Corp., Metal Castings Plant Genessee County District #2 Sewage TreatmentPlan Genessee County District #3 Sewage TreatmentPlan Michigan Sugar Co. (Caro) Michigan Sugar Co. (Carrolton) Michiqan Sugar Co. (Sebewaing) Monitor Sugar Co. (BayCity) Midland Sewage TreatmentPlant Mt. Pleasant Sewage TreatmentPlant OwossoSewage TreatmentPlant PeetPacking Co. (Chesaninq) SaginawTownship Sewage District Saginaw Sewage TreatmentPlant TotalLeonard (Alma) Velsicol ChemicalCorp. (St. Louis) Zilwaukfe Sewage TreatmentPlant ".~~~~~ __~__."__ MainLake Shoreline - Tawas City Tawas City Sewage TreatmentPlant Lex ing ton Lexington Sewage TreatmentPlant Cheboygan Cheboygan Sewage TreatmentPlant CharminPaper Co. Alnena National GypsumCo., Huron Cement Division Alpena Sewage TreatmentPlant Ahitibi Corp. Fletcher Paper Co. Besser Co. HarborBeach Hercules,Inc. Goderich Goderich Sewage TreatmentPlant

34 TABLE 7

TOTAL PHOSPtORUSCONCENTRATIONS IN THEUPPER LAKES

AVERAGE ANNUAL WATER BODY CONCENTRATION (W-1

LAKE HURON

MainLake 4.5 NorthChannel 4.5 Geor g ian Bay 4.7 Inner Saginaw Bay 58 (2-290) Penetang-Mid1 and 20 Alpena 54 HarborBeach 24 Go,der ich 30 Tobermory 2-18 Owen Sound 16 Collingwood 25

LAKE SUPERIOR Q

Open Waters 4.0 St. Louis Bay 100-200 Marquette 100 Thunder Bay 55 Munising 16 Jackf ish Bay 4-70 Nipigon Bay 3-20

35 I TABLE 8

PZESENT AND PROJECTED PHOSPHORUSLOADINGS To THE UPPE~LAKES (in tonnesper year)

LAKE MAIN LAKE SAG I NAW GEORGIAN NORTH I SUPERIOR HURONa BAY BAY CHANNEL I 1 , /M & I Loadings i Direct M 132 70 - 60 60 j Direct I 99 57 0 14 wi' Indirect M & I 36 9 947 - 37 68 j Total M & I in 1974 6 00 1084 800 97 142 Schedu 1 ed Reduc t i onsb 200 700 600 0 0 1 M & I Loadings After ScheduledReductions 400 384 200 97 142 /Total Lake Loadings ' Before Schedu 1ed Reduc t i ons 4140 37 20 1310 928 1221 1 AfterScheduled Reductions 3940 3020 7 10 IPercent Total Loading From M & I Sources j BeforeScheduled Reductions 14% 23% 6 1% 10% 1.2% i AfterScheduled Reductions 10% 13% 28% /EstimatedAdditional Reductions If All 80 10 - 25 75 j Other M Dischargers Achieved 1.0 mg/Lb¶c 2% < 1% - 3% 6% EstimatedAdditional Reduction If All 30 60 100 3E 10 M Dischargers WentFrom 1.0 to 0.5 mg/Lb,c < 1% 2% 14% 4% 1% Projected Loading in 2020 4770 42 30 - 3 179 1700

I a. Including Saginaw Bay b. To be achievedwithout flow auqmentation c. Based in part on datapresentea in Appendix C to the 1977 Annual Report of theGreat Lakes Water Quality Board. These estimatedreductions are only approximate but of thecorrect order of magnitude. stress on the Bay and couldresult in significant deterioration. Implement- ationof appropriate municipal and industrialphosphorus control is indicated toavoid potential future nutrient problems in the Bay. To thisextent, under theterms of the 1978 Water Quality Agreement, relatingto local conditions, the limit of amaximum phosphoruseffluent concentration of 1 mg/L is applic- able.Further, since Canada MaltingLtd. discharges via the municipal sewage treatment plant , municipalphosphorus removal capabi 1 ity wouldalso reduce the industrialphosphorus input to Thunder Bay.

The ReferenceGroup found that both municipal and industrialdischarges werecontributing to bacteriological degradation in and aroundThunder Bay. The recent1.ycompleted municipal primary sewage treatmentplant provides treatmentfor essentially all municipal sewage discharges,including combined sewer discharges. However, sinceindustrial discharges also contain sanitary wastes,bacterial degradation will continueuntil remedial measures are implementedon these sources.

Althoughlake trout andsediment in ThunderBay exhibitelevated mercury levels,these appear to be the result of past discharges. Elevated concentra- tionsof mercury occur in sediments in a zone extendingfrom Thunder Bay to a pointsouthwest ofthe international boundary ,in the deeper waters of the Duluthdepositional basin; these deposits are the result of mining inthe ThunderBay area around the turn ofthe century. A more recentsource of mercury was thechlor-alkal i plantof Dow Chemical Company on theKaminis- tikwiaRiver; this plant was closed in 1.973. The mercury-bearingsediments will, in time,be effectively separated from the water column asnew sediment is deposited on thelake bottom. Thus, levelsinfish should decrease to withinaccepted criteria without additional remedial programs.

Excessivelevels of compounds whichcan cause objectionable taste and odourare traceable tothe Great Lakes Paper Company mill in Thunder Bay. Ongoingplannedor remedial measures areexpected reduceto discharges containingsuch compounds tolevels incompliance with the Agreementand Ontarioobjectives, but because theof schedule thein control orders, compliance is severalyears away. Thistime frame is excessivelylong in relationto the purpose of the Agreement.

ThunderBay is thelocation of about 75% ofthe maintenance dredg,ing in theCanadian portion of theLake Superior Basin. Most theof sediments containorganic materials and mercury.There hasbeen only a minimal amount of dredging , however, inrecent years. Uncontaminated materi a1 ispresently disposedofwell offshore and contaminatedmaterial deposited in a semi- enclosedbasin. A dikeddisposal area for future dredging is under develop- men t . DULUTH-SUPERIOR HARBOR

Water qualityin Duluth-Superior Harbor isadversely affected by muni- cipal,industri a1 , agricultural , and naturalsources; point-source dischargers arelisted in Table 5. The harbourconsists of St. Louis Bayand Superior Bay; theformer is upstream of the latter. Physical and chemicalproperties arehighly variable but, normally, water quality generally improves as one proceedstoward the lake. However, thecontrolling factor isthe wind; an offshorewind can introduce high-quality lake water well up intothe harbour. Outflowof the water aftercessation of the wind in effect flushes the harbour.

37 Duluth-SuperiorHarbor was extensivelystudied bythe Reference Group during 1973-75. Eightypercent of theannual phosphorus loading of 270 tonnes was foundto come frompoint-source discharges. Basedonobserved nutrient loadings and biologicalindicators, Duluth-Superior Harbor was eutrophic;the phosphorusconcentration in St. Louis Bay was 100-200 ug/L,compared to 4 pg/L in the open watersofLake Superior. Nutrients and BOD loadingsfrom organicmaterial were contributingto low dissolved oxygen values, often in violationof Minnesota standards. The levelsof chlorophyll c1 (a measure of the amount of algaein the water) were onlymoderately high, but this may be attributedto high turbidity restricting the amount oflight, on whichalgae aredependent forgrowth. Fecal coliform, phenols, andcopper levelsin Duluth-SuperiorHarbor were often in excess of Minnesota standards.

Remedialmeasures have since been completed or undertaken torestore the waterquality of Duluth-SuperiorHarbor to within jurisdictional andAgreement values.

Coliformlevels and nutrient, BOD, andsuspended solidsconcentrations are expectedto decrease, and cJissolvedoxygen levels are expected to recover when therecently completed $100 million WesternLake Superior Sanitary District wastewatertreatment plant is fully operational. Start-up commenced in October 1978. Thisplant replaces numerous, smaller plants and treatsboth municipal and industrialwastewater.

Phosphorusremoval capability will reducethe annual loading by about 160 tonnes. When thistarget is met, municipal and industrialpoint sources will be contributingonly about half of the total phosphorus loading to the har- bour. The need foradditional nutrient removal measureswould depend on to whatextent the harbour has been restored.

Dischargerequirements have been placed upon some otherdirect municipal and industrialdischarges to the harbour. Also, a rehabilitationprogram was initiatedin 1376 topatch broken sanitary sewer linesin Duluth and tostop sans’tarysewer bypasses. Flow monitoring beingis conducted furtherto evaluatethe amount ofinfiltration of sanitary sewers. The adequacy ofthe programsshould be assessed after the harbour waters have had an opportunity to respond.

Althoughthese remedial measures will improvethe quality of St. Louis Bay and Superior Bay, theaccumulated benthic sludges in the lower St. LouisRiver will remain. The sludgescontain EOD frompast discharges and, as a result, lowdissolved oxygen levels will persist in the river for many yearsto come.

Dredgingin Duluth-Superior Harbor accounts for approximately 90% ofall dredgingin the U.S. portionof the LakeSuperior Basin. However, thesediment iscontaminated and, althoughits effect on thewater column is not entirely known, this has ledto the prohibition of openwater disposal of thespoil. A confineddredge spoil disposal site was underconstruction during 1978 and disposal will beginthere in 1979. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineersis study- ingthe pollution potential of material dredged from Duluth-Superior Harbor and will alsomonitor water quality in the vicinity of the disposal site after it becomes operational. The resultsof these studies, when complete,should beconsidered to determine if additional measuresare necessary.

38 WESTERN ARM OF LAKE SUPERIOR The two major' adverse influences on the western arm of Lake Superior are the Reserve Mining Company discharge at Silver Bay, Minnesota and the red clay erosion area along the Wisconsin shoreline. The discharge of taconite tailings waste from Reserve Mining Company results in deposits of tailings on the lake bottom and dispersal of asbesti- form fibres in the waters of the western arm of Lake Superior. The discharge has also created a tailings delta. The discharge, which is denser than the lake water, flows down the face of this delta without much deterioration until it reaches a trough about 300 metres deep and about 10 kilometres off shore, where most of the tailingsare deposited. The thermocline(temperature gradient), however, can split the density current, resulting in some dispersal of tailings and of asbestiform fibres in the water column. Also, some depos- ited tailings and asbestiform fibres are resuspehded from the trough and distributed over much of the western arm of Lake Superior by the prevailing counterclockwise current, upwellings, and storms and can be found almost to the Keweenaw Peninsula. Tailings presently cover the lake bottom to a depth of at least 0.25 cm over an area of 130 km2 (Figure G). The tailings deposits have resulted in an adverse shift in the benthic community population and structure. The tailings discharge causes a local violation of the 1978 Agreement objective for settleable and suspended solids, reduces the aesthetic enjoyment of the water, violates the Minnesota effluent limitations for turbidity and suspended solids, and ma,y contribute to lake enrichment . More significant than the tailings as a whole is the amphibole asbestiform fibre fraction of the tailings discharge. Because of their small size, once suspended, the fibres discharged at Silver Bay tend to remain suspended in the water column. Fibres have been detected downstream in high numbers in the water supplies of Beaver Bay, Two Harbors, Duluth, and Cloquet (Figures 4 and 7).

The U.S. federal Court of Appeals has ruled that, because of the presence or asbestiform fibres, the tailings discharge violates the Federal Water Pol- lution Control Act in that it endangers public health and welfare.

As a result of extended litigation by U.S. EPA, the State of Minnesota, and environmental groups, the courts have ruled that the discharge to Lake Superior must cease by April 15, 1980. Reserve is presently constructing an on-land disposal site. This will eliminate the source; however, the fibres do not degrade and will remain in the lake indefinitely. Further, because of resuspension from the tailings deposits on the bottom and erosion from the existing tailings delta even after the discharge ceases, and the absence of any feasible means of amelioration, the fibres will remain in the water of Lake Superior for many years to come. Present data suggest that the problem arising from the Reserve Mining operation will probably not extend beyond the western arm of Lake Superior.

Epidemiological studies have shown that inhalation of asbestos fibres is associatedwith asbestosis, respiratory system cancer, gastrointestinal cancer, and pleural and peritoneal mesothelioma. Asbestos fibres in drinking water may also constitute a health hazard, but studies have notyet determined whetherasbestos ingestion is eithersafe or hazardous. Several long-term studies are in progress to define the health effects of ingested asbestos.

39 ." .

92" 910I / i ( ,: 10 20 1 I I km

r-----qlC)ISTRIBUTION OF 1. :..j OBVIOUS TAILINGS IN iLAKE SUPERIOR iiEDlMENT MAY 1973

\\\' I 0 "

.- " I

FIGURE 6- DISTRIBUTION OF TACONITE TAILINGS IN LAKE SUPERIOR SEDIMENT BASED UPON VISUAL EXAMINATION OF SURFACE SEDIMENT SAMPLES

40 MenAmphibok Rbres per Litre by Electron Mkrvseopy

Thunder Bsy 0.54 111111111 Grand Man& 0.m I Sher Bsy 0.26 lllli Beaver Bay 72.4 lllllll1111111111111llll 'IIIIIIII Two Harbors 7.95 111111 lllllllllll ll1ll1ll1 Duluth 7.62 111111lllllllllll

Ashland 0.31 111111 Ontonagon 0.24 1111 Eagle Harbor 0.73 111

Marquette 0.16 Ill

FIGURE 7- WESTERN LAKE SUPERIOR AVERAGE CONCENTRATIONS OF AMPHIBOLE ASBESTOS FIBRES IN POTABLE WATER INTAKES

41 The latencyperiod between initial exposure to asbestos and resultantdiseases isgenerally from 20 to 40 years.Reserve has been discharging since 1.955 and elevatedlevels ofasbestos havebeen inthe Duluth water supply at least since 1964. Thus, healtheffects should soon beevident if thefibres in the drinkingwater are causative.

Inview of the uncertainty, there is cause for concern regarding those communities whose watersupplies contain asbestiform fibres. Communities with highlevels of asbestiform fibres include Duluth, Beaver Bay, Two Harbors, and Cloquet.Duluth has a filtration systemwhich is designedfor greater than 99% efficiencyor not more than 1.0 millionfibres/litre, basedupon a maximum rawwater concentration of up to 644 millionfibres/litre. While high, this levelof removal may notbe satisfactory toensure adequate public health protectionsince the extremely fine fraction of asbestiform fibres remains in thewater.

Suspended solidsare a problembut only inthe western arm of Lake Superior. The majorcause iserosion and resuspensionof red clay along the Wisconsinshoreline. Problems include shoreline property damage, reduced aestheticquality of the water, periodic contamination of the Duluth public waterintake, and cloggingof gravel beds needed for trout spawning.

The highestconcentrations of suspended solidsoccur in the nearshore area ofthe western arm betweenDuluth and theApostle Islands, where the median concentrationis 2.8 mg/L. The western arm has an averagesuspended sol ids concentrationof approximately 0.9 mg/L, and theaverage open lake concentra- tionfor the rest of LakeSuperior isonly approximately 0.2 mg/L. During intensestorms, however, open-lake plumes inthe western armhave suspended solidsconcentrations of 40 mg/Land nearshorewater concentrations of up to 1000 mg/L. Fifty-fivepercent ofthe mean annualinput comes fromshore erosion, 37% fromresuspension ofsediments, and 8% fromstream runoff. In warm months, inthe absenceof icecover, shore erosion contributes 70% of the redclay input. The NemadjiRiver accounts for approximately two-thirds of thestream runoff input.

The lakelevel affects the rate oferosion in a complexmanner. The regulation of thelevel of LakeSuperior has slightly increased the mean lake level; a higher mean lakelevel tends to increase erosion. On theother hand, regulation has slightly decreasedthe peak level and therange of water level fluctuation. It isalso established that the greatest erosion takes place duringstorms, which increase wave action and causesurges inlake level. Thus, thenet influence of regulation is difficult to assess. The Reference Groupconcluded the long-term effect oflake-level regulation on redclay erosionisslight; red clay erosion is a natural phenomenon, essentially unaffectedby man's activities.

The ReferenceGroup also concluded that stabilization ofthe shoreline wouldhe difficultregardless of the lake level because ofthe nature of the soil. However, studieshave been initiated to determine how redclay erosion upstream inthe drainage basin can be controlled.

ONTARIONORTH SHORE

Alongthe Ontario shoreline ofLake Superior east from Thunder Bay to SaultSte. Marie, the general water quality is good. Significantdegradation occursonly in the immediate vicinity of municipal and/or industrial outfalls

42 atJackfish Bay, Nipigon Bay,and PeninsulaHarbour (Table 5). All three locationsare pulp and paperproduction centres: Kimberly Clark of Canada Ltd.,Domtar Packaging Ltd. , andAmerican Can of Canada Ltd.,respectively,

At all threesites, bacterial contamination, sometimes in excess of Ontariocriteria, is reported.Unacceptable levels of mercury in sediment and fishare reported at Jackfish Bay and at PeninsulaHarbour, and infish from Nipigon Bay, Black Bay, MichipicotenHarbour, and Pine Bay; inall caseswhere a pointsource ofmercury hasbeen identified,the source hasbeen closed down. PCB's were detectedat unacceptable levels in sediments from Jackfish Bay and PeninsulaHarbour, and infish from Peninsula Harbour and Nipigon Bay. Phenolicsubstances, which could result in fish tainting, were reported as presentin water in Jackfish Bayand inPeninsula Harbour; no remedial measuresare presently planned.

Nutrientspose a potentialfuture problem. Without phosphorus removal the chlorophyll a concentrationin both Jackfish Bay and Nipigon Bay couldenter themesotrophic range by 2020. With 85% phosphorusremoval, the levels would remainessentially unchanged, inthe oligotrophic range.

Unlesscorrected, bacterial degradation aas resultofthe industrial dischargeat Jackfish Bay will continue.In Nipigon Bay, thebacteriological situationshould improve because ofrecently implemented and additionally plannedremedial measures.

MICHIGAN SOUTH SHORE

Water qualityis also good alongthe south shore of Lake Superior. Degrad- ationis observed only in the immediate vicinity of certain river inflows to thelake. These riversreceive municipal and industrialpoint-source waste discharges(Table 5); upstreamwatershed disturbances and agriculturalactiv- ity may alsobe contributing factors. The lakeis impacted in the vicinity of Ontonagon,Marquette, and Munising because of phosphorusinputs to the lake by way ofrivers; the benthic community at each river mouth location is indic- ativeof enrichment. Municipal phosphorus removal is now inplace at Munising; theeffluent concentration is now approximately 1 mg/L. At Ontonagon,phos- phorusremoval isaccomplished by routing the effluent from the municipal sewage treatmentplant to a paper mill, whichuses the phosphorus in its waste treatment operat ions. Phosphorusremoval f ac i1 ities are under construction at Marquette and will he on linein the fall of 1979.

Inadequateoperation of disinfection facilities at municipal sewage treat- ment plants has resultedin elevated coliform counts at Black River Harbor, Ontonagon,Marquette, and Munising.

Severelydegraded sediments occur at Ontonagon andMunising, asa result ofinadequately treated sewage,and at UpperPortage Entry because ofpast miningactivities. Under U.S. EPA dredgespoil guidelines, the sediments are consideredpolluted, at Ontonagon forchemical oxygen demand and totalKjel- dah1 nitrogen;at Munising for chemical oxygen demand, totalKjeldahl nitro- gen, zinc,lead, and totalvolatile solids; and at UpperPortage Entry for copper and zinc. At allthree locations, .the benthic community is degraded. Maintenancedredging ofpolluted sediment isundertaken at Ontonagon; the pollutedspoil is disposed of on land.

43 The concentration of copper in water is elevated at UpperandLower PortageEntries, as a resultof past mining activities, and alsoat Ontonagon andMarquette.

Human consumptionoffat lake trout caught at Munising,Marquette, and WhitefishPoint is limited becausemercury levels exceed the 0.5 mg/kg U.S. Foodand Drug Administrationguideline. Mean levelsof PCB's exceedthe 5 mg/kg U.S. guidelinein fat lake trout caught at Black River Harbor, Munising, and Marquette. Some individualfat lake trout caught at Black River Harbor, LowerPortage Entry, Copper Harbor, Marquette, and Munising exceed the 5 mg/kg DDT guideline.Only Blackat River Harbor, however, does the mean value exceed the gu ide 1 ine.

LAKE HURONBASIN ST. MARYSRIVER

The St. Marys Rivercontinues to bedegraded by municipal and industrial dischargesfrom Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario. Loadings cyanide,of phenols, ammonia, and othermaterials to the St. Marys Riverfrom Algoma Steelwere sufficientlyhigh in 1947-48 forthe Commission to recommend inits 1951 reportto Governments that measuresbe taken toabate the discharges in order tocorrect identified pollution problems. However, loadingswere considerably higherin 1974, indicatingthat remedial measureshave neithercorrected the problemsnor kept pace with expansion.

The dischargeindustrialof waste from Algoma SteelCorporation has resultedin sediment concentrations exceeding U.S. EPA and/orOntario dredge spoildisposal guidelines for phenolic substances, oil, cyanide, iron, and zinc.For example, iron concentrations as high as 44% byweight are recorded inthe surface sediments for the first 3 km downstreamfrom the discharge and exceedthe guideline for 11 km. Severe disruptionofthe benthic macro- invertebratecommunity is observedfor about 3 km downstream ofthe main out- fall and up to 300 metresfrom shore. Elevated levels of iron and zincare foundinsediments on the U.S. sideof the river downstream ofSault Ste. Marie,Ontario, as a resultoftransboundary movement.However, recorded levels do notexceed the guidelines across the international boundary and, fortunately,contaminated areas are not generally subject maintenanceto dredging.

Cyanidelevels in water average 0.28 mg/L downstream ofthe main Algoma outfall and exceedthe Ontario permissible criterion of 0.2 mg/L forpublic watersupply for about 0.3 km downstream.Both these values are higher than concentrationsreported to be lethalto various species of fish. Levels in excess ofthe proposed water quality objective of 0.005 mg/L extendinto the LakeGeorge Channel. Cyanide loadings from Algoma Steelwere 2280 kg/d in 1974, constituting morethan 80% ofthe total input to LakeHuron from all sources. A majorreduction incyanide should he achieved beginning in 1979 withthe final commissioning of a new hyproductrecovery plant.

The concentrationof phenolic substances in water exceeds the 1978 Agree- ment objective and theOntario criterion for more than 11 km belowthe main Algoma outfall. The levels were reinforcedbyinputs from Domtar viathe municipal sewer outfall. Transboundary movement was evidentin LakeGeorge wherephenol levels exceeding the Agreement objective were found in U.S.

44 waters.There have been no confirmedreports, however, of fish tainting or of taste and odourproblems in watersupplies. InJanuary 1976,Domtar began idcinerationofits wastes. At Algoma, the new by-productrecovery plant mentionedabove should significantly reduce phenolic discharges. Both cyanide and phenollevels should be monitored following implementation ofremedial measures at Algoma Steel.

Bacteriallevels in excess of the Agreement objectives and Ontariorecrea- tional use criteriaoccur due to sewer overflows and inadequateeffluent dis- infectionat the municipal sewage treatmentplant. No remedialmeasures are under way.

NORTHCHANNEL

The NorthChannel possesses high overall quality. However, degradation was foundin the vicinity of Serpent Harbour, at the Spanish River mouth,and inthat portion of the channel receiving inflow from the St. MarysRiver.

SerpentHarbour and theSpanish River mouth both exhibit developing phos- phorusnutrient enrichment from tributary municipal and industrialdischarges, butchlorophyll a levelsare not sufficiently elevated to be of concern. If minesare reopened, nitrogen loadings from mine tailing areas could increase atthe Serpent River mouth.

The St. MarysRiver is a majorsource of phosphorus loading to the North Channel.Although the loading rate indicates that the area should be in the mesotrophicrange, chlorophyll e levels do not show anyincrease; the,y are aboutthe same as inthe oligotrophic openwater of LakeHuron.

Bacteriallevels inthe northwestern portion ofthe North Channelare elevatedbecause of loadings from the St. MarysRiver. Levels near the Blind River and atthe mouth of the Spanish River are elevated due tothe discharge ofinadequately treated sewage.

Nickelconcentrations are elevated in the sediments from several areas of theNorth Channel, including Serpent Harbour. The levelsare due tonatural mineralization and miningactivities in the drainage basin. DDT hasalso been detectedin the sediment of the Spanish River mouth and in SerpentHarbour; thesource may havebeen past usage of DDT tocontrol black flies. Phenols in thewater of the Spanish River mouth are due tothe Eddy ForestProducts pulp andpaper mi 11 upstreamat Espanola.

Radium activity(concentration) in Serpent Harbour continues to exceed the Ontariopermissible criterion for surface drinking water supplies of 3 pico- curiesper litre as well as the19?8 Agreement objective, expressed as a dosage, of 1 milliremper year. Radium levelsare lower, however, than values reportedinprevious years due toremedial measures initiated upstream at activemine sites in the Elliot Lakearea subsequent to 1965, decreasedmining activityin recent years, and naturaldecreases in stream flow. Pursuant to controlorders issued in 1977,waste and drainagefrom both active and idle miningproperties owned byDenison Mines Ltd. and by Rio Algom Ltd. meet the provincialguideline which was establishedin order to achieve compliance with theprovincial drinking water criterion. However, because thisguideline has not beenappl iecl to drainage from tai 1 ingsareas at other idle or abandoned mines,the radium level in Serpent Harbour remains elevated above thedrinking

45 water criterion. The only local public water supply in thearea is treatedto reducethe radium concentration to within the criterion. No furtherremedial programsare under way, althoughthe need for additional control programs in theElliot Lakearea isbeing assessed.

COTTAGECOUNTRY SHORELINE OF GEORGIAN BAY

Significantnutrient enrichment occurs in the nearshore waters of Georgian Bay inthe vicinity of Collingwood, Penetang,and Midland and minorenrichment atParry Sound, Owen Sound, and Tobermory. At Collingwood,phosphorus concen- trations(Table 7) are sufficiently high to causenuisance weed and algal growths.Municipal wastewater is a principalsource of the nutrients; at Col- lingwood and atMidland, the phosphorus removal facilities are not operating properly.Other contributing factors are, atCollingwood andPenetang, the lowflushing rate and assimilativecapacity of the receiving water. Also at Collingwood,runoff and nutrientsfrom suspendedsediments may contribute. Enrichmentat Parry Sound may become a problemin the future because of the limitednutrient assimilation capacity of the receiving water.

In Penetang Bay, municipalsources contributed about 87% ofthe phosphorus loadingin 1973and forMidland Bay, about 34%; forthe Penetang-Midland area as a whole(defined as thearea east of Giants Tomb Island),municipal point sourcescontributed about 24% ofthe total input.

ForPenetang Bay, the sewage treatmentplants are present1.y achieving a phosphoruseffluent limitation of less than 1 mg/L, butthe long (2.4 years) waterretention time of the bay precludes achieving a higherlevel of water qualityin the Bay. Improvedalternative methods of phosphorus treatment or disposalare required to deal with this localized problem.

When theentire Penetang-Midland area is considered, 76% ofthe phosphorus inputis from nonpoint sources, including unsewered domestic waste. A sizable portionof the population inthe drainage basin, which includes the Severn River,is nonsewered.

The populationof the cottage country is projected to increase. Much of thisfuture population ma,y unsewered.be For new cottageconstruction, Ontariorequires a no-discharge tile drainagesystem which should allow for no discharge,directly orindirectly, tosurface waters; where thisisnot feasible, a sewage holding andpump-out system isrequired. Pumped-out waste is conveyed to a municipalsystem fordisposal. Ontario presentlyis implementingsimilar requirements for existing cottages.

At Collingwood,according projectionsto chlorophyllof c1 levels,by 2020, wenwith 85% phosphorusremoval, growth will push theharbour into the eutrophicrange. Similarly, bothat Penetang andMidland, theprojected chlorophyll a levelswith 85% phosphorusremoval would be inthe mesotrophic rangeby 2020. Therefore,more stringent phosphorus loading limits may he required on presentpoint sources and alternativewaste collection, treatment, and disposaltechno1og.y may beappropriate. Further, the phosphorus contribu- tionfrom septic tanks and whethersuch systems are operating properly should bedetermined.

46 Inthe summer, totalcoliform levels sometimesexceed the Agreement objectiveatPenetang; the causes are inadequate1.y disinfected waste, urban drainage, and possiblythe heavy recreational use ofthe area. Fecal coli- forms and fecalstreptococci also exceed objectives atthe S,ydenham River mouth in Owen Sound inthe summer. Appropriatedisinfection and control measuresshould be undertaken.

Sediments Collingwoodat Harbour have high concentrations zinc,of cadmium,and lead;these are attributable tolocal shipbuilding operations. Zincconcentrations in sediment were also high at Penetang, Midland, and Parry Sound Harbour. DDT and itsmetabolites havebeen detected in sedimentsfrom Toberrnory, Owen Sound, CollingwoodHarbour, Penetang, and Midland. Dieldrin has also beendetected in Owen Sound Harbour,Penetang, and Midland. The presenceof DDT and dieldrinis probably attributable to past agricultural use.

Owen Soundand CollingwoodHarbour sediments also had high levels of PCB's; thesources are not known.PCB's werealso detected in individual fish in excessof the Canadian health guideline of 2 mg/kg at Owen Sound, Tober- mory,andNottawasaga Bay. Walleye from Nottawasaga Bay alsocontain an averagemercury concentration exceeding the Canadian health guideline of 0.5 mg/kgand walleyefrom the Penetang-Midland area approach the guideline. The mercurysource is believed to be natural.

SAG INAW BAY

SaginawBay is one ofthe most pollutedareas in the Great Lakes System; it violates numerous jurisdictionalvalues andAgreement objectives.In addition,the 60-day flushing time of Saginaw Bay resultsin the transport of thecontaminants in substantial quantities to the openwater ofsouthern Lake Huron. The Bay receivesthe wastewater generated by 1.2 millionpeople living in itsbasin,in numerous industries, and agriculturalland runoff. Most pollutantsenter the Bay viathe SaginawRiver. Virtually every use of SaginawBay has been affectedor curtailed: water supplies (taste and odour and filterclogging), recreation (swimming and boating), and fishery(sport and commercial).Despite some remedialmeasures, problems could become more acute.

SaginawBay isconsidered to be naturally somewhat eutrophic, and this condition hasbeen severely aggravated bythe additional impact of human activitiesinits drainage basin. The stimulationofalgal growth and the presenceundesireableof species bynutrients is now and probably will continueto be the most serious water quality problem in Saginaw Bay. During 1973-75 the Saginaw Rivercontributed approximately 1310 t/aof phosphorus throughthe Bay to LakeHuron (Table 8). This was 24% ofthe total phosphorus input(5520 t/a) to the entire lake and more thanthe amount enteringthe lake viathe St. MarysRiver and theStraits of Mackinaccombined. Municipalities inthe river basin wereresponsible forapproximately 61%, and nonpoint sourcesfor approximately 39%, of thephosphorus input to the Saginaw River.

The ReferenceGroup reported that phosphorus reduction toachieve an averagephosphorus effluent concentration of 1 mg/L atall municipal sewage treatmentplants in the SaginawBay Basin would reduce the annual phosphorus loadingfrom municipal sources from 800 to 200 tonnes,or by about 75%. This 600 t/areduction would represent about a 50% decrease inthe total phosphorus input to SaginawBay.

47 Point-sourcephosphorus removal capability is now in place at almost all municipal sewage treatmentplants in the Saginaw Ray Basin;by1977, these facilities had effected a reductionin the annual phosphorus loading of about 475 tonnes. An additionalannual reduction aboutof 100 tonnes will be achieved in 1979 when Flintcompletes its program. Inaddition, because of operationaldifficulties, some plantsare not presently achievii-7 the effluent goalof 1.0 mg/L. Properoperation, coupled with the recent1.y enacted (October 1.977) 0.5% limitation on phosphorus inlaundry detergents, should result in allmunicipal plants meeting or exceeding their targeted load reduction and, hence, thegoal reported by the Reference Group.With achievement ofthe 600 t/areduction, point sources will becontributing only about 28% ofthe total phosphorusload to SaginawBay.

The phosphorusremoval measures described above are expected tosignif- icantlyhelp the aggravated situation in SaginawBay and tofacilitate use of theBay's water. However, thesemeasures and evenmore stringentpoint source control measures may notbeadequate to meet the Agreement objectiveof preventingnuisance algae and weed growthand completely restoring beneficial wateruse. For example, the 50% reductionin phosphorus loading to the Bay will reducethe average chlorophyll a concentrationinthe inner bay by about a thirdfrom 15.7 pg/L,but this concentration is still in the eutro- phicrange. Further, the undesireable blue-green algae would still be present, althoughthere would be a significantreduction in their numberand inthe consequentwater use problems.

If all sewage treatmentplants inthe Saginaw Bay Basinachieved an averagephosphorus effluent concentration of 0.5 mg/L, theloading to the Bay, compared withthe loading expected with achievement of a 1.0 mg/L limit, would bereduced by only about 100 moretonnes per year, a furtherreduction of only about14%. Land application, if feasible,could ultimately reduce point source phosphorusloadings down to 20 t/a.

Nonpointsources represent the major future input of phosphorus to Saginaw Bay. Althoughthe nonpoint contribution tothe total loading islarge, any change inthis loading from land runoff with change inland use should, quali- tatively,besmall. Nonpoint loadings can be mitigated byapplication of cost-effectiveland runoff control measures inthe Saginaw Bay Basin. Such measureswould help improve and maintainthe Bay's overall quality at a higher level. A relativelysubstantial effort would be required in the basin, how- ever, toalter the trophic state of Saginaw Bay further.In its report on the studyconducted by the Pollution from Land Use ActivitiesReference Group, the Commission will dealindetail with possible reductions of phosphorus from nonpointsources.

The Corrmissiontherefore believes that the new baselineloading value and theimproved Bay conditions established by the 600 t/a phosphorusreduction canbe maiqtained andeven enhanced. However, theeutrophic trend in the Ba,y will notbe completely reversed, andany futurepopulation growth anddevelop- mentwould endanger the maintenance ofthe improved conditions unless they are heldto zero or near-zero discharge. Further analysis, after completion of measurespresently underway, would be required torefine the degree of danger.

Elevatedcoliform levels near the mouth of the Saginaw Riverhave resulted in beachc7osures. Low dissolvedoxygen levels, especially near the mouth of theriver, haveadversely affected benthic organisms and thefishery. Sus-

48 pended solids havealso affected the fishery andreduced the bay's aesthetic valuethrough discolouration.

The PCB concentrationishigh enough (approximately 80-90 ng/L)tobe detectablein the water at the mouth of SaginawRiver, the only place in the UpperLakes System where PCB's have been detectedinthe water. Phthalates alsoexceed the Agreement objective, and dieldrinis detectable in the water. The concentrationof zinc in the water of Saginaw Bay isapproaching a level documented tobe toxic to certain aquatic organisms.

The sediments inthe Saginaw River and in Saginaw Bay arecontaminated with PCB's. Two reachesof the river havevalues in excess of 10 mg/kg, and a maximum valueof 22.9 mg/kghas been reported. PCB levelsinthe sediment alongthe navigation channel, out from the mouth of the SaginawRiver, are reasonablyconstant, averaging 1.5-2.0 mg/kg. A largearea of the bay exhibits a lowlevel of contamination.

Sediments in Saginaw Bay arealso moderately polluted with zinc, lead, totalKjeldahl nitrogen, andchemical oxygen demand, withthe most polluted areasnear the Saginaw River mouth. Dibutyl phthalates were also detected. The sedimentsalso act as a sourceof nutrients and toxicmaterials when the overlyingwaters become depleted; it isestimated that 50% ofthe phosphorus thatsettles in the bay during the year is later resuspended.

Of the volume ofpolluted sediments subject todredging inthe U.S. portionof the LakeHuron Basin, nine-tenths is from the Saginaw River;the spoilis disposed of in diked areas. Special dredging methods are required in thetwo areas of the river which are heavily polluted with PCB's. Inaddition, studieshave been initiated to determine the cost and feasibilityof various remedialactions to alleviate the elevated levels of PCB's inthe sediment of the Saginaw River and of PBB's inthe tributary Pine River.

The fisheryin Saginaw Ba,y has sufferedbecause ofboth environmental contamination and overfishing.Enrichment has resulted in a shiftin the food organisms,indeed the entire aquatic population. Increased metal and organic contaminationhas limited the human consumptionofthe fish. Incatfish samples, for example,most ofthe PCB and some ofthe DDT valuesreported exceedthe U.S. healthprotection guidelines of 5 mg/kgas well as theAgree- ment objectives. A number ofother exotic chlorinated organics were also reported as presentin the fish.

As described above, municipalphosphorus removal presently coming on line toreduce the annual loading by 600 tonnes will improvethe Bay's quality for thenear term. Other remedial measures have been taken since 1965 by Dow Chemical Company atMidland and byMichigan Chemical Company (laterVelsicol) at St. Louisto reduce chloride loadings and hence bringthe dissolved solids concentrationinto compliance with the Agreement objective.Corrective steps havealso been taken or initiated to substantially reduce point source djs- chargesof metals and organicsfrom several upstream dischargers.

Althoughthepresent trend generallyis toward improvement, increased population and industrialactivity in the SaginawBay Basincould reaggravate thecondition of the Bay unlessinstallation of new treatmentfacilities keeps pacewith growth. For phosphorus, the controls required will tend much closer to 100% removalfrom point source discharges. For all municipal andindus-

49 trial discharges,consideration of other control measures, such as increased treatmentefficiency, alternative disposal methods (such as landapplication), innovativetechnology, recycling wastewater and wasterecovery isrequired. Unless and untilthe present municipal and industrialwaste loadings into the basin canbedramatically reduced, 'the decision will have tobe made to sacrifice either certain future uses ofthe Bay orgrowth and development.

MAIN LAKESHORELINE

The nearshorewaters of the southern part of the main body of LakeHuron areadversely affected by man's activities, as areseveral other localities alongthe main lake shoreline which receive municipal wastewater discharges. The waterquality of the remaining nearshore waters in the lake is similar to thehigh quality of the open lakewaters.

Concentrationsofchlorophyll c1 and moderatelyhigh algal populations indicatemesotrophic conditions along the U.S. shorelineof Lake Huron, down- stream of eutrophicSaginaw Bay. The benthosat Tawas City andLexington, as a result,are dominated by pollution-tolerant species.

The Ontarioshoreline south of Goderichalso shows seasonalchlorophyll c1 levels and algaepopulations characteristic theof mesotrophic range. Drainagefrom tributaries, primarily the Maitland River, is responsible. The Southampton and PortElgin areas also exhibit minor nutrient enrichment.

Municipaldischarges ofphosphorus have enriched the receiving water on the U.S. shorelineat Cheboygan, Alpena,and Harbor Beach (Table 7). The problemat Alpena is compounded bythe long retention time of harbour water, butnutrient removal, now inplace, should improve that situation.

As a resultof municipal wastewater discharges, bacterial levels in excess ofthe Agreement objectivesare frequently observed at Goderich, Cheboygan, Alpena, Tawas City, Lexington,and Harbor Beach.

At Tawas City, the mean concentrationof copper in water is elevated above theAgreement objective of 5 vg/L. At DeTourPassage the mean concentration ofzinc approaches the level documented to bechronically toxic to certain aquaticorganisms. In both cases, the source is unknown.

In sediment,zinc levels at Cheboyganand Harbor Beach exceedthe U.S. EPA dredgespoil disposal guidelines. At Harbor Beach, iron andchromium levels arealso elevated as a resultof past operations of the Hercules Company. PCB'swere detectedin sediments from the Ausable and BayfieldRiver mouths. Althoughsediments at a number of U.S. locationsalong the Lake Huron shore- lineincluding Alpena,Caseville, Au Sable, Hammond Bay, Harrisville, and Sebewainghad been classified as polluted,mainly because of sewage discharges fromsmall craft and shipsinto the confined harbour areas, implementation of dischargeregulations has resultedinreclassification ofthe sediment to unpoll uted at a1 1 locations except Sebewaing.

Individualfish from the Goderich and theAlpena areas exhibited elevated levelsof PCB's.Measurable levels of DDT havebeen reportedin water samples from DeTour,Cheboygan, Presque Isle, and Lexington.Dieldrin has alsobeen reportedat DeTour.

50 Heatedwater discharges from the Douglas Point-Bruce Nuclear Power Devel- opment site,the largest powerdevelopment and thermaldischarger on the Upper Lakes,occasionally result in the Ontario guideline for temperature elevation beingexceeded. WHO1 E-LAKE FACTORS

Organics and mercuryare both local problems and whole-lakefactors. Nutrientenrichment, a demonstratedlocal problem, also requires consideration from a whole-lakeperspective. The localproblems are often the result of pointsource discharges, asdiscussed above. The whole-lakeperspective is alsorequired since degradation has occurredor could occur throughout both LakeHuron and Lake Superior. Because these materials can persist thein watercolumn, the circulation, mixing, and dispersalpatterns ofthe lakes render all sources - point and nonpoint - ofthese materials important. Further,nonpoint inputs, such as landrunoff and atmosphericdeposition, can contribute a significantportion of the total input. Thus, pollutionabate- mentmeasures applied tojust the point-source component ofthese inputs may notbe sufficient to restore or preserve the integrity of the open-lake eco- system.For these whole-lake factors, for various reasons, the concept of transboundarypollution isdifferent from when appliedtospecific point sourcedischarges. NUTR I ENT ENR I CHMENT (PHOSPHORUS 1

Enrichment of a waterbody refers to the effects of nutrient inputs. These inputs can, inturn, causeincreased bacterial populations, excessive algal growth,and an algalpopulation shift to less desirable forms. For the Upper Lakes,phosphorus is thelimiting nutrient for algal production. Excessphos- phoruscan result in excess algae, which can, inturn, result in decreases in thelake's oxygen levels, alter fish and benthospopulations, increase tur- bidity,cause taste andodour problems inwater supplies, and generallyrender thewater less desirable for recreational use.

Limnologicalexperience indicates that if thetotal phosphorus concen- trationin lake water is less than 10 pg/L,there should not beany serious algalblooms and consequentproblems. If theconcentration exceeds 20 ugh, however,then enrichment problems will probabl

Inshort, phosphorus is generally not a whole-lakeproblem in the Upper Lakes, and will not becomeone if necessarycorrective and preventiveactions areimplemented. There are, however, indications theformin subtle of biologicalshifts ofapproaching mesotrophy insouthern Lake Huron, which receivesthe outflow from Saginaw Bay. Phosphorusremoval programs inthe Saginaw Bay Basin will notonly vastly improve the Bay,as discussed above, but will alsoreduce the threat to the open lake. Table 8 sumnarizes municipal and industrial point-source loadings and total loadings to the Upper Lakes. Only in the case of the main body of Lake Huron did point sources contribute a significant percentage (29%) of the total phosphorus loading in 1974, and much of this was via Saginaw Bay. On the U.S. side of the Upper Lakes, municipal phosphorus reduction programs were sched- uled, primarily at Duluth and in the Saginaw Bay Basin. The objective of these programs, now mostly completed, was to reduce the annual phosphorus loading to Lake Superior and Lake Huron by 200 and 700 tonnes, respectively. After these scheduled reductions are achieved, the municipal and industrial point-source component to the total phosphorus loading to each of the Upper Lakes will be about 10%; nonpoint inputs (upstream feeder lakes, land runoff, and atmospheric deposition) will account for about 90% of the total phosphorus loading.

The scheduled 'reductions should be achieved by 1979 through a combination offactors. Construction shouldbe complete and the remaining phosphorus removal facilities operational at Duluth, Marquette, and Flint, as discussed above. Phosphorus removal ison line at other major municipalities in the U.S. portion of the basin, but some have not achieved the target load reduc- tion because of operational difficulties. However, in October 1977 Michigan enacted legislation to limit the phosphorus concentration in laundry deter- gents to 0.5% by weight. This limitation is in general resulting in lower influent and effluent phosphorus concentrations at municipal sewage treatment plants and, thus, assisting in meeting or exceeding the target load reductions. In Canada,: phosphorus removal facilities are in place at a number of muni- cipalities on Georgian Bay, as discussed above, but operational difficulties have precluded achieving the targeted load reductions. If the desired reduc- tions were achieved, the phosphorus loading to Georgian Bay would be reduced by about 25 t/a, based on data presented in Appendix C to the 1977 Annual Report of the Great Lakes Water Quality Board. Phosphorus removal capability hasnot been installed at many munici- palities on the Ontario side of the Upper Lakes Basin; the two major direct municipal dischargers without phosphorus removal capability are Thunder Bay and Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.The Commission recognizes thateach point source is a small fraction of total point source loads and, further, that point source loads to the Upper Lakes are but a small fraction of total loads. However, since these are the most readily controllable sources, they should be subjected to control. Also based on Water Quality Board data, if all municipal dischargers in the Upper Lakes Basin effected a further reduction in the effluent concentra- tion of phosphorus from 1.0 to 0.5 mg/L (without flow augmentation), there would be a fr'actional decrease in total loading to the Upper Lakes (see Table 8) The Reference Group projected that, in the absence of whole-lake controls, phosphorus loadings to the Upper Lakes may increase by 20% to 40% by the year 2020. Much of this increase could result from population growth and from changes in land use such that higher unit loadings could result from land run- off. Changes in the various indicators of water quality, suchas ambient phosphorus, chlorophyll a, anddissolved oxygen concentrations and trans- parency are predicted. The Vollenweider model and other assessment techniques of trophic state also predict that the open waters of the Upper Lakes would still be in the oligotrophic range, even with these increased loadings, except

52 for certainareas of southern Lake Huron that are affected by phosphorus from Saginaw Bay. However, theReference Group recommended that,inorder to preventdegradation, no increasein controllable phosphorus inputs should be permitted on a lakewidebasis. The Reference Group targetloadings are shown in Table 8. The Commissionagrees withthis recommendation, in keepingwith its nondegradationphilosophy, described in Chapter 7, and which it also considersto be necessary to minimize phosphorus inputs downstream.

Based on considerationsof local effects, prevention, nondegradation, and equity,the Commissionconcludes that a municipalphosphorus effluent limit of 1.0 mg/L shouldbe established for all municipal and industrialdischargers, andmore stringentlimits should be established,where required, for local waterquality. In addition, the Commissionsuggests that Governments require theapplication bestof practicable technology throughout thebasin to minimizeinputs.

ORGAN I C CONTAMI NANTS

Organicpollutants constitute the most widespread waste loadings into the watersof the UpperLakes. These may bedivided into essentially three cat- egories,although there can be some overlap,depending on thecontaminant:

Those whichdegrade biologically orchemically and which resultin sludge deposition and reduceoxygen levels. Muni- cipalities and industrieswhich handle organic matter can dischargesuch materials; the loading is generally reported as biochemicaloxygen demand (BOD).

Thosewhich can cause taste and odourproblems inwater suppliesor taint fish. The best known arethe phenols; pulp andpaper millsare common sources.

Those which do notreadily degrade and which may bio- concentrate, and which may be directlytoxic to aquatic lifeor to consumers ofaquatic life, orwhich may be metabolizedto a more toxicform. The industrialchemical PCB and theagricultural chemical DDT aretwo examples of suchpersistent synthetic organic contaminants.

The mostserious isthe last category. A widearray ofthese persistent syntheticorganic contaminants hasbeen identifiedquantitatively or qualita- tivelyin sediments and fish, where theyaccumulate, and occasionallyat detectablelevels even in the water itself. In many cases,the concentrations violateaccepted or recommended criteria.Contaminants detected include PCB's, DDT and its degradationproducts, aldrin, dieldrin, lindane, plus a widearray ofother chlorinated hydrocarbons and polynucleararomatic hydrocarbons. The generalsignificance of the presence of these materials in the UpperLakes ecosystem is givenhelow; extensive discussion ofspecific materials and possiblesources is given in the Reference Group report.

Specificsources of introduction to the lake system have only been deter- mined in a fewcases; much ofthe loading appears to be fromnonpoint sources. Dispersionofpersistent organic contaminants throughout the lake ecosystem occursboth within the lake by circulation and mixing and throughatmospheric transport.Whole-lake degradation, especially in fish, is clearlyindicated.

53 Atmosphericinputs appear to be a significant source of persistent organic contaminants,since several of the compounds werefound at comparable levels in bothin LakeSuperior andLake Huron. Further evidence atmosphericof transportisindicated bythe presence ofsimilar concentrations ofsuch persistentorganic compounds as PCB's, hexachlorobenzcne,heptachlor epoxide, and methoxychlorin fish from L.3ke Superior and infish from Siskiwit Lake, an inlandlake on IsleRoyale which has received noknown directdischarges of these compounds.

The ser!ousness ofthe need forcontrol of persistent organic substances withinthe UpperLakes Basin iswell illustrated by the Reference Group's studies on PCB'sand DDT. Although DDTwas banned during1969-70 from use on thestates bordering on LakeMichigan, was essentially banned in Canada in 1970,and thenbanned inthe entire United States in 1972, by1978 the average concentrationof DDT in LakeSuperior fish had notdeclined from levels reportedfor previous years. Although fish taken from Lake Superior (except largelake trout) and fromLake Huron do notcontain DDT levelsin excess of thecurrent health protection guidelines of 5 mg/kg, thelevels in many fish exceedthe Agreement objective of 1 mg/kg, which was designed toprotect fish- eatingwildlife as well as human health.

The chemistryof the water mass itselfis probably responsible for the persistenceof the current levels of DDT residues,particularly DDE, in Lake Superior. One mechanism forremoval of suchorganic compounds fromthe water column is bysorption onto suspended particles in the water; these particles eventuallysettle to the bottom of the lake. However, in LakeSuperior, there isvery little suspendedmaterial and, therefore,organic substances such as DDT areonly slowly removed from the water column by this means.

Regardlessof the absolute concentrations of this wide array of chlorin- atedhydrocarbons found in water and biotaof the UpperLakes, the Commission is concernedover the common presenceof numerous toxicorganics whose indivi- dualeffects, acute or chronic, toxic or sublethal, are poorly known and whose potential combined effectsare completely unknown bothin the aquatic biota and in organismswhich depend on them forfood. It isapparent that both Lakes Superior andHuron are being contaminated with persistent toxic organic com- poundsfrom essentially unknown sources.Past efforts to control DDT contam- ination,although effective in Lake Michigan, appear to havehad littleeffect as yetin LakeSuperior. Further contamination of the biota by PCB's and, to a lesser degree, dieldrin is still cunsideredunavoidable in the Upper Lakes.

In summar.y, persistentsynthetic organic contaminants are found in sedi- mentand fish.Little is known abouttheir chemical and biological movement and theirfate in the environment. In addition, there is a realpotential that if pollutionby toxic organics continues unchecked, human consumptionof fish may beprecluded, and the usefulness of the fisheries may therefore be lost. Inthe extreme, the continued survival of the fish themselves may be in doubt. Since it isdifficult to prevent the entr,y of these chemicals, both directly and indirectly,into the water, strict regulation theirof manufacture, distribution, and use is necessary. The only answer is a total ban on the dischargeof such chemicals into the environment until it hasbeen conclus- ivelyproven that these materials are safe.

54 METALS Chronicexposure to metal concentrations lower than the lethal level can haveserious, subtle, adverse effects on thebiota. Metals taken up directly fromwater or through the food chain may accumulate intissues and organs, causinggrowth reproductionor problems. Indirectly, metals may weaken organismsor change theirbehavioral patterns, making themmore vulnerable to otherenvironmental stresses such as diseasesor predation. Another indirect influenceis the elimination or reductionin abundance of important food chain organisms.Finally, hiomagnification ofmetals infish tissue may besuf- ficientlyhigh to represent a hazardto wildlife and humans through consump- tionof contaminated fish.

Concentrationsof metals in sediments are of concern because heavy metals accumulate in sediments, and chemical,mechanical, and biologicalactivity can causeresolubilization and mobilization.Methylation, a biologicalprocess thatoccurs inaquatic systems, can cause transport and cyclingof certain metals. An example ofthis is the methylation of mercury which permits the uptake of mercuryby biological systems, resulting in biomagnification in fish to levelshazardous for human consumption.Methylation of otherelements in theaquatic environment, such as lead,selenium, and arsenic has alsobeen demonstrated,although there is no proofthat these other metals constitute a danger to human health in the UpperLakes atthe present time.

Localizedhigh concentrations ofmetals are noted inwater, sediment, and/or fishin a number ofnearshore areas of the Upper Lakes, especially for LakeSuperior as discussed above. Abnormallyhigh levels of copper have occa- sionally beenfound incentral LakeHuron in excessof the Agreement objec- tive,for no apparentreason.

Mercury isthe only metal which is a whole-lakeproblem. Mercury isfound infish at levels which approach or exceed the health protection guideline of 5 mg/kg.While point source discharges and their residual deposits appear to be a contributingfactor for the high levels of mercury in fish, a significant portionof the mercury input to the UpperLakes isfrom natural sources, sub- stantiated by theelevated mercury levels in walleye from Siskiwit Lake on Isle Royale,which has received no inputsof mercury other than from weather- ingof soil or possibly from atmospheric inputs.

Because themineralogy of the Lake Superior, North Channel, Georgian Bay, and thenorthern Lake Huron Basins isgenerally high inconcentrations of heavymetals and becausethere is inadequateknowledge about thehealth effectsof these natural levels presently found in sediments, the Commission isof the opinion that heavymetals levels should not be allowed to increase, unlessreasonable reassurance as tothe possible significance is available. Underno circumstances should there be any discharge of mercury as a result of human activity. DEGRADAT ION FROM ATMOSPHER I C INPUTS As indicatedpreviously, the Reference Group establishedthat air pol- lution has a significanteffect on thewater qua1it.y of the Upper Lakes. The atmosphere is a majorpathway of deleteriousinputs. Airborne particulates andgases can enter the lake water through atmospheric precipitation washout (rainfall andsnow) and bydeposition (dustfall).

55 The atmosphere is a majorcontributor phosphorus,of heavy metals, persistentsynthetic organics, and acidto the waters of the UpperLakes. These materialsenter the atmosphere from both natural and human sources,hut thelatter is probably dominant. The ReferenceGroup also demonstratedthat notonly local but also distant emissions affect water quality; transport distancescan be thousands of kilometres.

The UpperLakes Reference Group reported that atmospheric inputs make up about 1.9% of thetotal phosphorusload to LakeSuperior and about 11% of the loadto LakeHuron; PLUARG, whichhad a moreextensive data base, reported evenhigher phosphorus contributions from the atmosphere. Atmospheric loadings of lead and copperare estimated by the Upper Lakes Reference Group to be 30- 40% ofthe total input. Atmospheric sulphate is a measure ofthe potential for acidrain; about 16% ofthe sulphate enters Lake Huron from the atmosphere; for LakeSuperior, the value isabout 29%. The effectsof atmospheric dis- chargesof sulphate on thedrainage basin of Georgian Bay inthe Sudburyarea arewell knownand ear1,y effects havealso been detected inthe nearshore waterof Georgian Bay.

Many high'lystable organic contaminants have been qualitatively identified inprecipitation inthe Great LakesBasin. These include PCB's, a and y isomersof lindane, DDT and itsmetabolites, hexachlorobenzene, methoxychlor, chlordane,endosulfan, and dieldrin.Although the concentrations are extremely low, theycan indicate very significant loadings. For example, for PCB's, althoughthe concentration detected (0.02 pg/L) inprecipitation is low, the estimatedatmospheric loading of PCB's to LakeHuron isapproximately one tonneper year.

Sources of atmosphericinputs tothe Upper Lakes include such diverse activities as domestic,industrial, and agriculturalland use.Loading tothe atmosphere will increase, in general,with economic growth. Shifts in economic factors,such as increaseduse of fossil fuels and theintroduction or with- drawalfrom use ofsynthetic organics, such as PCB'sand DDT, will signif- icantlyinfluence loadings.

Atmosphericinputs aredisproportionately significant. They directly enterthe euphotic zone ofthe lakes and areimmediately available to the biological community, whiletributary inputs are available to much ofthe productivesystem only after diffusion and mixing. Hence atmosphericinputs aremore available to the open lakewaters.

Because oftheir relative importance inthe UpperLakes, atmospheric inputsofthe materials cited, especially the persistent synthetic organic contaminants,must be reduced oreliminated just as much as or more than point-source and land-runoffdischarges into the water. OTHER ISSUES AlthoughiJessel wastes, spills, and thermalinputs are also causing or likelyto causedegradation of the Upper Lakes, especially inlocalized areas, theseissues have much lessimpact than the other issues discussed above. Vesselwastes are of concern due tothe localized impacts on harbours and the possibleimport ofchloride and foreignbiota tothe lakes. Spills always have an adverseenvironmental impact, although the long-term effects are not well documented; it isequally important to have an effectiveprogram for

56 spi 11 prevention as forspill response.Thermal discharges can alter the nearshoreecosystem and thecooling water intakes can result in the entrain- ment of fish and fishlarvae.

Otherthan a violationof the drinking water supply criterion for radium atSerpent Harbour on theNorth Channel, inputsof radioactivity havenot had a deleteriouseffect on thewater quality of the UpperLakes. The major man- made sourceof radioactivity to the waters of the UpperLakes isfallout from theatmospheric testing ofnuclear weapons; thecontribution from nuclear power plantsis small. Total inputs of radioactivity from all sources, includ- ingnatural inputs, are not expected to result in a violation of the Agreement objective,except at Serpent Harbour, where the need for additional control programs isbeing assessed.

The Commission is concerned,however, about contributions which may arise fromthe storage and disposalof spent nuclear fuel and fromfuel reprocessing operations. The Commissionhas referredthis question to the Radioactivity Subcommittee of its Great LakesWater QualityBoard for further study.

57

6. ANSWERS TO THE REFERENCE QUESTIONS

REFERENCE QUEST I ON 1 Arethe waters ofLake Superior andLake Huron beingpolluted on eitherside of the boundary to an extent(a) which iscausing or islikely to cause injuryto health or property on theother sideof the boundary; or (b) which is causing,or likelyto cause, a degradation of existinglevels of waterquality in these two lakes or in down- streamportions of theGreat Lakes System?

The onlyinstance of transboundary pollution from a pointsource discharge inthe UpperLakes occurs inthe St. MarysRiver and theLake Georgearea, wherephenols discharged from Algoma SteelCorporation and fromthe municipal wastewatertreatment plant in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario exceed the Agreement objectivein U.S. waters.

Thereare, however, many instances where point-sourcedischarges, often in conjunctionwith nonpoint inputs, are causing or are likely to contribute to pollutionor degradation of existing water qua1it.y in LakeSuperior and in LakeHuron. These include, most importantly, persistent toxic organics, mercury, and, inlocal areas, other metals and phosphorus.These are likely to cause injuryto health or property on theother side of the boundary unless remedialorpreventive action istaken. However, degradation of downstream portionsof the Great Lakes System probably will notoccur. REFERENCEQUEST I ON 2 If theforegoing questions are answered inthe affirmativeto whatextent, by what causes, and in what localitiesis such pollutiontaking place?

The ReferenceGroup identified numerous municipalities and industries discharginginto the areas of reported pollution or degradation of the Upper Lakes.These pointsource dischargers and thespecific receiving waters were identifiedin Tables 5 and 6 for LakeSuperior and LakeHuron, respectively.

Mostdischargers are incompliance with effluent discharge regulations promulgatedthebyappropriate jurisdiction. However, some of them are directlyresponsible for violations of Agreement objectivesor jurisdictional values. The observedpollution or degradation can be theresult of a number of contributing factors:

1. Installationofremedial measureshas not beenadequate tocorrect identifiedpollution problems or to keeppace with expansion, such as at Algoma SteelCorporation at SaultSte. Marie, Ontario.

59 2. The pollutioncontrol equipment or facilities may be inplace but are experiencingoperational difficulties, such as for phosphorusremoval at some ofthe municipal sewage treatmentplants in the Saginaw Ba,v Basin and alongsouthern Georgian Bay.

3. The pollutionordegradation isresidual, due topast discharges whichare now controlledor which haveceased, such as thepresence ofmercury in fish and sediment inthe ThunderBay area.

4. Nonpointinputs, suchfrom as land runoff, may reinforcethe point-sourceinputs, as isthe case ofphosphorus loadings inthe Saginaw Ba,y Basin.

5. The assimilativecapacity of the receiving water hasbeen exceeded because ofthe number ofdischarges, the total quantity of waste discharged,and/or because of the natural water-exchange characteris- ticsof the receiving water with the adjacent portion of the lake, such as for SaginawBay.

The relativeimportance of these factors varies with the location under consideration. The- extentwhichto identified dischargers contribute to observedpollution ordegradation isdiscussed indetail inthe Reference Group'sreport. Chapter 5 ofthis report highlights the problems, the most significantsources, and thestatus of the required remedial programs. Some informationabout the present status of each pointsource discharger is given inthe 1977Annual Report of the Great Lakes Water Quality Board. REFERENCE QUEST I ON 3 If the Commission shouldfind that pollution of thecharacter just referred to istaking place, whatremedial measures would, inits judgement,be mostpracticable restoreto and protectthe quality of thewaters, and whatwould bethe probablecost?

To abateexisting point-source pollution, where pollution is defined asa violation of an objectiveor some jurisdictionalvalue, remedial measures are requiredfor the municipal and industrialdischargers named inTable 9.

The ReferenceGroup was unabletoaddress the question ofcosts in detail. T'he Reference Group did, however, compile a surnmary (Table 10) of capitalcosts for municipal waste collection and streamdischarge treatment facilitiesforcollectors, land acquisition, engineering, and twenty-year treatmentplant design capacity. This did not include sewer extensionsfor new development,operating costs, alternative or treatment disposalor methods. The ReferenceGroup also provided cost estimates forindustrial control,based on bestpi-acticable waste treatment technology in each country; theestimate also includes $300 millionfor an on-landdisposal site for mine tailings fromReserve Mining Company. Increasedwater recycling and modifica- tionof manufacturing processes to use less water and tominimize product and by-productlosses may reducethe estimated industrial costs. In general, the validityof all these cost estimates may beregarded as an orderof magnitude.

60 r TABLE 9

MUNICIPAL AND INDUSTRIAL DISCHARGERS FOR WHICH REMEDIAL PROGRAMS ARE RECOMMENDED

ISSUE MUNICIPALITY OR INDUSTRY AND LOCATION

Municipalor Industri LakeSuperior - Duluth-SuperiorHarbor PhosphorusReductio Marquette Munising Ontonagon ThunderBay JackfishBay N ipigon Bay

LakeHuron - Alpena Cheboygan Goder ich HarborBeach Penetang Midland Tobermory Owen Sound Collingwood Parry Sound SaginawBay Basin (all upstreamdischargers) SaultSte. Marie, Ontario

BacterialReduction LakeSuperior - BlackRiver Duluth-SuperiorHarbor JackfishBay Marathon(Peninsula Harbour) Munising Ontonagon RedRock (NipigonBay) ThunderBay

LakeHuron - Alpena BlindRiver Cheboygan Goder ich HarborBeach Owen Sound Penetang SaginawRiver Mouth SaultSte. Marie, Ontario SpanishRiver Mouth Tawas City

MetalsReduction American Can of Canada Ltd.,Marathon (mercury) AlgomaSteel, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario ( iron and zinc) Collingwood(zinc, cadmium, lead) SaginawBay Basin (allupstream dischargers) __~___ Tasteand Odour Compo1 GreatLakes Paper Co., ThunderBay American Can of Canada Ltd.,Marathon KimberleyClark of Canada Ltd.,Terrace Bay EddyForest Proaucts. Espanola AlgomaSteel, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario " 4shestos ReserveMining Co., Silver Bay

iadioactivity SerpentHarborr (upstream sources)

a. Disinfectionfor bacterial reduction, in order to protect public health, may belimited to seasonal implementation.

61 TABLE 10

ESTIMATED CAPITAL COSTS FOR WASTE TREATMENT^

BASIN INDUSTRIAL MUNICIPAL TO TAL

.AKE HURON

UnitedStates 124,000,000 86,000,000 210,000,000

Canada 31,000,000 48,000,000 79,000,000

.AK E SUPER I OR

UnitedStates 71,000,000 323,000,000 394,000,000

Canada 48,000,000 144,000,000 192,000,000

'OTALS

UnitedStates 195,000,000 409,000,000 604,000,000

Canada 79,000,000 192,000,000 271,000,000

a. 1973 dollars

62 Althoughinstallation of theidentified remedial measures should restore waterquality to within accepted values for the issues of concernfor most impactedareas, population growth, additional industrial development, and nonpointinputs will requirethe application ofmore stringentmunicipal and industrialsource abatement to protect water quality for the future.

In many cases,theresponsible jurisdictions have already completed implementationofthe necessary remedial measures tocorrect the problems identifiedin Table 9 and tobring municipal and industrialdischarges into compliancewith jurisdictional or Agreement objectives.In other cases, these remedialprograms are in the planning or constructionstages.

To reducethe phosphorus loading from all plantsin the Canadian portion ofthe UpperLakes Basin to 1.0 mg/L wouldrequire an estimatedcapital expenditureof $2,000,000 inaddition to that given in Table 10. The costsin Table 10 includethe costs to reduce phosphorus inUnited States municipal dischargesto 1.0 mg/L.

These projectionsare based on achieving a reductionin loadings to meet the 1978 Water Quality Agreement objectives and wouldnot restore the water qualityof these areas be.yond theobjective levels, much lessto the quality thatobtained prior to human activity. It assumes no increasesininputs. Furtherimproveients beyond this level would require theutilization of alternativetreatment methodology, such as landapplication ofwastes, to minimizephosphorus inputs, accompanied bymetal and toxicsremoval, where necessary, to avbidcontamination of ground waters. Even withthese measures, however, some limitation on growth may be required.

Inthe U.S. thecapital cost of the present program to contain polluted dredgespoil is estimatedat $59,600,000 for LakeHuron and $4,300,000 for LakeSuperior. There isvery 1 itt ledredging of UpperLakes harbours in Canada, but wherecontaminated materials are encountered, thespoils are generallyincorporated into landfill operations utilizing existing containment areas. No costsare presently available for a permanentdredging disposal area at ThunderBay.

When a stormoverloads the system, storm andcombined sewer water bypasses thewastewater treatment plant. Such overflows can contributelarge loadings ofphosphorus, bacteria, and otherwastes directly to the receiving water. Preliminarystudies in both countries show thatthe capital costs of programs toeliminate combinedsewers inthe U.S. isestimated at $130,000,000 for Lake Huron and $30,000,000 for LakeSuperior. Similar costsfor Canada havebeen estimatedat $150,000,000 for LakeHuron and $25,000,000 for LakeSuperior.

Costs forvessel waste treatment and control may belarge for individual vesseloperators but are a relativelysmall part of the total cost picture. Similarly, costsofmeasures for spill prevention and controlare usually smallin comparison with the other costs for pollution control and areoften moreconcerned with operational procedures than with capital costs.

Furthercost estimates for the control of inputs from point and nonpoint sources will beavailable in the Commission's report on thestudy conducted by thePollution from Land Use ActivitiesReference Group.

63 REFERENCE GUEST I ON 4 In the event that the Commission should find that little or no pollution of the character referred to is takingplace at thepresent time, what preventive measures would, in its judgement, be most practicable to ensure that suchpollution does not occur in the future and what would be the probable cost? The two major threats facing the Upper Lakes are localized enrichment from phosphorus and lake-wide persistence of synthetic organic compounds. Nonpoint inputs are major contributors, to which conventional point source remedial measures cannot he applied.

PHOSPHORUS Based on considerations of prevention, nondegradation, and equity, the Commission concludes that a municipal phosphorus effluent limit of 1.0 mg/L should be established for all municipal and industrial dischargers, and more stringent limitsshould be established, where required, for local water quality. On a whole-lake basis, control of nonpoint sources of phosphorus is not justified. Phosphorus reduction programs for Lake Huron and Lake Superior are needed to restore, preserve, and protect the immediate receiving water. The specific phosphorus control measures to be implemented depend on the specific receiving water and could take the form of more stringent point source effluent limita- tions or nonpoint land runoff control, or some combination. Alternative treat- ment methodologies, such as land application, should be considered to reduce loadings. The discussionprovided in Chapter 5 for phosphorus in Duluth- Superior Harbor, the nearshore and embayment areas of southern Georgian Bay, and Saginaw Bay amply illustrate the advantage of a comprehensive management strategy.

PERSISTENTSYNTHETIC ORGANIC COMPOUNDS For many persistent synthetic organic compounds, laboratory studies have persuasively demonstratedtoxicity and otherharmful effects at elevated doses. It is also true, however, that there exists only limited knowledge about the effects of these compounds at the concentrations detected in the Upper Lakes ecosystem, or of other compounds presently in use but not yet detected in the environment. The reason is that present toxicitytesting procedures for environmental and human health effects for ambient concentra- tions are expensive, time consuming, and scientifically inconclusive. The problem is further complicated by the persistence of these materials and the irreversibility of their effects. In these circumstances, the Commission believes that responsible prudence requires that humanand environmental exposure to these compounds must be prevented as far as possible until safe levels, if they exist, are determined. If these materials are allowed to escape into the environment, their concentrations in the atmosphere or in land runoff are too low to permit effective control. In addition, specific point source inputs have generally not been identified. The solution, then, in order to prevent pollution or

64 permanent degradation of the Upper Lakes and its biota, is to strictly regu- late the manufa.cture, sale, transport, and use of these compounds, and to totally ban their discharge intothe environment. PCB's, PBB's, aldrin, dieldrin, and DDT are such materials; however, because their high toxicity has beendemonstrated and because theiruses are such that escape into the environment is probable, if they are used, even strict regulation is not sufficient. These materials must be completely banned from manufacture, tran- sport, and use. The economic disruption of banning these materials can be costly, and transition to alternative materials can take years, but such measures are necessary until safe levels, if they exist, are determined. Procedures arepresently being developed to predictwhich compounds, either presently in use or being considered for use, could be deleterious to the Upper Lakes ecosystem. Physical, chemical, and toxicological data on as many compounds as possible arebeing compiled. Predictive methodology is presently being developed wherein the bioaccumulation potential of a compound can be estimated. In addition, the activity of a compound can be estimated by comparing functional groups (component parts) of the new compound with a compound having similar component parts for which activity is known.

A more general response to Reference Question 4 is set forth in Chapter 7, as a policy of nondegradation.

65

7. NONDEGRADATION

ReferenceQuestion 4 and thedescription of the UpperLakes given inthe precedingchapters logically lead to ttie need for a preservation andmanage- mentphilosophy for waters whose qualityis better than the Agreementobjec- tivesor jurisdictional values, in order to maintain these waters at their presenthigh quality. Infurther response toReference Question 4, this chapterdescribes a nondegradationpolicy for the UpperLakes. FRAMEWORKFOR WATER QUAL 1 TYPRESERVATION It isnecessary at the outset, when establishing a waterquality policy, toset out water quality ob:ectives and tocategorize water quality in relationto them.The Reference Group classifiedthe waters ofthe Upper Lakesas non-degraded, degraded, or pollutedin relation to both the 1972and theproposed 1978 Agreement objectives. In this classification, non-degraded wateris high quality water which shows no significant changeas a resultof human activity, and its usesare not limited. Degraded water shows theeffects of human activitythat may resultin occasional marginal violations of water qualityobjectives but which would generally permit the most sensitive water uses.Polluted water shows frequentorsevere violations of waterquality objectives, and some or all useswould be substantially limited.

The Commissionnoted that under both the 1972 and the 1978Water Quality Agreements, specificwater quality objectives have beenadopted as "minimum desiredlevels of water quality", with the general objective of protecting all present and futurewater uses. (It should be notedthat the adequacy of the Agreement objectivesmust be periodically reexamined in the light of emerging knowledge. Littleis known, for example,about theinterrelationship of certainsubstances, and theexisting objectives do notreflect such relation- ships.) The Commissionreads these objectives as essentially synonymous with theReference Group's "degraded" classification.

Where waterquality does not meet theobjectives, the Agreement dictates thatremedial programs be defined and implemented. To addressthis provision, waterquality conditions and concentrationsof pollutants or contaminants in sediment,fish, and aquaticlife mustbe compared withthese objectives. This wellunderstood management processisbeing utilized inresponse tothose instances of pollutionin the UpperLakes described in Chapters 5 and 6. Throughimplementation of recommended remedialmeasures, improvement inwater quality canbe expected.

Althoughthe Reference Group's study has shown thatlocalized violations of waterquality objectives occur, for which remedial programs are needed, the Commissionconcludes that, overall, the waters of Lake Superior and LakeHuron remainof high quality and that,in general, the waters are not polluted and thebiological community ishealthy. Generally, the water quality is better thanthat prescribed by thewater quality objectives given in the 1978 Agree- ment, and isalso better than the values given inpresent jurisdictional standards,criteria, and guidelines.

67 Anticipating that this conclusion might be reached, the Governments made their intent clear in the 1978 Agreement, to recognize the need to maintain such existing high-quality water, by the following provision: Notwithstanding the adoption of Specific Objectives, all reasonable and practicable measures shall be taken to maintain or improve the existing water quality in those areas of the boundary waters of the Great Lakes System where such water quality is better than that prescribed by the Specific Objectives, andin those areas having outstanding natural resource value. The Commission concurs with this provision and believes that water quality management in the Upper Lakes must be predicated on maintaining the present high quality of the water and, as far as possible, enhancing such quality rather than responding only to identified problems. However, consistent with the provision that "all reasonable and practicable measures shall be taken", the Commission concludes that nondegradation does not mean the prohibition of inputs of all substances which may be considered to degrade water quality from natural conditions. The Commission believes, however, that any inputs must be rigidly assessed and controlled to ensure that they are readily degradable, are non-toxic, do not pose any long-term sub-lethal danger, are non-accumula- tive in biota, and whose effects on the lakes are not irreversible. Where doubt exists as the effects which a discharge may exert, and a reasonable analysis indicates the need for caution, Governments are urged to take the prudent course in applying .theselimitations. Further, the Commission emphasizes that in no case should such inputs violate the general or specific water quality objectives set out in the 1978 Agreement. With the adoption of these limitations as unalterable conditions to be met in the Upper Lakes, the Commission believes that the preservation of all functional water values, present and future, can be realized, consistent with the nondegradation policy as reflected by Governments in the 1978 Agreement. It is the Commission's view that the adoption of the foregoing conditions or principles, to be observed in the implementation of water quality manage- ment practices, is mandatory because of the risks associated with many sub- stances discharged into the Upper Lakes System: Many pollutants (e.g. persistent synthetic organic compounds) have demonstrable adversehealth and environmental effects at concen- trations higher than those found in the waters of the Upper Lakes; however, the effects at both the present rates of input and the concentrations presently found in the ecosystem are not known. Some substances may bioaccumulate in fish and could also result in increased human health and environmental hazards. For some materials (e.g. metals in sediments) natural baseline levels are higher than levels foundin other lakes. The full effects of waste inputs on nearshore water quality are not understood.

68 5. The effectsof changes innearshore water quality on open water qualityare not knownbecause nearshore/offshore exchange processes arenot defined.

6. The UpperLakes may not be equilibriumin .dith present waste loadings;this lagresponsein time means thatthepotential consequences of a discharge will not becomeknown immediately and irreversible damagemay occur.

7. Conservative management is requiredbecause assessments areoften based on averageconditions; seasonal orgeographic conditions may mean that maximum concentrationsare considerably different from the statedaverage. ACH I EVEMENT OF NONDEGRADATI ON The Commissionconcludes thatnondegradation, as defined and limited above,can be achieved while accommodating population growth and economic development. However, toensure that the principles of nondegradation are not violated,careful consideration will have tobegiven tothe nature and quantityof eachsubstance to be discharged, its pathways to and inthe water, and theconcentrations and quantitiescurrently present.

Forpollutants which reach the water from point-source municipal and industrialdischarges, the Commissionendorses the concept ofzero point- sourcedischarge as an ultimategoal. The Commission believes it important, forthe long-run preservation of the unique values of the Upper Lakes, that thisgoal be constantly a guidingprinciple so that any pointsources are seen as deviationsto be eliminated in the long term and minimizedin the short term. The Commission recognizesthe difficulty or, indeed, the impractic- abilityof achieving this goal in the short term, considering the limitations ofpresent waste treatment and controltechnology. These limitationsnotwith- standing,the Commission believesthat in waters of a qualitybetter than the objectivelevel, nondegradation, as describedtheforegoing,in can be achieved and at the same timeensure that the measures taken are "reasonable and practicable",through the application of an offsetpolicy. An offset policywould permit growth without adverse effect on waterquality by main- tainingor decreasing the net input of pollutants to the affected receiving waterthrough a reductionofthe amounts presentlybeing discharged. In framingthis concept, the Commissionhas notaddressed the question of load allocations among jurisdictions. The resultwould be similar to the Reference Group'srecommendation that there beno netincrease of phosphorus input to the UpperLakes.

Thisoffset policy would only apply thoseto substances which are biodegradable,non-toxic, and non-cumulative.With respect phosphorus,to althoughbuild-up ofphosphorus will occur in sediments,there is a vast marginin the open lakesbefore increases would cause any problems. Therefore, the Commissionrecommends thatjurisdictions applying best practicable tech- nology, as it develops, to phosphorusremoval be permitted offset reductions belowtarget levels to accommodate new growth and development.These offset reductionscould be achieved through the development of alternative production processesor through the application of more effectivewaste treatment and controltechnology. The policy,in any case,would permit future discharges onlyto the extent of thecapacity of the receiving waters to accommodate such dischargeswithout altering existing water quality.

69 It mustbe clearly understood that for toxic and hazardousmaterials, such as PCB's, DDT, and mercury,nondegradation can only be achieved by allowing no dischargeto the environment. For such persistent materials which only slowly degrade,which hioaccumulate, or whose fatein the ecosystem is unknown, the abilityof the receiving water to assimilate the pollutant is relatively low and effectsfrom the discharge could, in the extreme, be irreversible. For thosepersistent toxic substances, the only way toavoid degradation is to completelyprohibit their entry into the water system, insofar as inputscan bedetermined. Manufacture, distribution, anduse ofthese materials mustbe carefullymonitored to prevent their escape into the environment.

The goalis to achieve a minimum dischargeof municipal and industrial waste tothe environment through the use of best available technology.

Thisdiscussion does notdeal with areas presently in violation of Water Quality Agreement objectives. The Commission'srecohmendations tobring these areasinto compliance is provided in the answer to ReferenceQuestion 3. The Commission recommends that Governmentsdecide whether they wish toachieve and maintain a waterquality higher than the objectives in these areas. The non- degradationpolicy stated abovecan beimplemented inthose areas when the levels so determinedhave been achieved.

EDUCATION AND PUBLIC ATTITUDES To betterensure that the present high quality of the UpperLakes will be maintained,changes inattitudes and perceptionsabout our environment asa fragile,non-recoverable resource mustoccur at all levelsofsociety. The vehiclesto accomplish this are education and publicinvolvement.

Bothshort- and long-termeducation programs arerequired bothto enlighten changeand traditionalconcepts misconceptionsor about the environment. A sustained,adequately funded, multi-level program must be encouraged.Schools can keep such a programgoing; other organizations can maintainthe interest of those reached.

The intentofthis educational process is, then, toreach the various segments ofsociety and tocreate an awareness. An informedpublic would be ableto better assess the consequences of alternative decisions, make value judgments, and reach a consensusabout what can orshould beachieved to satisfy the majority socialinterests. Society as a wholemust be involvedin theplanning and decision-makingprocesses, not just those segments.with a visiblevested interest.

Inthe hearing process, the Commissionfound a publicperception that industrialattitudes toward the environment range from a beliefin the right topollute to that of exerting maximum effortstominimize environmental effects. The formerpublic view was consideredmore evident inthe Upper LakesBasin. Although many industriesarestriving toward a genuine good-corporate-citizen image withinthe present systems, a more positive interfacewith both government and thepublic is required, perhaps with more visibilityfor industry's environmental activities.

70 TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT A significanteffort mustbe made by all sectorsof society to develop new and innovativeproduction, treatment, and wastedisposal or recovery technol- ogies, if thereis to be continued economic and populationgrowth in the Upper LakesBasin while simultaneously meetSng thegoal of maintaining the existing waterquality of thelakes. The Reference Group reportedthat with the application of new technologythe estimated future investments in treatment plants and equipment may not be greaterthan existing levels and thatloadings mightactually decrease.

The Commission perceivesthe role of the Governments to beone of encou- raging and coordinatingdevelopment and implementationofthese measures. Governmentsare in a positoninfluenceto technological development by providingsubsidies or taxincentives, setting strict effluent limitations, and requiringor encouraging resource recovery and recycling.

INFORMATION REQUIREMENTS Lack ofscientific knowledgeabout the Upper Lakes System may bethe limitingfactor in many instancesfor maintaining the integrity of the eco- system. The ReferenceGroup noted, and the Commissionconcurs, thatthere are many gaps theinunderstanding of the UpperLakes System. If properly addressed,research efforts would provide essential information for proper management ofthe lakes. Areas requiring further study are summarizedbelow.

A greaterunderstanding is required of theeffects of mixtures of com- pounds,whether synergistic, additive, antagonistic.or Furthermore, the ecological and healtheffects of the synthetic organic compounds identifiedby theReference Group in UpperLakes fishshould bedetermined. Mechanisms to predictwhich substances have the potential tobe harmful to man and the environmentneed to bedeveloped.

Water quality modelsneed to bedeveloped and nearshore/offshore exchange processesunderstood forthe UpperLakes, inorder tobetter andmore efficientlypredict their capacities to assimilate nutrients, organics, and metals; and inorder tounderstand and project changes inthe ecosystem qualitywith changes inloading, population, economic growth, production and treatmenttechnology, and public and legislativeattitudes.

The impactofsediment-associated contaminants on waterquality andon biotarequires additional investigation.

There is a need refineto present municipal, industrial, erosion, tributary, and atmosphericloading estimates, and maintainto intensive monitoringof major inputs to nearshore areas, so thatincreases in loading canbe quicklyidentified as to source,and measures to reducethe inputs implementedwhere necessary.

71

8. RECOMMENDATIONS

The ReferenceGroup made numbera of recommendations tothe Commission; theseare included asAppendix D tothis report.

Based on its considerationof the Reference Group's report andrecommenda- tions, and theCornmission's public hearings, inresponse tothe Reference datedApril 15, 1972, fromthe Governments of Canadaand theUnited States, theInternational Joint Commission recommends that:

1. To correctthe point-source pollution problems identified inthis report and summarized inTable 9, and toachieve water quality objectives,appropriate remedial measures be implemented assoon as possible.

2. Surveillance be maintainedtoassess the receiving waters and the open watersof the UpperLakes inorder to determine trends in, and toensure protection of the water quality of the UpperLakes.

3. Where sources ofpollution have not been identified,the Governments undertakethenedessary investigative studies, and develop and implementremedial measures.

4. The Governmentsadopt as policyfor LakeHuron and Lake Superior the philosophyof nondegradation proposed by the Commission. Inherent in theadoption of this policy to achieve the goals of nondegradation is theobligation to: develop the scientific and technicalinformation baserequired for proper management; encouragedevelopment of new and innovativemanufacturing and wastetreatment technology; encourage publiceducation and involvementinlong-range planning and inthe decision-makingprocess; and encourageindustrial participation.

5. To restoredegraded areas of the UpperLakes to a more desirable trophicstate and toprevent potential future problems, phosphorus loadingsbe reduced by reducing the phosphorus concentration in all municipal and industrialdischarges to 1.0 mg/L and lowerwhere local conditionsrequire, and bylimiting the allowable phosphorus content of all detergentsto not more than 0.5% phosphorusby weight.

6. To maintaindesirable water quality in the UpperLakes and toachieve nondegradation,while accommodating growth and development,the Governments shouldconsider an offsetpolicy which would require more stringentpoint source controls to ensurethat loadings from point sources do notincrease with growth. Further, Governments should applysuch measures tocontrol pollution from nonpoint land sources as shallappear in the Commission's forthcoming report on thestudy conductedby the Pollution from Land Use ActivitiesReference Group.

73 7. For the particular metals in the locations cited in this report as exhibitinghigh concentrations in eitherthe water, sediment, or fish, no further inputs be allowed to those areas unless the dis- charger can show no consequences to health and property.

8. To protecthuman health and aquaticlife, andto achieve non- degradation, the Governments ban the manufacture, sale, transport, and use of PCB's, PBB's, aldrin, dieldrin, DDT and its derivatives, andall otherpersistent synthetic organic compounds with known highly toxic effects, the use of which will result in their entry into the environment. The manufacture, sale, transport, and use of all other persistent synthetic organic compounds with known delete- rious effects be strictly regulated to prevent their entry into the environment. 9. Predictivemethodology be developed and appliedto determine the health and environmental effects of other compounds presently in use or detected in the ecosystem, and the uses of such compounds mini- mized, pending such determination. Furthermore, the introduction of new compounds not be approved until the producer demonstrates that such compounds will not harm man or the environment. To enhance the efficiencyof the process and in lightof the mobility of the substances, the Governments should establish a cooperative testing and evaluation program and mutually agreeable standards for deter- mining toxicity. 10. Governments address the issue of the effects of the atmosphere on the water quality of the Great Lakes. Consideration should be given to sources, composition, transport, deposition, and effects of atmos- pheric constituents on the Great Lakes and its watershed. Emphasis should be placed on nutrients, metals, synthetic organic compounds, and acid. 11. Governmentscomplete research into the effects of asbestos fibre size, shape, and concentration on all biological forms in the Upper Lakes, especially when ingested by man. A drinking water standard for asbestos should be established as soon as possible. 12. Governments provide post-spill monitoring to determine the nature and character of the material spilled and the long-term environmental effects of the spills and cleanup operations, and to improve response measures and recovery technology. 13. Comprehensive env'ronmental assessmentstudies be conducted for thermal discharges to the Upper Lakes. 14. Particular emphasis be given to the design and location of water intake and discharge structures to minimize the entrainment of fish and fish larvae.

15. Governmentsexpedite their consideration of thedevelopment of compatible regulations for the control of spills and discharges from vessels, in keeping with the provisions of Annejxes 4 and 5 of the 1978 Water Quality Agreement.

74 APPENDIX A TEXT OF REFERENCE TO THE. INTERNATIONALJOINT COMMISSION TO STUDY POLLUT!ONPROBLEMS OF LAKE HURONAND LAKESUPERIOR

I have the honour toinform you thatthe Governments ofthe United States of America and Canada, pursuantto Article IX ofthe Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909, haveagreed torequest the International Joint Commission toconduct a studyof water quality in LakeHuron and Lake Superior, inthe light of the provisionof Article IV ofthe Treaty which provides that the boundary waters and watersflowing across the boundary shall not be polluted on eitherside to theinjury of health and property on theother side, and inthe light also of theGreat Lakes Water Quality Agreement signed on thisdate. This reference representsthe response of the two Governments to recommendation No. 20 ofthe Commission inits final report dated December 9, 1970,on pollutionof Lake Erie,Lake Ontario, and the International Section of the St. LawrenceRiver.

TheCommission isrequested toenquire into and toreport to the two Governmentsupon thefollowing questions:

(1)Are thewaters Lakeof Superior andLake Huron being polluted on eitherside of the boundary to an extent(a) whichis causing or is likely to cause injuryto health or property on theother side of the boundary; or (b) which is causing,orlikely to cause, a degradationofexisting levelsof water quality in these two lakes or in downstream portionsof the Great Lakes System?

(2) If theforegoing questions are answered in the affirmative, to whatextent, by what causes, and in what localitiesis such pollutiontaking place?

(3) If the Commissionshould findthat pollution theof characterjust referred to is taking place, what remedial measureswould, inits judgement,bemost practicable to restore and protectthe quality of the waters, andwhat would be the probable cost?

(4) Inthe event that the Commissionshould findthat little or no pollutionof the character referred to is taking place atthe present time, what preventive measures would, in its judgement,mostbepracticable ensureto thatsuch pollution does notoccur in the future andwhat would be theprobable cost?

The Governmentswould welcome the recommendations of the Commission with respectto the general and specificwater quality objectives that should be establishedfor these lakes, and theprograms andmeasures thatare required inthe twocountries in order to achieve and maintainthese water quality objectives.

75 The Commission shouldsubmit its report and recommendations tothe two Governments as soon as possible and shouldsubmit reports from time to time on theprogress of its investigation.

In theIn conduct of its investigation,the Commission requestedis to includeconsideration of pollution entering Lake Huronand Lake Superiorfrom tributarywaters, including Lake Michigan, which affects water quality in the twolakes, and toenquire into and report on theupstream sources ofsuch pollution. The Commission may utilizethe services of qualified persons and otherresources made availableby water management agencies in Canada and the UnitedStates and should as far as possible make use of information and tech- nicaldata heretofore acquired or which may become availableduring the course ofthe investigation, including information and dataacquired by the Commis- sionin the course of its investigations and surveillanceactivities conducted on thelower Great Lakes and inthe connecting channels.

In conductingIn itsinvestigation, the Commission shouldutilize the servicesof the international board structure provided for in Article VI1 of theGreat Lakes Water Quality Agreement.

76 The InternationalJoint Commissionappointed the Upper Lakes Reference Group in November 1972. When theReference Group submittedits report to the Commission inJuly 1976, the membership ofthe Reference Group consistedof the following:

UPPER LAKES REFERENCE GROUP

UN ITED STATES MEMBERS

C. M. Timm, Director,Surveillance and AnalysisDivision, U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency, Region V, U.S. Chairman.

L. J. Breimhurst,Director, Division of Water Quality,Minnesota PollutionControl Agency.

Dr. J. F. Carr,National Marine Fisheries Service, National Ocean ic and AtmosphericAdministration.

W. E. McCracken,Chief, Comprehensive Studies Sect ion,Mich iganDepartment ofNatural Resources.

F. H. Schraufnagel,Director, Bureau of Standards and Surveys,Wisconsin Department ofNatural Resources. N. A. Thomas, Chief,Large Lakes Program, U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency. w. A. Willford,Great Lakes Fishery Laboratory, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

CANADIAN MEMBERS

Dr. G. K. Rodgers,Chief, Applied Research Division, Canada Centrefor InlandWaters, Canada Department ofthe Environment, CanadianChairman.

R. M. Gale, InlandWaters Directorate, Canada Department Of the Environment.

J. D. Kinkead, Head, GreatLakes Surveys Unit, Ontario Ministry Of the Envi ronment.

A. H. Lawrie,Fish and Wildlife ResearchBranch, Ontario Ministry of NaturalResources.

Dr. K. Patalas,Freshwater Institute, Canada Department ofthe Environment.

77 S. E. Salbach,Supervisor, Planning and Coordination Section, Ontario Ministryof the Environment.

G. L. Van Fleet,Pollution Control Branch, Ontario Ministry of the Environment.

The ReferenceGroup established a number ofcommittees andwork groups. When theReference Group submitted itsreport theto Commission, the committees andwork groups consisted of thefollowing members:

COORDINATINGCOMMITTEE

UNITED STATES MEMBERS

N. A. Thomas, U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency,Co-Chairman. K. E. Bremer, U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency. A. G. Kizlauskas, U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agenc.y. W. E. McCracken, MichiganDepartment of NaturalResources. E. Pinkstaff, U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency.

CANADIAN MEMBERS

S. E. Salbach,Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Co-Chairman. J. P. H. Batteke, Canada Departmentof the Environment. F. C. Elder, Canada Department ofthe Environment. G. L. Van Fleet,Ontario Ministry of theEnvironment. J. W. Schmidt, Canada Department ofthe Environment.

WORK GROUP A

UNITED STATES MEMBERS

E. Pinkstaff, U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency,Co-Chairman. P. E. Davis,Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. D. Johnson,Michigan Department ofNatural Resources. R. Oghalai,Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources.

CANAD IAN MEMBERS

J. P. H. Batteke, Canada Department ofthe Environment, Co-Chairman. A. H. Lawrie,Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. R. C. Ostry,Ontario Ministry of the Environment. D. W. Phillips, Canada Departmentof the Environment. D. Pirie,Ontario Ministry of theEnvironment. P. Yee, Canada Department ofthe Environment.

WORK GROUP B

UNITED STATES MEMBERS

A. G. Kizlauskas, U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency,Co-Chairman. J. K. Crawford, U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency-

78 T. T. Davies, U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency. C. V. Marion, U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency. A. P. Pinsak,National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration. J. Saylor,National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration. W. A. Willford, U.S. Fish and WildlifeService.

CANADIAN MEMBERS

F. C. Elder, Canada Department of theEnvironment, Co-Chairman. E. B. Bennett, Canada Department of theEnvironment. J. D. Kinkead,Ontario Ministry of theEnvironment. A. H. Lawrie,Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. V. E. Niemela, Canada Department of theEnvironment. M. D. Palmer,Ontario Ministry of the Environment. K. Patalas, Canada Department of theEnvironment. S. S. Rao, Canada Department of theEnvironment. W. M. J. Strachan, Canada Department of theEnvironment. R. L. Thomas, Canada Department ofthe Environment. N. D. Warry, Canada Departmentof the Environment. N. Watson,Canada Departmentof the Environment.

WORKGROUP C

UNITED STATES MEMBERS

W. E. McCracken, MichiganDepartment of Natural Resources, Co-Chairman. S. Buda, MichiganDepartment of Natural Resources. M. D. Mullin, U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency. L. R. Peissig,Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. F. H. Schraufnagel,Wisconsin Department of NaturalResources. D. Swanson, MichiganDepartment of NaturalResources.

CANADIAN MEMBERS

G. L. Van Fleet,Ontario Ministry of theEnvironment, Co-Chairman. J. Archer,Ontario Ministry of the Environment. F. C. Elder, Canada Department of theEnvironment. S. Monroe,Canada Department of theEnvironment. I. Ramsay, OntarioMinistry of theEnvironment. R. A. Ryder,Ontario Ministry of NaturalResources. L. Shenfeld,Ontario Ministry of theEnvironment. M. Shiomi, Canada Department ofthe Environment. D. Terry,Ontario Ministry of the Environment. D. M. Whelpdale, Canada Department of theEnvironment. WORKGROUP D UNITEDSTATES MEMBERS

N. A. Thomas, U. S. EnvironmentalProtection Agenc.y, Co-Chairman. W. D. Johnson, U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency. S. J. Kleinert,Wisconsin Department of NaturalResources. J. Pegors,Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. J. Robinson,Michigan Department of Natural Resources.

79 CANAD IAN MEMBERS

S. E. Salbach, OntarioMinistry of theEnvironment, Co-Chairman. M. G. Johnson, Canada Department of theEnvironment. J. D. Kinkead, Ontario Ministry of theEnvironment. V. E. Niemela, Canada Department of theEnvironment. J. A. Reckahn, OntarioMinistry of NaturalResources.

COMMITTEE FOR DATA QUALITY

UNITED STATES MEMBERS

D. A. Payne, U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency,Chairman. D. J. Dube, WisconsinDepartment of NaturalResources. R. E. Frazier,Minnesota Department of Health. J. M. Malczyk,National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. M. D. Mullin, U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency. J. H. Peck, MichiganDepartment of NaturalResources. M. S. Simmons, University of Michigan.

CANADIAN MEMBERS

K. I. Aspila, Canada Department of theEnvironment. F. P. Dieken,Ontario Ministry of theEnvironment. D. E. King,Ontario Ministry of theEnvironment. F. J. Philbert, Canada Department of theEnvironment.

80 APPENDIX C

PERSONS PRESENTINGBRIEFS OR TESTIMONY AT THE COMMISSION’S PUBLICHEARINGS ON THE UPPER LAKESREFERENCE

December E;, 1972 at Thunder Bay, Ontario

Agnes Wilsonfor the Anti-Pollution Group of the Lakehead Lori Chaboyerand CrystalMatchett for their class at Algonquin School Ted Major, Magnavox Company Carl Rose RogerPinkonski for the Northwestern Ontario Conservation Federation Norman Richardfor the Sudbury andThunder Bay DistrictCouncil, Ontario Federationof Labour JeanPaul St. Jacques Clifford Wahl forthe Northwestern Ontario Communist Part,y RobertCostello, Abitibi Paper Company Ltd. Gordon A1 len, GreatLakes Paper Company Ed Fride,Reserve Mining Company Miss Copps RichardMartin for the Damn the Dams Campaign W. D. Addison J. DavidBates PeterGlohensky DavidCaverly, Ontario Ministry of the Environment Dr. Ellis, CanadianForestry Service Sydney Pet t it P. Stennett JohnPoleschuk forthe Great Lakes AthleticAssociation Conservation Club Thunder Bay FieldNaturalists Club C. Kastan

December7, 1972 atDuluth, Minnesota

Philip A. Hart,United States Senate Philip E. Ruppe, UnitedStates House ofRepresentatives RobertPeterson for the Minnesota State Community ActionProgram Council, UnitedAuto Workers ArleneLehto for the Save LakeSuperior Association MarthaReynolds for the West MichiganEnvironmental Action Council So0 EcologyClub Mrs.Kenneth Wiele forthe Range WildernessLeague and theNorthern MichiganWilderness Coalition Philip Doepke forNorthern Michigan Universit.y and for Citizens to Save the Super ior Shore 1i ne Steve Rose forthe Community ActionProgram Council of Delta County, United AutoWorkers KennethRathje for the Michigan United Auto Workers Community Action Program Counc i1 Mr. Stoddardfor the Northern Environmental Council Wayne Johnson, Attorney for the Village of Silver Bayand for the Village of Beaver Bay Love11 Richie,Minnesota Pollution Control Agency BruceWallace, U.S. Army, Corps ofEngineers Gene Roach forLocal 5296, UnitedSteel Workers Ed Fride,Reserve Mining Company Francis Mayo, U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency WilliamSteggles, Ontario Ministry of the Environment

January 8, 1973 at Bay City, Michigan

Gary E. Guenther,Michigan WaterResources Commission Jim Dooley,Michigan Water Resources Comnission Pearl C. Servais Willard Ashmore, Saginaw-MidlandWater Supply System Ezra Monroe,Saginaw ValleyCollege Conrad 0. Kleveno, U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency Robert K. Lane,Canada Centrefor Inland Waters

January 22, 1973at. SaultSte. Marie, Ontario

Allan A. Jackson forthe Pollution Control Association of Ontario R. E. Costello,Abitihi Paper Company A. C. Ruggles, Algoma HealthUnit Donald R. Evans, City ofSault Ste. Marie, Ontario David S. Caverly,Ontario Ministry of the Environment Albert J. Smith

January 24, 1973 at London, Ontario

PeterLewington for Save the Medway David S. Caverly,Ontario Ministry of the Environment J. Robinson,University of Western Ontario R. W. Packer for Save the Medway City of Sarnia

June 20-21, 1977 atSuperior, Wisconsin

GaryGlass William A. Swenson, Universityof Wisconsin - Superior AldonLind for the Save LakeSuperior Association Karen Carlson for the Save Lake Superior Association BettyHetzel for the League of Women Voters,Superior

June 22, 1977 at Thunder Bay, Ontario

RogerAndrew Mrs. McEwan RichardHiner Ken Ti lson for HOPE T. Miyatafor Hydroprobe Norman Richardfor the Thunder Bayand District LabourCouncil Philip Hurcomb forthe Dominion Marine Association RobertHamilton, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources L. Siebenmann for Hydroprobe

82 June 23, 1977 at Hougton,Michigan

Robert T. Brown GraceMarie Knapp Kenneth Kraft StephenNordang, Michigan Technological University BarbaraClark for the Upper PeninsulaEnvironmental Coalition Emil Grothfor the Upper Peninsula Federation of Landowners Donald L. Macalady forCitizens to Save theSuperior Shoreline JuliaTibbitts for Superior Public Rights, Inc. C. K. Lawrence,Homestake Copper Company LynnSandberg, Mead PublishingPaper Division Robert R. Raisanen,Upper Peninsula Power Company John Suffron, CopperRange Company

July 12, 1.977 atSault Ste. Marie, Ontario

James W. Arthur N. H. Sloane B. Rasaiah GaleGleason W. Sarichfor Air Probe PeterAllen, Sault Ste. Marie Regional Conservation Authority Donald Redmond, City ofSault Ste. Marie, Ontario Clarence Dungey forthe Sault Ste. Marie Labour Council

July 13, 1977 at Collingwood,Ontario

Ray Mickeviuus, Town of Wasaga Beach Mary E. Graham R. E. Murrayfor Great Lakes Tomorrow John R. Poste forthe Blue Mountain Club of theBruce Trail Association John P. Gorman

July 14, 1977 at Saginaw, Michigan

Wayne Schmidt forthe Michigan United Conservation Clubs Nicki Habeland forthe League of Women Voters, BayCounty Scott E. Coleridge, FMC Corp. Stacey L. Daniels, Dow Chemical Company Jim Sygo, EastCentral Michigan Planning andDevelopment Region

In additionIn theto above, severalwritten statements were submitted throughthe mail, subsequent to the hearings, by individuals or on behalf of organizations.

83

APPENDIX D RECOMMENDAT I ONS UPPERLAKES REFERENCE GROUP

ENR I CHMENT CORRECTION OF EXISTING PROBLEMS (REFERENCE QUESTIONS 1, 2, AND 3) ReferenceGroup recommends:

Michiganensure that the point source remedial programs thein Saginaw Bay Basinare completed by December 1978, to reducethe annualphosphorus load by 600 t/a.

Wisconsin and Minnesotaensure that the point source remedial prog- rams inthe Duluth-Superior Harbor area are completed by December 1978, toreduce the annual phosphorus load by 160 t/a.

The conditionof SaginawBay and ofDuluth-Superior Harbor be re- examinedupon implementation of thephosphorus removal programs to determine if additionalload reductions are needed.

The identification and control of thesources of phosphoruscon- tributingto the problems in the Goderich area.

Surveillancebe maintained at Penetang Bay, Midland Bay, and Colling- wood Harbour determineto whether improvements areoccurring as expectedor whether additional remedial programs are warranted.

NCNDEGRADATION (REFERENCE QUESTION 4) The Reference Grouprecommends:

6. The phosphorusconcentration allinmunicipal and industrialdis- chargesbe reduced to 1.0 mg/L orless assoon as possible.

7. The allowablephosphorus content of all detergents be limited to not more than 0.5% phosphorusby weight.

8. All practicable measuresbetaken toreduce phosphorus loadings from landuse and nonpointsources. PUBLICHEALTH MICROBIOLOGY The Reference Grouprecommends:

9. The jurisdictionsundertake the necessary remedial programs to bring areasexhibiting bacteriological water quality degradation into compliancewith the Water Quality Agreement objectives.

10. New microbiologicalobjectives be established and standardmeasure- mentmethods be developed.

85 METALS The Reference Grouprecommends:

11. Therebe no increaseallowed for inputs of any metalsto the Upper Lakes.

12. Mercurydischarges from the American Can of Canada, Ltd.chlor-alkali plant at Marathonbe eliminated by December1978 asscheduled, and any othersources identified in the future also be eliminated.

13. Remedialprograms toreduce iron and zincdischarges from Algoma Steel Co. at SaultSte. Marie, Ontario should bedeveloped and implemented assoon as possible.

14. The metalsinput from atmospheric sources bequantified and the maximum possiblereductions be made assoon as possible.

1.5. TheGovernments monitorthe unexplained high arsenic content in Lake Huronchubs and takethe necessary measures toprevent worsening conditions.

16. TheGovernments monitortheidentified high metals content in sediments and in water,and take the necessary measures toprevent worseningconditions. ORGAN I C CONTAM I NANTS TOXIC ORGANICS

The Reference Grouprecommends:

17. A total ban on themanufacture, sale, transport, and useof PCB's, aldrin,dieldrin, and DDT and its derivatives.

18. Thatforlindane, chlorobenzene compounds, chlordane,octachloro- styrene, and other man-made organicssuch as halogenatedhydro- carbons, an acceleratedprogram be initiated to evaluate effects on human health and biota,to establish a betterbasis for criteria, and to developremedial programs as needed. Untilthe effects are fully understoodthere should be no increasedmanufacture, use, ordis- chargeof these compounds.

19. Environmental and healtheffects befully evaluated before new organic compounds areproduced, distributed, or used.

20. TheGovernments immediatelyimplement programs tominimize pesticide use, a:, recommended inthe Early ActionProgram Report of March 1974, preparedby the Pollution from Land Use ActivitiesReference Group.

TASTEAND ODOURCOMPOUNDS

The Reference Group recommends :

21. Appropriateremedial measures betaken toeliminate the remaining taste and odourproblems at Thunder Bay, Marathon,Jackfish Ba.y, and the mouth ofthe Spanish River, caused by pulp and papermills.

86 22. Governmentsensure thatthe waste treatment facilities for Algoma Steelat Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario be completed assoon as possible toachieve the Agreement objectivefor phenolic substances.

23. Governmentsensure thatappropriate measures be taken at Sault Ste. Marie,Ontario toreduce the present phenolic discharges from the sewage collection and treatmentfacilities so as to achievethe Agreement objectivefor phenolic substances by December 1978. ASBESTOS The Reference Grouprecommends:

24. ReserveMining Company immediatelycease discharging tailings, which containasbestiform fibres, to Lake Superior.

25. The erosion and furtherasbestos loading from the tailings delta at Silver Bay, Minnesotabe minimized.

26. TheGovernments immediatelyestablish a drinkingwater standard for asbestos.

27. The IJC develop andrecommend to Governments a waterquality ob jec- tivefor asbestos.

28. TheGovernments intensifytheir support of research on theeffects of fibresize, shape,and concentration on thehealth of all biological forms in the UpperLakes especially man.

29. Thatthe surveillance program for Lake Superiorinclude monitoring thechanges in asbestosconcentration subsequent to the cessation of theReserve Mining Company discharge. RADIOACTIVITY The Reference Grouprecommends:

30. The adequacy ofpresent programs be assessed and, if needed, addi- tionalabatement measures be implemented inthe Elliot Lakearea to achievecompliance with the Ontario drinking water criteria.

31. The jurisdictionsinitiate without de1a.y thesurveillance plan preparedby the Radioactivity Subcommittee and incorporatedinto the GreatLakes surveillance plan developed by the Surveillance Subcom- mittee,in order to ascertain that changes in radioactivity occur as predicted and that no localizedincrease in concentration occurs. DREDG I NG The Reference Grouprecommends:

32. The Governments act upon therecommendations ofthe International WorkingGroup on theAbatement and Control of Pollution from Dredging Activities,leading tothe development and adoptionofcompatible regulations for dredging and dredgespoil disposal that fully considerthe short- and long-termeffects.

87 VESSEL WASTES The ReferenceGroup recommends:

33. Existing and proposedvessel waste regulations be amended toprohibit dischargesof personal wastes from all vessels into LakesHuron and Superiororinto any ofits harbours or embayments. Majorports shouldrequiredbe provideto adequate pumpout facilitiesfor persoialwastes.

34. All ocean vesselsinbound to the Great Lakes be required to exchange seawaterballast for acceptable freshwater ballast prior to entering theSaint Lawrence Seaway.

35. Compatibleregulations be developed and appropriateremedial programs beinstituted to abate operational and functionalwaste discharges. Particularattention should be giventoocean-going vessels, self- loading/unloadingvessels, and tankers. SP I LIS The Reference Grouprecommends:

36. The regulatoryagencies conduct post-spill studies to determine the associatedlong-term environmental effects of spills and cleanup.

37. As a result of thesestudies, improvements should be made inresponse measuresand recovery technology.

38. The informationbase regarding the nature and thecharacter of the materialspilled be upgraded and reportedin a common format. THERMAL The Reference Grouprecommends:

39.Comprehensive environmental assessment studies be conducted for each thermaldischarger tobe sited on the UpperLakes withparticular emphasisgiven tothe design of intake and dischargestructures to minimizefish and fishlarvae entrainment. ATMOSPHERIC INPUTS The Reference Grouprecommends:

40. The40. Governments includephosphorus anas airpollution control parameter and determineits sources.

41. A surveillanceprogram for atmospheric loading tothe Upper Lakes, includingsynthetic organics, arsenic, and mercury,be instituted.

88 WATER QUAL I TY AGREEMENT OBJECT I VES The Reference Group recommends: 42. The IJC continue to review all thecriteria, standards, and objec- tivespresently used and, where necessary,refine thepresent objectives and develop new specificobjectives for inclusion in the Water Quality Agreement; and where lessstringent criteria are in force, recommend the adoption of criteria at leastas stringent as theobjectives in the Agreement.

89

APPENDIX E

METR I C TERMI NOLOGY AND CONVERSI ON FACTORS

This report employs the Systeme International d'llnites or "metric system". The SI units and their English equivalents are given below.

SYMBOL NAME EQUIVALENT gram

k i 1 ogram 103g = 3.205 pounds mi 11 i gram 10-39 microgram 10-6g nanogram 10-9g

tonne 1000 kg F 2205 pounds day year litre 0.2200 Canadian gallons 0.2642 U.S. gallons cubic metres per second 35.31 cubic feet per second 19.01 million Canadian gallons per day 22.82 million U.S. gallons per day pCi picocurie 0.037 nuclear dis- integrations per second

91

Signedthis 30th day of May 1979 as the

InternationalJoint Commission's report to the

Governments of theUnited States and Canada on the Water Quality of the Upper Great Lakes.

Stuart M. Hodgsgn

Charles R. Ross

BernardBeaupr6

Jean R. Roy