Appendix 1: Glossary

AGH. See "Akademia Gorniczo-Hutnicza." Akademia Gorniczo-Hutnicza. Academy of Mining and Metallurgy. An engineering school located in Krakow. Akademia Teologii Katolickiej. Academy of Catholic Theology. Located in . This was the only university that has dual control between the Minister of Higher Education and the Archbishop of Warsaw. The Roman Catholic Primate of (the Archbishop of Warsaw) held the post of Great Counsellor (Wielki Kanclerz), which was nominally the highest authority in the university (though in practice the administration was carried out by the Senate and the Rector). This university was established in 1952 by the merger of the theological faculties of the and the Jagiellonian University of Cracow, with the intention of bringing up a new breed of "red" priests. Until 1960 it was under the influence of the secret police. In 1960 control over it was assumed by a pro-regime Catholic socialist group named PAX. However, throughout its history the had influence over it. There were 400 lay students and 1200 clerical students. The status of clerical students was controlled by canon law but the extent of subjection of the lay students to canon law was unclear-which caused problems in developing NZS prerogatives within the framework of this school. ATK. See "Akademia Teologii Katolickiej." AWF. Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego. Academy of Physical Training. Prepares students to be teachers of physical education. Barykada. Literally "The Barricade." An underground publication published by students in Krakow Poland after the imposition of martial law. Authors of articles are cited by their initials. Bratniaki. Mutual aid societies with a history extending back to the nineteenth century. Were disbanded in early fifties. Contradictions Seekers' Club. See Klub Poszukiwaczy Sprzecznosci. Creeping Revolutionaries' Club. Klub Raczkujqcych Rewizjonist6w. See Klub Poszukiwaczy Sprzecznosci. Crooked Circle Club. See Klub Krzywego Kola. CRZZ. Centralna Rada Zwi<}zkow Zawodowych. Central Council of Trade Unions. "Flying University." See "Lataj<}cy Uniwersytet." Gorski, Janusz. Former Minister of Higher Education and Technology. Intelektualisci. Intellectuals Jagiellonian University. See Uniwersytet Jagiellonski. KIK. Klub Inteligencji Katolickiej. The Club of Catholic Intelligentsia. Initiated in 1956. An independent social and cultural organization of Catholics. KKK. Krajowa Komisja Koordynacyjna. National Coordinating Committee (of the NZS).

194 Glossary 195

KKP. Krajowa Komisja Porozumiewawcza NSZZ Solidarnosc. National Coordinating Committee of Solidarity, the highest body of the organiza• tion. Klub Krzywego Kola. Crooked Circle Club. The most notable of several dissident groups of the fifties. Founded in 1956 in Warsaw, it was primarily a discussion group. It remained active until February 1962 when it was dissolved by the government shortly after being denounced for having youth in attendance. Klub Poszukiwaczy Sprzecznosci. Contradictions Seekers' Club. Also known as the Klub Raczkujqcych Rewizjonistow (Creeping Revisionists' Club). See Klub Poszukiwaczy Sprzecznosci. Kolegium. A fine imposed by a kolegium (that is, a court handling misdemeanors). Komitet Obrony Wi~zionych za Przekonania. The Defense Committee for Prisoners of Conscience. An organization founded by the KKP of Solidarity on 20 December 1980. In it participated, among others, Andrzej Wajda, Wanda Witkomirska, Marian Brandys and Tadeusz Konwicki. The Committee emphasized that it did not identify with the convictions of the repressed persons but it opposed the principle to use the criminal code as an instrument of political struggle. Fighting to release all political prisoners, some of its regional activists were closely connected to the KPN because during the Solidarity times Leszek Moczulski and his associates were at times the only political prisoners. Komitet Rektor6w, also known as Og6lnopolski Komitet Rektor6w Wyi:szych Uczelni). See "Krajowa Konferencja Rektor6w Polskich Wyi:szych Uczelni." Komitet Rektor6w Warszawskich Wyi:szych Uczelni. Committee of Rectors of Warsaw Universities. A subgroup of the Komitet Rektor6w which consisted of rectors of Warsaw institutions of higher education. Konwent. The university-wide and academy-wide governing structure was the Konwent (a cognate of the English word "convention") which was a body composed of elected representatives of each of the departments of the institution. The members of the Konwent elected a chairperson from among the Konwent members. This chairperson had the right to appoint from the membership of the Konwent a Zarzqd, or board of directors. This board had to be confirmed by a vote of the membership on the Konwent as a whole. The Zarz{ld was structured into committees to facilitate its operation. In the intoxication with democracy, all important decisions were voted upon by the full membership of the Konwent. On occasion this necessitated a post factum vote. KOR. Komitet Obrony Robotnik6w. Committee for Workers' Defense. An oppositionist group founded in 1976 and voluntarily disbanded during the odnowa. Composed of intelektualisci, it provided advisers to Solidarity. Although students were ineligible for membership, some worked with KOR as "KOR Associates." KPN. Konfederacja Polski Niepodlegtej. Confederation for an Independent Poland. This oppositional group was established in 1979 by Leszek Moczulski in Warsaw. A nationalistic group that was rather openly anti• Communist and anti-socialist as the terms are used in the US. The group 196 Glossary

was focused around the newspaper Opinia. Some student members of the K.PN joined the NZS. Krajowa Konferencja Rektor6w Polskich Wyzszych Uczelni, also known as Komitet Rector6w, or the Rectors' Committee. The National Conference of University Rectors. An informal body that consisted of university rectors, which undertook the self-imposed task of mediation in conflicts between institutions of higher education and the Ministry of Higher Education. KZMP. Komunistyczny Zwil}zek Mlodziezy Polskiej. Communist Union of Polish Youth. Was founded in April 1981 and died with the onset of martial law. This organization was avowedly Communist in orientation and did not attract a notable following. It recognized the "leading role of the party" and listed "historical materialism" as its ideological basis. It proclaimed its "goal as the defense of the sovereignty of Poland and the freedom of the people, as well as the realization of social justice."1 "Latajl}cy Uniwersytet." (The "Flying University".) A clandestine university which offered lectures and seminars in 1977-80. Main Council. See "Rada Gt6wna." Mi~dzyzaktadowy Komitet Strajkowy." The Interfactory Strike Committee. Formed in August 1980 by representatives from various striking enter• prises. Mi~dzyzakladowy Komitet Zalozcielski. Interplant Founding Committee. Superseded the MKS. After Solidarity's organizational structure was established in a region it replaced the MKZ. . Citizens' Police. Ordinary policepersons. MKS. See "Mi~dzyzakladowy Komitet Strajkowy." MKZ. See "Mi~dzyzakladowy Komitet Zalo:lycielski." MO. See "Milicja Obywatelska." Niezalezne Zrzeszenie Student6w. The Independent Students' Association. Made illegal after martial law. Niezalezny Samorzl}dny Zwil}zek Zawodowy Rolnik6w Indywidualnych "Solidarnosc." . Also called Farmers' Solidarity. The organization formed to represent the interests of the farmers who, technically not being workers, could not join Solidarity. Niezale:Zny SamorzlJdny Zwil}zek Zawodowy "Solidarnosc." Independent Self-governing Trade Union, "Solidarity." NZS. See 'Niezalezne Zrzeszenie Student6w." NSZZ Solidarnosc. See "Niezalezny SamorzlJdny Zwil}zek Zawodowy "Solidarnosc." NSZZRI. See "Niezalezny Samorzl}dny Zwil}zek Zawodowy Rolnik6w Indywidualnych "Solidarnosc." Odnowa. Renewal; renaissance. This refers to the period from August 1980-- 13 December 1981 when Solidarity was tolerated and a national renewal seemed to be occurring. OKPN. Og6lnopolski Komitet Porozumiewawczy Nauki. National Coopera• ting Committee of University Educators. The branch of the Solidarity union comprising university and other academic and research institutional employees. OKPSzW. Og6lnopolska Komisja Porozumiewawcza Szk6l Wyzszych. National Commission of Solidarity of Institutions of Higher Education. Glossary 197

OKZ. Og6lnopolski Komitet Zalo:i:ycielski NZS. The National Founding Committee of the NZS. It was charged with the task of gaining legal status for the NZS through official registration, which it negotiated with the Minister of Higher Education. ORMO. Ochotnicza Rezerwa Milicji Obywatelskiej. Voluntary Reserve of the Citizens Militia. Corresponds to auxiliary police in the United States. Known as "sociopolitical activists," considered thugs by many. Worked with police in quashing student demonstrations on occasion. PAX. A pro-regime Catholic organization founded in 1945. It became critical of the government during the odnowa. Its leader, Ryszard Reiff was dismissed by the military regime, apparently for his opposition to the imposition of martial law. Polish Helsinki Watch Committee. A human rights monitoring group. Polish United Workers Party (PUWP). Polska Zjednoczona Partia Robot• nicza (PZPR). The Communist Party formed in 1948 by a merger of the PPR and the PPS. PW. Politechnika Warszawska. Warsaw Polytechnic. PZA. Polski Zwi

amendations to the Higher Education law (with the exception of the SZSP). After the enactment of the amendations to the Higher Education Act it existed only on the departmental (wydzial) level. SB. See "Slui:ba Bezpieczenstwa." . The Polish parliament. SGPiS. See "Szkola Gl6wna Planowania i Statystyki." SKS. See "Studenckie Komitety Solidarnosci." SL. Stronnictwo Ludowe. The Peasants' Party. Slui:ba Bezpieczenstwa. Literally "Security Service." In English this is known as the secret police. From the mid-fifties they were a part of the Ministry of the Interior. SMI. This term refers to a national level coalition of various social movement organizations (SMOs). Poland's odnowa (renewal) of 1980-1 is considered to be such an SMI comprised of Solidarity, the NZS, Farmers' Solidarity, KOR, and so on. SMO. Social movement organization. This sociological term refers to a particular organized group, that might be part of a larger coalition of such groups at the national level, that is a social movement industry (SMI). The NZS is described as an SMO, as is Solidarity. SOWA. Studencka Oficyna Wydawnicza. Student Publishing House. Begun during the odnowa by the University of Warsaw NZS chapter. Solidarity. See "Niezalei:ny Samorz<}dny Zwi<}zek Zawodowy 'Solidarnosc'." Solidarnosc. See "Niezalei:ny Samorz<}dny Zwi<}zek Zawodowy 'Solidar• nosC'." Stowarzyszenie Patriotyczne "Grunwald." Grunwald Patriotic Association. Sponsored by a government anti-semitic group, established in 1980-1, famous for its rightist declarations, and anti-semitic sloganeering. Studencka Oficyna Wydawnicza. See SOW A. Studenckie Komitety Solidarnosci. Student Solidarity Committees (SKSs). Were established in May 1977, originally in Cracow and later in Warsaw and other major academic centers. In general, SKS activists were concerned with students' rights. For example, they protested against the dismissal of students for their political activity, as well as the misuse of induction into the military as a sanction against some student activists. Szkola Gl6wna Planowania i Statystyki. Central School of Planning and Statistics. The equivalent in Poland of a leading university school of business. A training center for bureaucrats. Was referred to by some as "Red University." SZSP. Socjalistyczny Zwi<}zek Student6w Polskich. Socialist Union of Polish Students. An officially sanctioned student organization sponsored by the Communist Party. TKN. See "Towarzystwo Kurs6w Naukowych." TKZ. Tymczasowy Komitet Zaloi:ycielski. Temporary Founding Committee. This was an early designation of the OKZ. Towarzystwo Kurs6w Naukowych. Society of Academic Courses. A relat• ively informal organization of intellectuals. It was established in 1977 by lecturers of the "Flying University." Uniwersytet Jagiellonski. Jagiellonian University. The oldest university in Poland. Located in Cracow. Glossary 199

Uniwersytet Warszawski. University of Warsaw. UW. See Uniwersytet Warszawski. WSI. See "Wyzsza Szkota Inzynierska." Wyzsza Szkota Inzynierska. Higher School of Engineering. In Radom. This was an undergraduate institution granting only an engineer's diploma after a program of study of four years. It was the focus of attention in the fall of 1981's national student strike. Wyzsza Oficercka Szkota Pozarnictwa. Higher School of Firefighters' Officers. This Warsaw school was under both the Ministry of Higher Education and the Ministry of the Interior. ZarzlJd. Board of Directors. This board was appointed by the chairperson of the Konwent but had to be confirmed by a vote of the membership of the Konwent as a whole. The Zarzl}d was structured into committees to facilitate its operation. In the intoxication with democracy, all important decisions were voted upon by the full membership of the Konwent. On occasion this necessitated a post factum vote. ZHP. Zwil}zek Harcerstwa Polskiego. Union of Polish Scouts. An organiza• tion similar to American Scouts which may be joined when one is aged seven or eight; there is no upper age limit. ZMD. Zwil}zek Mtodziezy Demokratycznej. The Union of Democratic Youth. A new union founded during the odnowa as a youth division of SD. It was dissolved after the imposition of martial law. ZMP. Zwil}zek Mtodziezy Polskiej. Communist youth organization of the Stalinist period in Poland. ZMS. Zwil}zek Mtodziezy Socjalistycznej. Socialist Youth Union. Previous Communist Party sponsored youth organization. ZMW. Zwil}zek Mtodziezy Wiejskiej "WICI." Rural Youth Union. Was a youth organization of the Peasants' Party, ZSL, Zjednoczone Stronnictwo Ludowe. ZOMO. Zmotoryzowane Oddziaty Milicji Obywatelskiej. Motorised Units of the Citizens Militia. Special police detachments used for dispersing demonstrations that might be likened to American tactical police or riot police units. Established under Gomutka in 1957, many Poles regarded them as notoriously brutal and unflinchingly loyal to the Communist authorities. ZSL. Zjednoczone Stronnictwo Ludowe. The United Peasants' Party. ZSMP. Zwil}zek Socjalistycznej Mtodziezy Polskiej. Socialist Union of Polish Youth. Founded in the early seventies. It was intended to address all the needs of young people. Other officially sponsored youth organizations were originally intended to be subsidiary to it. It still had a large membership in the eighties. Its main purpose was organizing weekends in the countryside for young workers. It replaced the ZMS. ZSP. Zwil}zek Student6w Polskich. (Polish Students' Union.) This name was applied to two different organizations. The first, an organization of Polish students established some time after the relative political relaxation of 1956. It took part actively in the 1968 demonstrations, providing demonstration marshals, attempting to maintain order, and protecting the students at some universities. In spring 1973 this changed into the SZSP as part of a program of change of youth organizations generally. The 200 Glossary

second was its "rebirth" by the renaming of its successor organization the SZSP as the ZSP. ZWM. Zwi~Jzek Walki Mlodych. The Union of Fighting Youth. Youth organization that operated from 1943 to 1948. Appendix 2: Methodology

I required information on both the internal and external dynamics of the NZS. I decided to contact individuals who were directly involved with it in Poland during the odnowa. I conducted 77 extended interviews, 48 of which were through a structured questionnaire that solicited responses to 54 questions posed in 29 clusters. I also acquired and used many original NZS and Solidarity publications, as well as items presenting the perspective of Poland's Communist authorities and their allies. I then located and used important studies of Polish students in Polish, German and French. I have followed a primarily qualitative methodology in analyzing the accounts of my respondents, who were involved in higher education in Poland during the Solidarity Era. The information sought included their experience of the NZS and its relationship to Solidarity, the SZSP, the SKS, university administrations, the Ministry of Higher Education, student bodies generally, and the general public. Four types of data sources were used to obtain information: question• naires, archival research, direct observation, and interviews. 1 Open-ended responses allowed the respondents to present the world as they saw and understood it. Thus I attempted to capture the perspectives of the respondents while curtailing the extent of predetermination of those points of view that a prior selection of answer categories would have involved.2 Indeed, as Lofland has pointed out, to capture subjects "in their own terms ... one must learn their categories for rendering explicable and coherent the flux of raw reality."3 In the Poland of the eighties, for instance, many terms including "official," "society," "socialist," and "underground" had connota• tions that made facile translation misleading and, to a certain extent, wron}. Thus, letting the subjects explicate their responses was a "first principle." I saw direct quotations as the richest raw data for this qualitative analysis. Such quotations described situations, events, other people, interactions, and activities that revealed the levels of emotion, ways of structuring their experiences, ideas about what happened, their observations, and basic perceptions. Hopefully these data provide an understanding of the perspec• tive and experiences of the subjects obtained from the questionnaires. I saw my task as providing a framework within which people were able to respond, while accurately and thoroughly representing their views. That is, I attempted to constrain any preconceptions that would have prevented an adequate communication of what they saw and understood. 5

The Development of the Questionnaire

I developed an initial sensitization to the issues surrounding the NZS by direct observation and informal conversations with students and others knowledgeable about higher educational contexts in Poland. These early

201 202 Methodology conversations included individuals from colleges and universities in Cracow, Gliwice, L6dz, Poznan, Warsaw and Wroclaw. Using this information and a survey of the literature, I developed a questionnaire with 54 questions presented in 29 numbered clusters. These were refined in consultation with Polish academicians and NZS leaders. These were largely solicited open-ended discursive responses, on occasion going on for more than ten pages. The questionnaire was subsequently administered to 48 individuals who were attending university level institu• tions during the odnowa. I decided upon the use of a printed list of questions mainly because it was an efficient way to ask questions in a language of which I am not a native speaker. Printing the questions also allowed me the opportunity to collect information from several subjects at one meeting, and to solicit information from subjects located in distant locales without travelling there. 6

Access to and Selection of Subjects

In qualitative fieldwork, the granting of access and acceptance by the researched individuals is always critical.7 My previously established friend• ships and professional contacts at various Polish universities provided introductions to individuals who knew appropriate subjects for the study. I was fortunate to make contact with NZS officials and members, and non• member students. However I was unable to obtain a random sample. This problem had been endemic to research of this type in East Europe. For instance, Paul Kecskemeti's highly regarded study of the Hungarian revolution, which had been ignited by a student demonstration, was conducted by interviews with Hungarian refugees, who might not have represented the gamut of Hungarian views. 8 The key question that arises from the use of a nonrandom sample is whether or not, for the inferences that are made from the data, " ... it may be possible to ignore the effects of sample selection." Concern centers on whether the interviewer has been given too much choice in selecting respondents. "For many non-random samples post• stratification is employed as a method for making descriptive inferences to a specific population."9 Crucial is whether the criteria used for selecting the respondents are the same as those determining the post-stratification factors used. Since my respondents were largely strangers to each other and came from from many universities across Poland, from multiple networks10 in a great diversity of fields, the problems of making inferences from a narrowly selected group are mitigated. Responses to my questionnaire were received from 48 respondents who were in attendance at the following institutions during the Solidarity Era: Uniwersytet Jagiellonski (Cracow) 10, Akademia G6rniczo-Hutnicza (Cracow) 7, Akademia Medyczna w Krakowie (Cracow) 5, Akademia Teologii Katolickiej (Warsaw) 3, Szkola Glowna Planowania i Statystyki (Warsaw) 3, Uniwersytet Warszawski (Warsaw) 3, Panstwowa Wyzsza Szkola Sztuk Plastycznych (Warsaw) 2, Politechnika Krakowska (Cracow) 2, Politechnika Wroclawska (Wroclaw) 2, Uniwersytet Wroclawski (Wroclaw) 2, Akademia Ekonomiczna (Cracow) 1, Akademia Rolnicza w Krakowie (Cracow) l, Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego (Cracow) 1, Methodology 203

Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski (Lublin) I, Politechnika Poznanska (Poz• nan) 1, Politechnika Slllska (Gliwice) 1, Politechnika Warszawska (Warsaw) 1, Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza (Poznan) 1, Uniwersytet L6dzki (Lodz) 1. Four individuals refused to answer the inventory of questions. They attributed their non-response to fear of future reprisal by the authorities, being too busy to attend to it, not having anything beyond the information that they felt assured that other respondents had provided me with, and their low level of involvement or non-membership in the NZS which (in their minds) made their answering the questions a pointless exercise.

Selection Bias and its Mitigation

Patton listed three types of sampling error that can arise in qualitative research designs: (1) distortion in the observed sample situations (consequent from the typical impossibility of observing all situations); (2) distortions introduced by the time periods over which observations take place (temporal sampling problems); and (3) distortions associated with the selection of the people in the sample (whether observed, interviewed, or questionnaired).u The first type of error is certainly exhibited due to the impracticality of coverage of all institutions of higher education during this period. However the broad coverage of institutions, representative of all regions of the country, hopefully mitigates such concerns. An additional factor curtailing the selection bias is the diversity of the major areas of study of the respondents. These are: Medicine 5, Psychology 4, Economics 3, Electronics 3, Philosophy 3, Chemistry 2, Civil Engineering 2, Law 2, Linguistics 2, Agricultural Mechanics 1, Architecture 1, Education 1, Geology 1, History 1, Human Resource Management 1, Industrial Process Automation l, Informa• tion Science 1, Interior Design 1, International Business 1, Mathematics 1, Mechanics 1, Metallurgy 1, Mining 1, Physical Education 1, Physics 1, Polish Literature 1, Theory of Literature, Film and Theater 1, Theology 1, and Unspecified 3. The second type of error, that related to temporal sampling problems, is a concern to the extent that most (26) of the subjects responded early in 1983. However, since the others (22) responded over the years 1983 through 1988, distortions related to sampling at a specific socio-historical moment are diminished. Of course, discrepancies due to divergent sampling times counterbalance this strength. To the extent that individuals were from a great many departments, majors, institutions, years of study, status relative to the NZS, and so on, concerns related to selecting a narrow group of respondents are alleviated.

Subjects: Differentially Helpful

It was to be expected that different subjects would exhibit different degrees of helpfulness in the conduct of the research. The responses of some took several hours to record. Others answered tersely, finding the study irrelevant to their current concerns. 12 But generally I found NZS activists were most enthusiastic about helping me to successfully complete this research. I 204 Methodology encountered little of the disdain for researchers by activists that Hubbard foundY

Validity

Kirk and Miller observed that since qualitative research is "in territory controlled by the investigatees rather than the investigator," it has inherent validity. 14 They noted, "We have no other technology for making this kind of validity check than long-run personal interaction. We can never be absolutely sure that we understand all the idiosyncratic cultural implications of anything, but the sensitive, intelligent field worker armed with a good theoretical orientation and good rapport over a long period of time is the best check we can make." 15 A positivist aim in social science is the development and following of a standardized protocol involving phraseology and the placement of questions in an identical manner to all subjects. 16 One objective of such a procedure is to attempt to generate data "which hold independently of both the research setting and the researcher." 17 My use of a standardized questionnaire hopefully helped attain such an objective. 18

Interviews

In addition to the questionnaire responses, I had the opportunity to carry out in-depth interviews with individuals knowledgeable about the NZS to plumb for their perceptions, feelings and knowledge. 19 The use of an open-ended interview protocol facilitated my ability to glean many details of events and also provided a means of confirming information obtained from other subjects. This format allowed the exploration of lines of interest that was not possible in the questionnaire. It also helped clarify the meaning of terms, places, people, and so forth that were not readily apparent to a foreigner. These interviews were conducted in Polish, with a translator, and on occasion in English. I conducted these 29 unstructured interviews regarding knowledge of the NZS and its context with 26 Polish students, faculty, sociologists, Solidarity leaders and non-students in university communities, who were at Polish institutions of higher education during the odnowa period. The affiliations of these individuals included some institutions not covered by the structured questionnaire survey, such as the Academy of Medicine at Gdansk and the Gdansk Polytechnic. However, following the methodological lead of Breines in student movement research, I focused on interviewing NZS leaders.20 To take advantage of the indexical and other advantages of contemporary word-processing technology, I recorded the interviews, some directly, into computer text files. 21

Archival Research: Obtaining Access to NZS and Solidarity Publications

I collected many NZS and Solidarity publications during the odnowa in Poland. I was also able to obtain many such items from the libraries of Harvard University, Princeton University, Yale University, Columbia University, the Polish Libraries in Paris and London, and the Archives Methodology 205

Division of the Hoover Institution at Stanford University.22 I followed such successful researchers of student movements as Breines in a balanced use of interview and questionnaire data with germane printed sources. 23

The Political-Legal Climate

Doing research in and on Poland over an epoch of sudden reversals in the political climate distinguished my work from typical sociological studies. At times, what Misztal called "surrealistic constraints"24 existed. For instance, under martial law, at the start of each telephone call throughout the country one would hear a woman's recorded voice repeating rapidly, over and over again, "rozmowa kontrolowana, rozmowa kontrolowana, rozmowa kontrolowana"; "conversation monitored, conversation monitored, conversa• tion monitored." Tactics such as this were seemingly intended to intimidate, terrorize, isolate,25 and make people wary and uncomfortable. They did. Massive internments, curfews as early as 19.30 hours, searches on the street by the police and military, and police vehicles frequently churning through the downtown areas, circling past important higher educational institutions, churches, plazas, and shopping districts and so on, significantly influenced the willingness of Polish citizens to provide information on an oppositionist social movement to a foreigner. One man's research is another man's espionage.26 On one occasion in July 1982 (during martia1law) I was stopped by two policemen in the broad plaza at the Royal Castle entrance into the old town of Warsaw while in the company of a young NZS activist from the SGPiS. Apparently what had caught their attention was a small (about a third of an inch long) brass eagle pin that my companion wore. Just as in the US, the eagle is the symbol of Poland. However this eagle had a crown above its head. In the previous year such pins were acceptable, but during martial law this was not the case. We were searched, our passports examined, and my friend's eagle ripped off and confiscated. We saw a number of youths being taken behind buildings by policemen and I was told that this was so that they might be beaten. Indeed an American writer reported the following in Dissent lending credence to this information.

We discussed the heavy presence of the ZOMOs, in front of the nearby Royal Castle. "Never mind," said my companion, "we're in no danger, you and I. The police are bent on clubbing the young." Prophetic words: ten days later the nineteen-year-old student Grzegorz Przemyk was arrested in the Old Town where he stopped for a glass of wine with school friends. Taken to the police station, the young man was beaten to death. Przemyk's funeral was attended by 50,000 people who had come from all over Poland; the most impressive demonstration since the imposition of martiallaw.27

As Aldrich has dryly pointed out, many other countries do not have a Freedom of Information Act. "On the contrary, access to data on topics involving actual or presumed conflict between the government and social groups is not, as a rule, available."28 206 Methodology

Thus an obvious challenge was to conduct research in a setting often relatively inhospitable, in many respects, to the successful prosecution of such work.

Suspicion of Su"ey Researchers in Poland Over Much of the Eighties

Undertaking research in Poland over a time of swift and uncertain change was problematic. As Mason has observed, "The difficulties [of survey research] are multiplied with such research in Communist countries. Respondents are even more likely to be intimidated by interviewers, particularly those from governmental or other official research centers."29 However these problems might also suggest that the further remove of an American researcher from the Communist authorities might have been helpful in carrying out research in Poland.

Special Problems Associated with Research by Westerners in Poland

An unexpected tum of events influenced the study. The Polish government preceded its decision to outlaw Solidarity with a series of harsh attacks on the academics and intellectuals who supported the union and on their contacts with Western scholars and scientists . . . . the official Polish news agency charged that academic and scientific exchanges had been used by Western intelligence sources in recent years as a cover for espionage activities. The allegations were intended to show that the independent trade-union movement had been a tool of "anti-socialist forces" abroad. 30 The news service cited Lt. Col. Stanislaw Banasiak of the Polish counter• intelligence service as its source. It claimed that, beginning in the late 1970s, Western intelligence agents had started to take special interest in students (along with miners and shipbuilders) from the Warsaw, Wroclaw, Cracow and Gdansk areas. 31 I had been interviewing students extensively in Warsaw and Cracow, had had extensive contacts with academics in Warsaw since 1977, and had visited shipyard workers in the Gdansk area (Gdynia) in 1978. Nonetheless I was uninvolved in any way with intelligence services of any stripe. The Polish news service went on to say: "Once Solidarity was established, Western spies stepped up their activity, the agency claimed. It said Western lecturers and academic 'experts' visiting Poland had been used to establish contacts with Solidarity 'extremists.".32 To make matters worse, in 1982 Ryszard Herczynski, a mathematician in Warsaw, was given a two• year prison term for meeting with US diplomats who had visited him to discuss a forthcoming conference on hydrodynamics. 33 Roman Laba, a University of Wisconsin political science graduate student completing his dissertation on labor movements in Poland, was arrested by Polish authorities for working with Solidarity and collecting "unofficial" (what might be termed "underground" in the United States, although Poles use that term quite differently) publications.34 He was held for several days in jail and then deported. The Polish News Agency said that Laba, who was Methodology 207 studying in the Polish Academy of Sciences, possessed "instructional and propaganda materials proving his close and frequent contacts with illegal groups in Poland. " 35 Another instance occurred in February 1983, when an American mathe• matics lecturer, Garrett Eugene Sobczyk, was expelled from Poland for what the police described as "hostile anti-Socialist activities." He had been teaching at the Wroclaw Polytechnic since 1979. According to a Polish television report, he had maintained contact with the "Wroclaw political underground," helped distribute unofficial newspapers, worked with under• ground "Radio Solidarity," and monitored the audibility, in Wroclaw, of "foreign subversive radio stations."36 In April 1983 Waldemar Swirgoil, a Communist Party youth worker who had recently been promoted to the Party Secretariat, charged at a foreign press conference that Westerners were attempting to turn universities into "extra-territorial enclaves" fostering anti• state activities. 37 Another factor impeding research such as this study was a suspicion that the government was using questionnaires for the beginning of a new crackdown on dissent. One distributed during military science classes at the University of Warsaw solicited information on the political attitudes of the parents of the responding student, those of other close relatives, and trips abroad made by the students or relatives. This instrument caused much consternation. 38 These special considerations are in addition to the prevalent norm among Polish students of non-disclosure to strangers.39 There were also problems associated with respondents offering answers that they felt a Western researcher would particularly be pleased with.40

Possible Advantages for a Foreign Researcher

It has been assumed by many that understanding often comes from seeing something as an outsider. This has been most notably demonstrated by the Frenchman Alexis de Tocqueville's brilliant and penetrating analysis of American society.41 Although some Polish sociologists were quite famous in the interwar period, after the war Marxist sociologists "who emerged at this point were a new breed with clear tasks of ideological control." Sociology was perverted into an ideological weapon of poor quality. Under deepening repression, sociology was removed from academic institutions in Poland from 1949 to 1957. 42 Though Rex has said that "It survived during the dark days of Stalinism even if under the guise of Dialectical and Historical Materialism. "43 In 1984 a sociologist described the situation in Polish academia: At present in Poland the existence of an independent academic institution inside an officially authorized system, is practically impossible. It is not only that the Communist Party and its affiliated organs are unwilling to accept analyses and recommendations which were not prepared on their own initiative; they are determined to suppress all organized intellectual activities which the Party itself did not initiate and control through its own organs.44 208 Methodology

The same sociologist somberly spoke of the "liquidation" of semi-auto• nomous scientific institutions, including the Polish Opinion Research Center of the Polish Radio, the Psychometric Center in the Polish Academy of Sciences, and the Center of Praxiology in the Polish Academy of Sciences,45 and of how "abuse and intimidation were used towards the students."46 He further stated that "Under totalitarian regimes the university structure in the social sciences is petrified by Party control and it does not provide any space for innovative ideas, neither for creative scholars nor for open-minded students .... If innovative ideas emerge despite everything, they enter into academia from bodies located outside universities, i.e. 'invisible colleges."'47 In September 1986, Professor Jan Lutyil.ski noted at the Polish National Sociology Conference " ... the all too familiar external barriers to the development of sociology in Poland, mentioning such factors as controls, control of research topics and the cultivation of a tendency to serve the state authorities rather than society as a whole."48 One Polish sociologist suggested that "Had Solidarity not emerged, the Polish society would have been still undiscovered. " 49 These conditions also suggest advantages for foreign sociological researchers. As a scholar in a another of the social sciences recently remarked, "A foreign historian may in fact be able to look more objectively on the , and separate the myths from the reality." 0 In preparation, I considered recommendations related to conduct• ing research in contexts rife with suspicion and fear. 51

Polish Language and Culture as Methodological Issues

A recent book (originally a University of Virginia doctoral dissertation) admonished: "The foreigner who ventures into the murky world of Eastern European politics should heed the words of its literary spokesmen,"52 and cited Milosz' observation that:

the foreigner who tries to understand Polish politics constantly runs into the unexpected. Party divisions are not very clear; they are held together more by spiritual kinship between individuals than by an agreement on platforms. Assassination of one's adversaries, the most acceptable of twentieth-century tactics, is applied unwillingly because it compromises the perpetrators in the eyes of public opinion. Almost every Polish system eludes outside definition. 53

Indeed, as Breines has noted, even native research on student movements has often left unnoticed and unrecorded the subjective meanings, "the cultural, personal, and social implications. " 54 I framed the interview and questionnaires with research on methodological considerations associated with interviewing Polish students in mind. 55 One difficulty I encountered was in semantic differences from ordinary American usages. I found that certain words, such as "socialist," held strong negative emotional charges. To ask someone if, for instance, he or she was anti• socialist would on occasion be taken as a government sponsored provocation Methodology 209

(since most people would never encounter a ~uestion framed with such a word and whose answer was felt to be obvious). 6 One of leaders of the NZS chapter at the SGPiS (INT7) said, in an interview conducted in Warsaw during martial law, that he viewed the odnowa with its strikes as the contemporary equivalent of the nineteenth century uprisings. He likened the words and concepts "red," "working class," "socialism," and so on, to devils that must be exorcised. He said that even "law" was seen as a mendacity in the minds of ordinary Poles. As Jasper has pointed out, even the contexts within which certain concepts are defined might be incommen• surable. He proffered as an example the concept "political party" and noted that when considered in one culture a particular meaning might emerge, while this same concept might then be com~ared to its use in another culture to determine differences between the two. 5 Learning how Polish university students communicate, their use of language and gestures, was an important resource needed to effectively conduct this study.58 Researchers must initially assume that words and symbols may have different meanings in the world of their subjects than in their own. 59 They must also attempt to monitor new words and usages over differin~ contexts,60 and plumb for "alternative rationalities and world views. "6"1 I decided to follow a primarily qualitative methodology in this research, focusing, specifically, on the analysis of perceptions of the NZS by students enrolled in Polish institutions during the odnowa. I felt it especially important for a non-Pole to attempt to obtain an analytical understanding from data offered by Poles in their own terms, rather than prematurely forcing their experience into alien frames. 62 Tilly has admonished researchers of collective action to attempt to limit their analysis of the alternative actions available to a group, its opportunities and threats, to the ones that its members saw at the time.6 I was able to interview many individuals in Poland before, during, and after the time of the legal existence of the first NZS, providing a variety of indigenous perspectives that have proved helpful in analyzing the events and relationships of those times in Poland.

Special Qualifications of the Researcher

The research strategy of exploiting the op~ortunities presented by one's biography has a rich tradition in sociology. Among the experiences that helped me undertake such research was having been a visiting lecturer at the University of Warsaw and in several departments of the Polish Academy of Science. I have collaborated with Polish scientists on a number of projects, two of which resulted in my coauthorship of articles in Polish language journals. Most relevantly, these experiences have provided me with many contacts in and a familiarity of Polish higher education. I have formally studied Polish language and literature at Yale and Columbia Universities, and have travelled extensively in Poland, in 1973, 1977, 1978, 1981, 1982, 1983, and 1988-before, during and after the odnowa. I have also visited other East European countries and universities in the Soviet Union, , , Yugoslavia and East Germany. 210 Methodology

Confidentiality

Researchers have a special obligation to protect the sources of information given in confidence, as well as to candidly discuss with informants any associated risks of which the researcher is aware. 65 It is important to consider the potential effects of a research study on the subjects and other individuals who provide assistance, as well as possible effects on their families and unofficially sanctioned groups with which they were affiliated. During the odnowa the NZS was tolerated, and few problems appeared to be associated with individuals discussing it with me. However martial law and the subsequent underground status of the NZS suggested the possibility of reprisals against those assisting me by completing interviews or providing introductions, and therefore promises of anonymity to such persons were required. One significant sanction used against students and faculty was refusing them a passport. 66 Related to the issue of privacy is the importance of explaining to the subjects that the research will be published in a publicly accessible form. Doing research in another nation where the use and publication of doctoral dissertations differs from that of the researcher's nation makes this admonition more compelling: "Respondents may not be aware, at the time of the research, that its findings may be published. Graduate students who speak vaguely of a dissertation may not make it clear that this is not just an internal study assignment but also a public document lodged in a library and open to all. "67 Bogdan and Taylor have emphasized the responsibility that researchers have to their subjects. They suggest guarding data and field notes from all but immediate scientific colleagues. With direct relevance to the present study they say, "When the data is of a sensitive nature, the researcher would be wise to use pseudonyms for all proper names."68 Certain leaders of the NZS assured me that the use of their names is acceptable to them. But, others would not have participated in the research without promises of confiden• tiality, and that loss would have lessened the representativeness of this research. 69

Anti-State Bias

Tilley70 has noted that the literature of collective action often has been biased against the collective action of governments, while being relatively favorable to the collective action of ordinary people. This has been, in Tilly's mind, a political stance. With full knowledge of this issue, this study endeavors to attain objectivity in reporting on the NZS and the reactions of the government to it. Certainly I would have committed an injustice to field practice if I had uncritically taken the oppositionist accounts of the way things "are" at face value. 71

The Complexity of Collectivities as a Methodological Issue

Collective behavior varies significantly. Some forms of collective behavior are complex, involving a wide range of activity, from very active and excited Methodology 211 moments to inactive and moribund ones. The level of involvement and commitment of the various participants can vary greatly. 72 Furthermore the level of involvement of a particular individual might also vary enormously over time. However such concerns are more compelling in studies of more ephemeral collective actions (such as riots) than for relatively enduring formal social movement organizations such as the NZS. 73 Notes and References

1 Introduction

1. For example, a survey and critique of the literature on Yugoslav student movements in the 1960s and 1970s found mostly fragmentary materials, the most valuable being collections of documents awaiting analysis. Nebojsa Popov, "Prilozi proucavanju studentskih pokreta u Jugoslaviji" (Contributions to the Investigation of Students' Move• ments in Yugoslavia), Socioloski Pregled, 18, 1-2(1984) pp. 19-42. 2. Literally "renewal." However, more accurately translated as the period of national social and political renewal. 3. Andrzej Swidlicki, Political Trials in Poland 1981-1986 (New York: Croom Helm, 1988) p. 1. 4. David S. Mason, "Solidarity as a New Social Movement," Political Science Quarterly, 104, 1(Spring 1989) p. 41. 5. Andrew A. Michta, Red Eagle: The Army in Polish Politics, 1944-1988 (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1990) p. 84. 6. Cf. Arthur R. Rachwald, In Search of Poland: The Superpowers' Response to Solidarity, 1980-1989 (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1990). 7. For a discussion of the international contexts of movements see Mayer N. Zald, "The Trajectory of Social Movements in America," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 10(1988) p. 38. 8. The farmers' group is discussed in Maria Halamska, "Peasant Move• ments in Poland, 1980-1981: State Socialist Economy and the Mobilization of Individual Farmers," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 10(1988) pp. 147-160. 9. Such "social movement industries" are discussed in Piotr Sztompka, "Social Movements: Structures in Statu Nascendi," Polish Sociological Bulletin, 2(1987) p. 19. 10. Michta, Red Eagle, p. 84. II. Cf. Melanie Tatur, Solidarnosc als Modernisierungsbewegung: Sozial• struktur und Konflikt in Polen (Frankfurt: Campus, 1989) and A. Kemp-Welch ed. and trans. The Birth of Solidarity, 2nd ed. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991). 12. Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald, "Social Movements," in Neil J. Smelser (ed.) Handbook of Sociology (New• bury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1988) p. 700. 13. McAdam, McCarthy and Zald, "Social Movements," p. 718. This has also been termed a "movement network" or "movement area" by Alberto Melucci, "An End to Social Movements? Introductory Paper to the Sessions on 'New Movements and Change in Organizational Forms,"' Social Science Information, 23, 4-5(1984) p. 828; and, "a

212 Notes and References 213

multiorganizational field" by Russell Curtis and Louis A. Zurcher, "Stable Resources of Protest Movements: The Multi-Organizational Field," Social Forces, 52, !(September 1973) p. 53. Curtis and Zurcher, though, seem to have unduly emphasized order and coordination within such a multiorganizational field. 14. Charles Tilly, "Social Movements and National Politics," in Charles Bright and Susan Harding (eds) Statemaking and Social Movements: Essays in History and Theory (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1984) p. 313. 15. Mayer N. Zald and John D. McCarthy, "Social Movement Industries: Competition and Cooperation Among Movement Organizations," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 3(1980) p. 2. 16. I shall endeavor to avoid what Gamson has called the "soft underbelly of the theory," the concept of "resource mobilization," which he noted " ... resource mobilization theorists have not done much ... with this decidedly mushy concept." William A. Gamson, "Introduction," to Mayer N. Zald and John D. McCarthy (eds) Social Movements in an Organizational Society (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1987) p. 1. 17. McAdam, McCarthy and Zald, "Social Movements," p. 718. 18. Cf. James M. Jasper, "Two or Twenty Countries: Contrasting Styles of Comparative Research," Comparative Social Research, 10(1987) p. 210. 19. George W. Noblit and R. Dwight Hare, Meta-Ethnography: Synthesiz• ing Qualitative Studies (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988) p. 5. 20. Michael Quinn Patton, Qualitative Evaluation Methods (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1980) p. 36. 21. This research strategy was employed by Brian C. Aldrich, "Problems and Strategies of Cross-National, Qualitative Research on Social Movements," (paper delivered at the Annual Meeting of the Amer• ican Sociological Association, Chicago, 17-21 August 1987) p. 4.

2 The Context

1. H. I. Marrou, A History of Education in Antiquity, trans. George Lamb (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1956) pp. 76-94. 2. Pearl Kibre, The Nations in the Mediaeval Universities (Cambridge, MA: Mediaeval Academy of America, 1948) pp. 3-8, 48-9 and 126-7. 3. Kibre, The Nations, pp. 9-10, 48-9. 4. Kibre, The Nations, chs. 1 and 2. 5. Irena Kaniewska, "Les etudiants de l'Universite de Cracovie aux XVe et XVIe siecles (1433-1560)," in Dominique Julia, Jacques Revel and Roger Chartier (eds) Les universites europeennes du XVle au XVIIIe siecle: Historie sociale des populations etudiantes, vol. 1, Boheme, Espagne, Etats italiens, Pays germaniques, Pologne, Provinces-Unies (Paris: Editions de !'Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, 1986) pp. 113-27. 214 Notes and References

6. Pearl Kibre, Scholarly Privileges in the Middle Ages: The Rights, Privileges and Immunities, of Scholars and Universities at Bologna, Padua, Paris and Oxford (Cambridge, MA: Mediaeval Academy of America, 1962) pp. 328-30. 7. , God's Playground: A History of Poland, Vol. 2, 1795 to the Present (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982) p. 313. 8. Adam Zamoyski, The Polish Way: A Thousand-Year History of the Poles and their Culture (New York: Franklin Watts, 1988) pp. 268-9. 9. Maria Wawrykowa, Revolutioniire Demokraten in Deutschland und Polen 1815-1848: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Vormiirz (Revolu• tionary Democrats in Germany and Poland 1815-1848: An Observa• tion Concerning the History of the Vormiirz) (Brunswick: A. Limbach, 1974). 10. Seymour Martin Lipset, "Students and Politics in Comparative Perspective," Daedalus, 97, !(Winter 1968) p. l. 11. Samuel D. Kassow, Students, Professors and the State in Tsarist Russia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989) p. 106. 12. Veteran (a pseudonym), "Jak m odzie walczy a z carskim zaborc (How Students Fought Against Tsarist Occupation)," Bratniak, 6-7(March• April 1978) pp. 20-l. 13. Slownik Organizacji Mlodzietowych w Polsce 1918-1970 (Dictionary of Youth Organizations in Poland, 1918-1970) (Warsaw: Iskry, 1971) pp. 14-16. 14. Ibid. 15. Edward Shils, "Dreams of Plenitude, Nightmares of Scarcity," in Seymour Martin Lipset and Philip G. Altbach (eds) Students in Revolt (Boston: Houghton Miffiin, 1969) p. 2. 16. Cf. Bogdan Hillebrandt, Konspiracyjne organizacje mlodzietowe w Polsce, 1939-1945 (Conspiratorial Youth Organizations in Poland, 1939-1945) (Warsaw: Ksia,Zka i Wiedza, 1973); and Bogdan Rille• brandt, Polskie organizacje mlodzietowe XIX i XX wieku: zarys historii (Polish Youth Organizations in the 19th and 20th Centuries: A Historical Sketch) (Warsaw: Mlodziezowa Agencja Wydawnicza, 1986) p. 10. 17. Slownik Organizacji Mlodzietowych, pp. 14-16. 18. Bogdan Hillebrandt, Nasze tradycje: postf!powe organizacje mlodzie• towe w Polsce w latach 1918-1957 (Our Traditions: Progressive Youth Organizations in Poland in the Years 1918-1957), 2nd ed. (Warsaw: Iskry, 1973) pp. 47-78. 19. Cf. Stanislawa Jarecka-Kimlowska, Zwiqzek Mlodziety Wiejskiej 'Wici': Walka o oblicze ideowe i nowy model organizacyjny 1944-1948 (Rural Youth Union "Wici": Struggle for an ideological program and a new organizational model, 1944-1948) (Warsaw: Paiistwowe Wydaw• nictwo Naukowe, 1972); and Edward Gol~biowski and Stanislawa Jarecka-Kimlowska (eds) Zwiqzek Mlodziety Wiejskiej RP "Wici": W walce o postfp i sprawiedliwosc: Wyb6r dokument6w, 1928-1948 (Rural Youth Union of the Polish Republic 'Wici': In the Struggle for Progress and Social Justice: Selected Documents) (Warsaw: Ludowa Spoldziel• nia Wydawnicza, 1978). Notes and References 215

20. See Bogdan Hillebrandt, Zwiqzek Mlodziezy Polskiej (Union of Polish Youth) (Warsaw: Mlodziezowa Agencja Wydawnicza, 1980). 21. Zamoyski, The Polish Way, pp. 376-377. 22. Bogdan Hillebrandt, Ruch mlodziezowy w Polsce: Zarys historii post~powego nurtu (The Youth Movement in Poland: Outline of the History of Progressive Currents) (Warsaw: Mlodziezowa Wydawnicza, 1982) p. 260. 23. The content of these courses varied. Often they were focused on Marx' theories, Lenin's modifications of them and the shaping of conscious• ness. 24. George Sherman, "Poland's Angry and Un-Angry Young Men," Problems of Communism, 7, 3(May-June 1958) p. 35. 25. For an account of how this speech was leaked by a Polish Communist Party official, Stefan Staszewski, to the world see Teresa Toranska, Oni (Them) (London: Aneks, 1985) p. 145. 26. Zamoyski, The Polish Way, p. 379. 27. Sherman, "Poland's Angry and Un-Angry Young Men," p. 34. 28. Hillebrandt, Ruch mlodziezowy w Polsce, p. 260. 29. Keith John Lepak, Prelude to Solidarity: Poland and the Politics of the Gierek Regime (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988) p. 67. 30. Sherman, "Poland's Angry and Un-Angry Young Men," p. 34. 31. "Co robic dalej?" (What is to Be Done Next?), Po prostu, 48(0ctober 25, 1956) as quoted in Hillebrandt, Ruch mlodziezowy, p. 287. 32. For information on Communist student organizations see Bogdan Hillebrandt, ed. Post1powe organizacje mlodziezowe w Warszawie, 1864-1976 (Progressive Youth Organizations in Warsaw, 1864-1976) (Warsaw: Panstwowe Wydawn. Nauk., 1988); and a bibliography on the subject is Bogdan Hillebrandt and Genowefa Slabek, Post~powy ruch mlodziezowy w Polsce: przewodnik bibliograficzny (The Progressive Youth Movement in Poland: A Bibliographic Guide) (Warsaw: Iskry, 1980). 33. For a marxist historian's view of the place of rural youth in Polish society see Stanislawa Jarecka, "Postawy Mtodziezy Wiejskiej w 25- Leciu PRL," in Marian Malinowski (ed.) Mlodziez w 25-Leciu PRL: Materialy Konferencji Historyk6w Ruchu Mlodziezowego, Lublin 16-17 Grudnia 1969 (Youth in the 25 Years of the PRL: Proceedings of the Youth Movement Historians' Conference, Lublin 16-17 December 1969) (Warsaw: Iskry, 1973) pp. 47-65. 34. George Blazynski, Flashpoint Poland (New York: Pergamon Press, 1979)p.17l. 35. Raymond Boudon, "La crise universitaire fran~aise: Essai de diagnos• tic sociologique" (The French University Crisis: A Sociological Diagnostic Essay), Annales, 24, 3(May-June 1969) p. 771. 36. Anita K. Shelton, "A Bibliographic Essay on National Communism and the ," East European Quarterly, 17, 3(September 1983) p. 290. 37. Zamoyski, The Polish Way, pp. 381-2. 38. Sherman, "Poland's Angry and Un-Angry Young Men," p. 31. 39. Ibid. p. 34. 216 Notes and References

40. Witold Jedlicki, "The Crooked Circle Club," in Tadeusz N. Cieplak (ed.) Poland Since 1956 (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1972) pp. 120-9. 41. Sherman, "Poland's Angry and Un-Angry Young Men," p. 31. 42. Jan J6zef Lipski, KOR: A History of the Workers' Defense Committee in Poland, 1976-1981, trans. Olga Amsterdamska and Gene M. Moore (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985) pp. 12-13. 43. Although a Communist, Schaff was known as a nationalist who, after being attacked for revisionism at a meeting of Polish and Soviet philosophers at the Soviet Academy of Science in Moscow in the mid• fifties, scornfully informed his Russian colleagues that "Soviet philosophy is the laughing stock of the world and that the Poles will go their own way in this respect." Zbigniew Brzezinski, "Poland: A Political Glimpse," Problems of Communism, 6, 5(September-October 1957) p. 29. 44. Subsequently the meetings were held at the House of Culture (Dom Kultury) in Warsaw's Old Town district. 45. Lipski, KOR, p. 14. 46. Dariusz Cecuda, Leksykon opozycji po/itycznej, 1976--1989 (Warsaw: Biuro Informacji Studenckiej ZSP/TRUST, 1989) p. 42. 47. The Walterites were founded by Jacek Kuron. They chose their name after General Karol Swierczewski's nom de guerre in Spanish civil war: "General Walter." 48. Adam Mickiewicz, Forefathers' Eve, trans. Dorothea Prall Radin, (London: School of Slavonic Studies, University of London, King's College, 1925). Radin notes (p. iii) that "The poem by Adam Mickiewicz, Forefathers' Eve ... is, after the national epic, Pan Tadeusz, the most important work of Poland's greatest poet." 49. Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski, Poland: A Historical Atlas (New York: Hippocrene Books, 1987) p. 34. 50. Zamoyski, The Polish Way, p. 382. 51. As Lamont has observed, in Poland, To laugh or applaud when a certain joke is made is a way of showing defiance, of entering into the friendship of a warm complicity with the audience. One of the devices most commonly used lies in the presentation of well-known classics in novel, unexpected, even jarring ways. Familiar texts can be made to address the audience in the coded vocabulary of a parable. Of course, this presupposes a public educated in the fine art of deciphering messages that rely on inflection, mimicry and the gestural aspects of production rather than on a careful rendition of the lines. The subtext becomes the text .... Even the traditional tossing of flowers onto the stage at the end of [a] performance becomes a demonstration. More often than not, the flowers in the bouquets are white and red, the national colors of Poland. Rosette C. Lamont, "Dog Meat: Notes From Poland," Dissent, 31, 3(Summer 1984) pp. 359-360. See also Anne White, De-Stalinization Notes and References 217

and the House of Culture: Declining State Control Over Leisure in the USSR, Poland and Hungary, 1953-1989 (New York: Routledge, 1990). 52. However, as late as the early 1980s an extremist group, the Grunwald Patriotic Association (Stowarzyszenie Patriotyczne "Grunwald"), praised the 1968 purges, describing many of its victims in highly negative and anti-semitic terms (such as claiming that many of those dismissed were "Zionists"), though not without swift rebuke from the Polish Academy of Sciences. Only in 1988 was the Polish government able to come to grips with this sordid episode and acknowledge its wrongdoing. Vera Rich, "Polish Students Express Dissatisfaction with Agreement on Independent Union," Chronicle of Higher Education, 22, 6(March 30, 1981) p. 17. Cf. Jerzy Holzer, Solidarnosc 1980-1981: geneza i historia (Solidarity 1980-1981: Genesis and History), Biblio• teka "Kultury" (Ku1tura Library) series, 387, (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1984) p. 193. 53. Josef Banas, The Scapegoats: The Exodus of the Remnants of Polish Jewry, trans. Tadeusz Szafar (New York: Holmes and Meier Pub• lishers, 1979) p. 100. 54. Zamoyski, The Polish Way, p. 382. 55. Lipski, KOR, p. 16. 56. Spencer Davidson, "A Fire in the Country," Time (9 February 1981) p. 30. 57. Pogonowski, Poland: A Historical Atlas, p. 34. 58. Zamoyski, The Polish Way, p. 382. Wejnert said "1,793 students were purged" but does not list her source for this figure. Barbara Wejnert, "The Student Movement in Poland, 1980-1981," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 10(1988) p. 174. 59. Lipski, KOR, p. 16. 60. Banas, The Scapegoats; Zamoyski, The Polish Way, p. 383; Andrzej Flis, "Crisis and Political Ritual in Postwar Poland," Problems of Communism, 37, 3-4(May-August 1988) p. 46; and Pogonowski, Poland: A Historical Atlas, p. 34. Cf. Iwona Irwin-Zarecka. Neutraliz• ing Memory: The Jew in Contemporary Poland (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1989). 61. Gianni Statera, Death of a Utopia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975) pp. 203-4. 62. Michnik reported that key intellectual stimuli for the student activists of 1968 included the following authors: Leszek Kolakowski, Kultura i fetysze: zbior rozpraw (Culture and Fetishes) (Warsaw: PWN, 1967); Stanislaw Ossowski, Ku nowym formam zycia spolecznego (Towards New Forms of Public Life) (Warsaw: Ksi

63. In Polish, "inteligencja" (in English, "intelligentsia") is used to refer to white-collar workers. A member of inteligencja is an inteligent. Closer to the American concept of "intellectuals" is intelekturalisci which includes both artistically and intellectually creative people. Stanislaw Baranczak, "The Polish Intellectual," Salmagundi, nos. 70-1 (Spring• Summer 1986) pp. 217-18. 64. Jan Cywinski, "W rocznic~ wydarzen marcowych (The Anniversary of the March Events)," Wi{'i, 276(April 1981) pp. 148-50. 65. See, for example, Cywinski, "W rocznic~ wydarzen marcowych," pp. 148-50. 66. George Katsiaficas, The Imagination of the The New Left: A Global Analysis of 1968 (Boston: South End Press, 1987) p. 66. 67. This sort of mental state was subsequently referred to as "inner migration." Ireneusz Nawrocki, "Nie mo:i:e bye straconego pokolenia (There Can't Be a Lost Generation)," Trybuna Ludu, 29-30 May 1982, p. 6. 68. Carol McClurg Mueller, "Collective Consciousness, Identity Trans• formation and the Rise of Women in Public Office in the United States," in Mary Fainsod Katzenstein and Carol McClurg Mueller (eds) The Women's Movements of the United States and Western Europe: Consciousness, Political Opportunity and Public Policy (Phi• ladelphia: Temple University Press, 1987) p. 94. 69. Lipski, KOR, p. 16. 70. George Mond, "Transformation du modele polanais actuel entre Ia censure et Ia liberte d'expression" (Transformation of the Present Polish Model: Censorship Versus Freedom of Expression), Revue D'Etudes Comparatives Est-Ouest, 13, 1(March 1982) p. 66. 71. Lipski, KOR, pp. 16-17. 72. Georges H. Mond, "La universidad y el movimiento estudiantil en Polonia" (The University and the Student Movement in Poland), Revista de Estudios Sociales, no. ?(January-April, 1973) pp. 46-7. 73. Ibid. 74. Ibid., p. 47. 75. Stefan Amsterdamski, interviewed by Wiestawa Grochola, "Czego potrzeba szkolom wy:i:szym?" (What do the Universities Need?), Tygodnik Solidarnosc, 7(15 May 1981) p. 6. 76. Ibid. 77. Cecuda, Leksykon opozycji politycznej, p. 42. 78. Gustaw J. Borowski and Wiestaw Wisniewski, "Factors Related to Student's Voluntary Social Work," Polish Sociological Bulletin, 1-2, 27-8(1973) p. 96. 79. Blazynski, Flashpoint Poland, p. 173-4. 80. Hillebrandt, Ruch mlodzieiowy w Polsce, p. 260. 81. Lipski, KOR, p. 21. 82. Jacek Czaputowicz, Konjlikty spoleczne w relacji studenci-decydenci w historii PRL (The Social Conflicts Between Students and Decision• Makers in the History of the Polish People's Republic), Master's thesis (Warsaw: Central School for Planning and Statistics, 1986) p. 35. 83. Lipski, KOR, pp. 21. Notes and References 219

84. "Editorial," ltd., (The SZSP weekly published m Warsaw), 39(28 September 1980). 85. Lipski, KOR, p. 18. 86. Henryk Flakierski in Marjorie Cohen, "Poland's Future: An Interview with Henryk Flakierski," Canadian Forum, 60, 706(February 1981) p. 6. 87. Czaputowicz, Konjlikty spoleczne, p. 35. 88. The Sejm is a 460 member elected parliament. 89. Henry W. Degenhardt, "Poland," Political Dissent: An International Guide to Dissident, Extra-Parliamentary, Guerrilla and Illegal Political Movements (Detroit: Gale Research Co., 1983) p. 19. 90. Czaputowicz, Konjlikty spoleczne, p. 36. 91. Ibid., p. 37. 92. Jan Cywinski, "Niezalezny ruch studencki w latach, 1975-1979" (The Independent Student Movement in the years, 1975-1979), Tygodnik Solidarnosc, 32(6 November 1981) p. 10. 93. Czaputowicz, Konjlikty spoleczne, p. 37. 94. Jane Leftwich Curry, ed. and trans. The Black Book of Polish Censorship (New York: Vintage Books, 1984) p. 385. 95. Ibid. 96. Ibid. 97. Czaputowicz, Konjlikty spoleczne, p. 37. 98. Ibid., pp. 37-8. 99. Stefan Kawalec, Demokratyczna opozycja w Polsce: Wydarzenia czerwcowe i rok dzialalno!sci Komitetu Obrony Robotnikow (The Democratic Opposition In Poland: The June Events and a Year of KOR Activity), 2nd ed. (Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Gtos, 1980) p. 4. 100. Czaputowicz, Konjlikty spoleczne, p. 39. 101. Ibid. 102. Ibid. 103. An obligatory course in Marxism-Leninism that was offered at all institutions of higher education in Poland. 104. Decision of Rector of the Pomerania Medical Academy, 13 February 1976, typescript copy as quoted by Czaputowicz, Konflikty spoleczne, p. 40. 105. One of the founders of the NZS, Sylwester Wojtkowski (INT26), noted that: "Resocialization is an old social-realist concept (probably reach• ing back to the famous Russian 'resocializer' Makarenko) of bringing people, who for one reason or another, in the view of the authorities, were not properly adjusted to the 'progressive' society, back to 'normal' social functioning. This was accomplished mostly through compulsory labor. Subsequently, the term came to signify any official, institutionalized effort to change social behavior deemed undesirable, for instance through the penitentiary system." For a discussion of the creation of this institute see Adam Podgorecki, Glimpse of a Socialistic Scholar; The Rise, Development and Downfall of the Institute of Social Prevention and Resocialization in Poland: 1972-1976, Department of Sociology and Anthropology Working Paper 84-5, (Ottawa: Carleton University, 1984) p. 4. 220 Notes and References

106. Cywinski, "Niezalezny ruch studencki, 1975-1979," p. 10. 107. Ibid., p. 10; and Czaputowicz, Konflikty spoleczne, p. 41. 108. Czaputowicz, Konjlikty spoleczne, p. 41. 109. Ibid. 110. Emil Morgiewicz, interview by Sergiusz Kowalski, "Amnesty Interna• tional," Indeks, 2(November 1977) pp. 16-17. Cf. George Sanford, Polish Communism in Crisis (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1983) pp. 145-54. 111. Czaputowicz, Konjlikty spoleczne, p. 39. 112. Ibid., p. 40. 113. Ibid., p. 43. 114. "Z archiwum SZSP" (From the Archives of the SZSP), in: Glos wolny Wolnosc ubezpieczajqcy, 8(30 May 1981) p. 33, as quoted in Czaputo• wicz, Konflikty spoleczne, p. 49. Note that the bracketed information is Czaputowicz's. 115. Ibid., p. 33, as quoted on p. 49. 116. Ibid., p. 37, as quoted on p. 49. 117. Lipski, KOR, p. 126. 118. Czaputowicz, Konflikty spoleczne, p. 52. 119. See Social Self-Defense Committee KOR, "Statement: The Case of Stanistaw Pyjas (April 18, 1978, Warsaw)," in Polish Helsinki Watch Committee and Co-workers of the Intervention Bureau of the Social Self-Defense Committee "KOR," (eds) Prologue to Gdansk: A Report on Human Rights by the Polish Helsinki Watch Committee (Prepared for the 1980-1981 Madrid Review Meeting of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe) (New York: U.S. Helsinki Watch Committee, 1980) pp. 79-82. 120. Lipski, KOR, pp. 142-150. 121. Ibid., p. 152. 122. Cywinski, "Niezalezny ruch studencki, 1975-1979," p. 10. 123. "Ciekawe liczby i fakty: ruch mtodziez" (Interesting Figures and Facts: the Youth Movement, Trybuna Ludu, 28, 120(21 May 1976) p. 6. 124. Czaputowicz, Konjlikty spoleczne, p. 54. 125. Cywinski, "Niezalezny ruch studencki, 1975-1979," p. 10. 126. Czaputowicz, Konjlikty spoleczne, p. 54. 127. For a fuller version of the text and a list of the founders of the Cracow SKS see ibid., p. 54. 128. Cywinski, "Niezalezny ruch studencki, 1975-1979," p. 10. 129. Ibid. 130. Czaputowicz, Konjlikty spoleczne, p. 61. 131. Cywinski, "Niezalezny ruch studencki, 1975-1979, p. 10. 132. Lipski, KOR, p. 176. 133. Ibid., pp. 153-4. 134. Ibid., p. 157. 135. Cywinski, "Niezalezny ruch studencki, 1975-1979," p. 10. 136. Lipski, KOR, p. 176. 137. Ibid., p. 176. 138. Editorial, Biuletyn Jnformacyjny, June 1977, p. 96. 139. Lipski, KOR, pp. 176-7. Notes and References 221

140. Ibid., p. 177. 141. Czaputowicz, Konflikty spoleczne, pp. 59-60. 142. Lipski, KOR, p. 177. 143. Ibid. 144. Cywinski, "Niezale:i:ny ruch studencki, 1975-1979," p. 10. 145. Lipski, KOR, p. 177. 146. Ibid. 147. Ludwik Dorn, Sergiusz Kowalski and Piotr Lukasiewicz, Tezy do dyskusji nad niezaleznym ruchem studenckim (Theses for the Discussion of an Independent Student Movement) (Warsaw: University ofWarsaw SKS, 1977), as quoted in Cywinski, "Niezale:i:ny ruch studencki, 1975- 1979," p. 10. 148. Cywinski, "Niezale:i:ny ruch studencki, 1975-1979," p. 10. 149. Ibid. 150. Czaputowicz, Konflikty spoleczne, p. 62. 151. "Wiadomosci studenckie: w Krakowie" (Student News: From Cra• cow), Indeks, 2(November 1977) p. 4. 152. Alexander Remmer, "A Note on Post-Publication Censorship in Poland 1980-1987," Soviet Studies, 61, 3(July 1989) pp. 415-25. Cf. Barbara Pratzer, "Z jak zakazane" (P as in Prohibited), ltd. (12 July 1981) p. 11 and Maciej Cislo, "Prohibity" (Prohibited), Wifi, 6(1981) pp. 155-8. 153. Lipski, KOR, p. 206. 154. Ibid., pp. 207-8. 155. Ibid., p. 206. 156. Ibid., pp. 206-7. 157. Czaputowicz, Konflikty spoleczne, p. 62. 158. Dorn, Kowalski and ukasiewicz, Tezy do dyskusji, as quoted in Cywinski, "Niezalezny ruch studencki, 1975-1979," p. 10. 159. Czaputowicz, Konflikty spoleczne, p. 62. 160. Leslaw Maleszka, "0 utworzeniu SKS w Warszawie" (On the Founding of the SKS in Warsaw), Indeks, 2(November 1977) p. 2. The full text of the declaration can be found here. 161. Cywinski, "Niezale:i:ny ruch studencki, 1975-1979," p. 10. 162. Czaputowicz, Konflikty spoleczne, p. 67. 163. "Wiadomosci studenckie: w Warszawie" (Student News: From War- saw), Indeks, 2(November 1977) p. 4. 164. Lipski, KOR, p. 207. 165. Ibid., p. 311. 166. Cecuda, Leksykon opozycji politycznej, p. 111. 167. The name Bratniak in Poland has a political tone derivative from its association with the long-lived former student organization Bratnia pomoc. For details see Helga Hirsch, "Unabhiingiges Publikationswe• sen in Polen 1976-1983" (Independent Publication in Poland 1976- 1983), Osteuropa, 34, ?(July 1984) pp. 517-18. 168. Piotr Dyk et a!., "Deklaracja studenckiego komitetu solidarnosci wy:i:szych uczelni Tr6jmiasta" (Declaration of Student Solidarity Committee of the Tri-City Universities), Indeks, 2(November 1977) p. 20. 222 Notes and References

169. The post of prorector corresponds to that of a vice-president at an American university. 170. Czaputowicz, Konflikty spoleczne, pp. 69-70. 171. Ibid., pp. 70--1. 172. Lipski, KOR, p. 204. 173. Ibid., pp. 231-2 and 245-6; and Timothy Garton Ash, The Polish Revolution: Solidarity 198o-82 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1983) p. 30. 174. In a brief conversation with Prof. Baranczak in New York in the spring of 1981, he suggested that he had no involvement in Solidarity and would not be a useful person to discuss it with. 175. Lipski, KOR, pp. 204-5. 176. Hirsch, "Unabhangiges Publikationswesen," pp. 520. 177. Lipski, KOR, pp. 237-8. 178. Czaputowicz, Konflikty spoleczne, p. 74. 179. Lipski KOR, pp. 230--9; and Czaputowicz, Konflikty spoleczne, p. 74. 180. Czaputowicz, Konflikty spoleczne, p. 73. 181. Ibid. 182. Ibid., p. 75. 183. Lipski, KOR, p. 205. 184. This clandestine university is discussed below. 185. "Official Repression Continues While Society Struggles for Freedom," Studium News Abstracts, 2, 3(July 1978) p. 4. 186. Lipski, KOR, p. 205. 187. Ibid., pp. 207-8. 188. Czaputowicz, Konflikty spoleczne, p. 75-6. 189. El:i:bieta Czuma, "Deklaracja: Studenckiego Komitetu Solidarnosci" (Declaration of the Student Solidarity Committee), Bratniak, 8- 9(May-June 1978) p. 26. 190. Lipski, KOR, pp. 205 and 208; and Czaputowicz, Konflikty spoleczne, p. 76. 191. Lipski, KOR, p. 205. 192. Ibid., p. 331. 193. Edmund Wnuk-Lipinski, "Social Dimorphism and its Implications," in Jadwiga Koralewicz, Ireneusz Bialecki and Margaret Watson (eds) Crisis and Transition: Polish Society in the 1980s (New York: Berg, 1987)p.170. 194. Lipski, KOR, pp. 336-7. 195. Ibid., p. 337. 196. Ibid., pp. 400--1. 197. Ibid., pp. 400--1. 198. Jan Cywinski, "The Report of Jan Cywinski, 10 April 1979," in "Documents Concerning Acts of Violence by Gangs of the Socialist Union of Polish Students (SZSP): The Case of Henryk Wujec," in Polish Helsinki Watch Committee, Prologue to Gdansk, pp. 121-2. 199. Maria Dziewicka, "The Report of Prof. Maria Dziewicka, 28 April 1979," in "Documents Concerning Acts of Violence by Gangs of the Socialist Union of Polish Students (SZSP): The Case of Henryk Wujec," in Polish Helsinki Watch Committee, Prologue to Gdansk, pp. 118-19. Notes and References 223

200. Lipski, KOR, pp. 269-270. 201. Konrad Bielinski, "The Report of Konrad Bielinski, 10 Aprill979," in "Documents Concerning Acts of Violence by Gangs of the Socialist Union of Polish Students (SZSP): The Case of Henryk Wujec," in Polish Helsinki Watch Committee, Prologue to Gdansk, p. 121. 202. Henryk Wujec, "The Report of Henryk Wujec, 18 April 1979," in "Documents Concerning Acts of Violence by Gangs of the Socialist Union of Polish Students (SZSP): The Case of Henryk Wujec," in Polish Helsinki Watch Committee, Prologue to Gdansk, p. 121. 203. Polish Helsinki Watch Committee, Prologue to Gdansk, p. 23. 204. Lipski, KOR, pp. 400--1. 205. Cywinski, "Niezalezny ruch studencki, 1975-1979," p. 10. 206. Lipski, KO R, pp. 386-7. 207. An excellent survey of independent publication in Poland is Hirsch, "Unabhangiges Publikationswesen in Polen 1976-1983." 208. Cecuda, Leksykon opozycji politycznej, pp. 112-13. 209. Czaputowicz, Konflikty spoleczne, pp. 63-64. 210. Lipski, KOR, p. 396. 211. Ibid., pp. 396-7. 212. Czaputowicz, Konjlikty spoleczne, p. 75. 213. Lipski, KOR, p. 403. 214. Ibid., pp. 370--1. 215. Ibid., p. 402. 216. Ibid., p. 373. 217. Ibid., p. 403. 218. Cecuda, Leksykon opozycji politycznej, p. 7. 219. Ibid., p. 112. 220. "3 Maja-Gdansk," Bratniak, 23(May-June 1980) pp. 7-11. Lipski, KOR, p. 350. 221. Cecuda, Leksykon opozycji politycznej, p. 7. 222. Lipski, KOR, pp. 399--400. 223. Ibid., p. 403. 224. Arkadiusz Rybicki, "Pierwszy etap: kilka uwag o dziatalnosci SKS" (The First Stage: Several Remarks on the Activity of theSKS), Bratniak, 10-11(July-August 1978) pp. 9-11; and Cywinski, "Nieza• lei:ny ruch studencki, 1975-1979," p. 10. 225. Biuletyn Jnformacyjny, June 1977, p. 96. 226. Wolfgang Wagner, Marion Gratin Donhoff, Gerhard Fels, Karl Kaiser and Paul Noack (eds) Die lnternationale Politik, 1979-1980 (Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 1983) p. 199. 227. Lipski, KOR, p. 208. 228. Ibid. 229. Often political motivated dismissals were officially characterized as violations of regulations that normally were unenforced. 230. Cywinski, "Niezalezny ruch studencki, 1975-1979," p. 10. 231. Lipski, KOR, pp. 273-274. 232. Ash, The Polish Revolution: Solidarity 1980-82, p. 2. 233. Janina Frentzel-Zagorska, "The Dominant Political Culture in Poland," Politics, 20, 1(May 1985) p. 83. 224 Notes and References

234. Milovan Djilas, The New Class: An Analysis of the Communist System (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1957)pp. 37--69. For a discussion of "The new class" in Poland see Artur Hajnicz, "Sprawozdanie z prac XI komisji zjazdowej: zwilJzek wobec wladz panstwowych i PZPR" (Report of the Work of the 11th Congressional Commission: The Union in Relation to the National Authorities and the PZPR), Tygodnik Solidarnos/:, 26(25 September 1981) pp. 5-6. 235. Konrad Syrop, Spring in October: The Story of the Polish Revolution, 1956 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1976). 236. Lepak, Prelude to Solidarity, p. 4. 237. Brzezinski, "Poland: A Political Glimpse," p. 29; and Shelton, "A Bibliographic Essay on National Communism" p. 287. 238. Neal Ascherson, The Polish August: The Self-Limiting Revolution (New York: Viking Press, 1982) p. 27. 239. Ibid., p. 102. 240. Ibid., pp. 106, 108, 113. 241. Davies, God's Playground, vol. 2, pp. 553-555. 242. Ibid., pp. 616--617. 243. Ibid., pp. 616--617. 244. Ibid., p. 595. 245. Ibid., pp. 597 and 599. 246. Jadwiga Staniszkis, Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984) p. 12. 247. Davies, God's Playground, vol. 2, pp. 59Q-591 and 628. 248. Ibid., pp. 613--615. 249. Davies, God's Playground, vol. 2, pp. 602-3. The Polish army was "the only government-controlled organization to enjoy a high degree of trust from Polish society ...." Andrew A. Michta, Red Eagle: The Army in Polish Politics, 1944-1988 (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1990) p. 85. Cf. Krystyna Kersten, Narodziny systemu wladzy: Polska 1943-1948 (The Birth of the Political System: Poland 1943- 1948) (Paris: Libella, 1986) p. 297. 250. Davies, God's Playground, vol. 2, pp. 602--603. 251. Lepak, Prelude to Solidarity, p. 195; and Radio Free Europe-Radio Liberty, RFE Research, "Commercial Shops Increase Their Meat Allocation," Polish Situation Report 14 (July 9, 1980) p. 3. 252. Staniszkis, Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution, pp. 3-4. 253. Ibid. 254. Ibid., pp. 4-5. 255. Davies, God's Playground, vol. 2, p. 721. 256. Staniszkis, Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution, pp. 4-5. 257. Ibid., pp. 5-7. 258. The 21 demands are listed in Staniszkis, Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution, pp. 43-45. 259. Jan B. de Weydenthal, "Workers and Party in Poland," Problems of Communism, 29, 6(November-December 1980) p. 21. 260. Davies, God's Playground, vol. 2, p. 721. 261. Degenhardt, "Poland," Political Dissent, p. 20. Notes and References 225

262. Davies, God's Playground, vol. 2, p. 721. 263. Ascherson, The Polish August, p. 198. 264. Staniszkis, Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution, p. 22. 265. Davies, God's Playground, vol. 2, p. 724. 266. Ascherson, The Polish August, p. 277. 267. Ibid., p. 277. 268. Ibid., p. 281. 269. Ibid., p. 278. 270. Lepak, Prelude to Solidarity, p. 167. 271. A brief overview of KOR is provided by Jan Zie1onka, "Die Bewegung der gesellschaftlichen Selbstverteidigung in Polen (KSS-KOR)" (The Movement for Social Self-Defense in Poland [KSS-KORJ), Osteuropa, 35, 2(February 1985) pp. 87-98; though his estimate of the number of workers arrested in Radom seems confused with the number for Ursus. 272. Czaputowicz, K01iflikty spoleczne, p. 43. 273. Ascherson, The Polish August, p. 114. 274. Czaputowicz, Konf/ikty spoleczne, p. 44. 275. Ibid., p. 45. 276. Lipski, KOR, pp. 50-1. 277. Cywinski, "Niezalezny ruch studencki, 1975-1979, p. 10. 278. Kawalec, Demokratyczna opozycja w Polsce, p. 4. 279. Clandestine universities have been organized in many places where freedom of thought has been repressed; for example, Argentina's University of the Catacombs. Cristina Bonasegna, "Under Military Rule in Argentina, 'U. of the Catacombs' Flourishes," Chronicle of Higher Education, 26, 24(August 10, 1983) pp. 1 and 13. 280. Studium News Abstracts, 2, 3, p. 1. 281. For the text of this announcement see Hanna Buczynska-Garewicz, "The Flying University in Poland, 1978-1980," Harvard Education Review, 55, 1(February 1985) pp. 20-1. 282. Ibid. 283. Ibid., p. 27. 284. Komisja Programowa Towarzystwa Kurs6w Naukowych, "Oswiad• czenie" (Statement of 2 March 1978), Bratniak: pismo Ruchu Mlodej Polski, 6-7(March-April1978) pp. 28-9; and Lipski, KOR, pp. 184-5. 285. Lipski, KOR, pp. 212, 265-6. 286. Ibid., pp. 266-7. 287. Identical tactics had previously been used in the Soviet Union by martial arts and physical culture experts against clandestine Christian gatherings. Sergei Kourdakov, The Persecutor (Carmel, NY: Fleming Revell, 1974). 288. Lipski, KOR, p. 269. 289. Jacek Kuroit, "Who Came to My House?," Information Bulletin, 2, 28(1979) as quoted in Lipski, KOR, pp. 232-3. 290. Lipski, KOR, p. 273. 291. Buczynska-Garewicz, "The Flying University," pp. 22-8. 292. Ibid., p. 28. 226 Notes and References

293. Lipski, KOR, p. 209. 294. Ibid., p. 273. 295. Ibid., p. 268. 296. Ibid., p. 272. 297. Ibid., p. 273. 298. Sue Masterman, "Polish Academics Carry on Subsurface Resistance," Chronicle of Higher Education, 27, 17(4 January 1984) p. 27. 299. "Wladyslaw Bartoszewski, a Polish Historian ... Lecturing at a 'Flying University,"' Chronicle of Higher Education, 19, 14(Decem• ber, 3 1979) p. 9. 300. Lipski, KOR, p. 309. 301. Buczynska-Garewicz, "The Flying University," pp. 32-3. 302. Ibid., p. 33. 303. Andrzej Friszke, "Strajk studencki (The Student Strike)," Wi~i, 276(April 1981) pp. 143-8. 304. Socjalistyczny Zwil}zek Student6w Polskich. Socialist Union of Polish Students. The Communist Party sponsored student organization established in 1973. 305. Holzer, Solidarnosl: 1980-1981, p. 137. 306. "Odliczanie (The Countdown)," ltd., 41(12 October 1980). 307. Ibid. 308. Ibid. 309. Andrzej Friszke, "Autonomia, samorzl}dnosc, wsp6lnota: Rozmowa z przedstawicielami NZS" (Autonomy, Self-governing, Community: A Conversation with the representatives of the NZS), Wi~i, 276(April 1981) pp. 76-90. I was able to have a discussion with Jacek Santorski in his Warsaw home during martial law. 310. "Odliczanie" ltd. 311. Jerzy Holzer, Solidarnosc 1980-1981, p. 137. 312. Jacek Czaputowicz in Friszke, "Autonomia, samorzl}dnosc, wsp6lno• ta," pp. 76-90. 313. Peter Raina, Poland 1981: Towards Social Renewal (Boston: George Allen and Unwin, 1985) p. 75. 314. This decree made the Minister for Science, Higher Education and Technology responsible for registering national students' organiza• tions. Raina, Poland 1981, p. 75. 315. Czaputowicz, "Komentarz," p. 2. 316. Holzer, Solidarnosl: 1980-1981, p. 137. 317. Jacek Czaputowicz in Jaroslaw Guzy, Jacek Czaputowicz, Jacek Rakowiecki and Lech Lipinski (interview by Wojciech Arkuszewski and Miroslaw Kowalski) "NZS," Tygodnik Solidarnosc, 9(29 May 1981) p. 14. 318. Jacek Czaputowicz, "Petition to the Minister of Science, Higher Education and Technology for the revocation of the Decreee of the Minister of Higher Education of March 17, 1960 (September 30, 1980)," in Jacek Czaputowicz (compiler) and Henryk Glowacki (ed.) Rejestracja Niezaletnego Zrzeszenia Studentow: dokumenty (The Registration of the Independent Student Association: Documents) (Warsaw: SOWA, Studencka Oficyna Wydawnicza, 1981) p. 4. Notes and References 227

319. TKZ NSZS Politechnika Wroctawska (Wroctaw Polytechnic NZS), "Komunikat: TKZ NSZS" (NZS Communique), 0 co chodzi?, 16 October 1980, p. 4. 320. "Odliczanie," ltd. 321. Ibid. 322. Ibid. 323. Hanna Wrobel, Department of Economic and Legal Affairs of the Ministry of Science, Higher Education and Technology, to Jacek Czaputowicz, letter (15 October 1980), in Jacek Czaputowicz (compi• ler) and Henryk Glowacki (ed.) Rejestracja Niezaleznego Zrzeszenia Studentow: dokumenty (The Registration of the Independent Student Association: Documents) (Warsaw: SOW A, Studencka Oficyna Wy• dawnicza, 1981) p. 6. 324. Perhaps similar to a Federal District Court in the United States. 325. Niezalei:ego Zrzeszenia Studentow, Ogolnopolski Komitet Zaloi:yciels• ki (Independent Students' Association, National Founding Commit• tee), "Wniosek o zarejestrowanie (Application for Registration)," in Jacek Czaputowicz, compiler and Henryk Glowacki (ed.) Rejestracja Niezaleznego Zrzeszenia Studentow: dokumenty (The Registration of the Independent Student Association: Documents) (Warsaw: SOWA, Studencka Oficyna Wydawnicza, 1981) p. 3. 326. Czaputowicz, "Komentarz," p. 3. 327. S~d Wojewodzki w Warszawie Wydzial I Cywilny (Warsaw Regional Court, Department I of Civil Law), "Postanowienie (Ruling) no. Ns rz 32/80," in Czaputowicz and Glowacki, Rejestracja, p. 3. 328. Wolf Oschlies, Jugend in Osteuropa (Youth in East Europe), vol. 2: Polens Jugend-Kinder der Solidarity (Poland's Youth: Children of Solidarity) (Cologne: Bohlau, 1982) pp. 106-7. 329. Eugeniusz Pietrasik and the OKZ of the NZS, Joint Communique (17 November 1980) in Jacek Czaputowicz, compiler and Henryk Glo• wacki (ed.) Rejestracja Niezaleznego Zrzeszenia Studentow: dokumenty (The Registration of the Independent Student Association: Documents) (Warsaw: SOWA, Studencka Oficyna Wydawnicza, 1981) p. 7. 330. Ibid. 331. Czaputowicz, "Komentarz," p. 8. 332. Krzysztof Osinski, Jacek Czaputowicz, Wojciech Bogaczyk and Barbara Kozl:owska, to S~du Najwyi:szego (Superior Court), letter, 27 November 1980, in Czaputowicz, compiler and Glowacki (ed.) Rejestracja Niezaleznego Zrzeszenia Studentow: dokumenty, p. 9; and by the same individuals, "Uzasadnienie (Substantiation of Appeal 27 November 1980 to the Superior Court)," in Czaputowicz and Glowacki, pp. 9-11. 333. Janusz Gorski and the OKZ of the NZS, Joint Communique, (28 November 1980 [assumed]), in Jacek Czaputowicz, compiler and Henryk Glowacki (ed.) Rejestracja Niezalemego Zrzeszenia Studen• tow: dokumenty (The Registration of the Independent Student Association: Documents) (Warsaw: SOWA, Studencka Oficyna Wy• dawnicza, 1981) p. 8. 334. Ibid. 228 Notes and References

335. NZS Congress, Resolution, 22-23 November 1980, Warsaw, in Czaputowicz and Glowacki, Rejestracja, p. 7. 336. Czaputowicz, "Komentarz," p. 7. 337. J. Gorski, "RozporzCJdzenie Ministra Nauki Szkolnictwa Wyzszego i Techniki, z dnia 18 grudnia 1980 r., w sprawie organizacji studenc• kich," Dziennik Ustaw, no. 1, item 3 (14 January 1981) pp. 3-4. 338. Czaputowicz, "Komentarz," p. 11. 339. Ibid., p. 14. 340. Jacek Czaputowicz, Teodor Klincewicz and Krzysztof Osinski, Wnio• sek o zarejestrowanie organizacji studenckiej (Petition to Register a Student Organization) (16 January 1981) in Jacek Czaputowicz (compiler) and Henryk Glowacki (ed.) Rejestracja Niezaleznego Zrzeszenia Studentow: dokumenty (The Registration of the Indepen• dent Student Association: Documents) (Warsaw: SOWA, Studencka Oficyna Wydawnicza, 1981) p. 14. 341. Krzysztof Osinski, "Protok6l" (Minutes [of the meeting of representa• tives of the Ministry of Science, Higher Education and Technology and the NZS, on the subject ofNZS registration of January 22, 1981 in Warsaw])", in Jacek Czaputowicz (compiler) and Henryk Glowacki (ed.) Rejestracja Niezaleznego Zrzeszenia Studentow: dokumenty (The Registration of the Independent Student Association: Documents) (Warsaw: SOWA, Studencka Oficyna Wydawnicza, 1981) pp. 15-20. 342. Ibid., p. 23. 343. Ibid., p. 24. 344. Ibid., p. 25. 345. As Szczepanski explained: "The curricula and program of study are unified at all universities. For instance, take students studying sociology. There are four universities in Poland training students in sociology .... they all have the same program .... It is the same every year, in every university." Jan Szczepanski, Higher Education in Eastern Europe (New York: International Council for Educational Development, 1974) p. 15. 346. M. Bielski, "Do Krakowa przyjechal minister" (The Minister of Higher Education Came to Cracow), ltd., 42(19 October 1980). 347. Sue Masterman, "Polish Students Seek Right to Unionize, Press Demands for University Autonomy," Chronicle of Higher Education, 21, 14(24 November 1980) p. 11. 348. Friszke, "Autonomia, samorzCJdnosc, wsp6lnota," pp. 76-90. 349. Oschlies, Jugend in Osteuropa, vol. 2, p. 106. 350. Basta, "Przesilenie," pp. 6-7. 351. Masterman, "Polish Students Seek Right to Unionize," pp. 11-12. 352. Sue Masterman, "10,000 Students Join Protests in Poland; Workers' Union Won't Support Demands," Chronicle of Higher Education, 21, 22(9 February 1981) p. 16; and Sue Masterman, "Polish Government Recognizes Students' Union," Chronicle of Higher Education, 22, 1(23 February 1981) p. 15. 353. Masterman, "Polish Government Recognizes Students' Union," p. 15. Notes and References 229

354. Friszke, "Autonomia, samorzl}dnosc, wsp6lnota," pp. 76--90. 355. The text of the Congress memoranda and resolutions may be located in Sztandar Mlodych, (December 12-15, 1980). Cited in Oschlies, Jugend in Osteuropa, vo!. 2, pp. 105-6. 356. Zwil}zek Mlodziezy Wiejskiej. Rural Youth Union. This was a youth organization sponsored by the Peasants' Party, ZSL, Zjednoczone Stronnictwo Ludowe. 357. This group was connected with an independent Catholic anti-abortion group called the Life and Light Movement (Ruch Swiatlo i Zycie) and the Polish Social Catholic Union (Polski Zwil}zek Katolicko-Spolecz• ny). Oschlies, Jugend in Osteuropa, p. 108. They were not significant in membership or influence. Andrzej W~gierski, "Pojawil si~ Polski Zwil}zek Akademicki (The Appearance of the Polish Academic Union)," NZS Informacje (NZS, Silesian Polytechnic), 21(26 April- 10 May 1981) p. 3.

3 How Local Events Drove the National Movement

1. Edward J. Walsh, "Resource Mobilization and Citizen Protest in Communities Around Three Mile Island," Social Problems, 29, !(October 1981) pp. 18-19. 2. Charles Tilly, "Social Movements, Old and New," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change: Social Movements as a Factor of Change in the Contemporary World, 10(1988) p. 3. 3. Wladyslaw Iwaniec, "W kr~gu czterech 'anty'" (In the circle of the four 'antis'), Widnokrqg, (3 April 1984), as quoted in Wolf Oschlies, "'Verlorene Generation.' Polens Jugend 1980-1984" ('The Lost Generation.' Poland's Youth, 1980-1984), in Polen 1980-1984, Dauerkrise oder Stabilisierung?, Dieter Bingen (ed.) (Baden-Baden, FRG: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1985) p. 216. 4. For the results of a survey on the attitudes of students towards the imposition of martial law see Wieslaw D~bski, "Z badail w srodowisku studenckim: Kiedy stereotypy zast~pujl} wlasne przemyslenia" (From a Survey of the Student Community: When Stereotypes Replace Self• perception), Trybuna Ludu, 35, 225(September 22, 1982) p. 3. 5. Jonathan Spivak, "Striking Results: Poland's New Activism Spreads to Professional and Academic Realms," Wall St. Journal, 5 September 1980, p. 1. 6. Peter Raina, Poland 1981: Towards Social Renewal (Boston: George Allen and Unwin, 1985) p. 75. 7. Don Williams, "Poland: The Window to Higher Education in Eastern Europe?," Higher Education, 11, 5(September 1982) p. 522. Extensive coverage of this meeting may be found in the Communist Party's daily newspaper Trybuna Ludu, 13-14 September 1980 issue. 8. Raina, Poland 1981, p. 75. 9. Ibid., p. 76. 230 Notes and References

10. Marian J. Kostecki and Krzysztof Mreta, "Workers and Intelligentsia in Poland: During the Hot Days and In Between," Media, Culture and Society, 4, 3(1982) p. 240. 11. M. Rybinski, "Editorial," ltd., 38(1981), as quoted in Kostecki and Mreta, "Workers and Intelligentsia," p. 240. 12. Grzegorz Bakuniak and Krzysztof Nowak, "The Creation of a Collective Identity in a Social Movement: The Case of 'Solidar• nosc,"' Theory and Society, 16, 3(May 1987) pp. 427-8. 13. Bronislaw Misztal and Barbara A. Misztal, "Democratization Proces• ses as an Objective of New Social Movements," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 10(1988) p. 93. 14. Kostecki and Mreta, "Workers and Intelligentsia," p. 239. Cf. Marian Kostecki and Krzysztof Mreta, "Collective Solidarity in Poland's Powdered Society," Insurgent Sociologist, 12, l-2(Winter-Spring, 1984) pp. 131-41. 15. Pawel Kuczynski and KrzysztofNowak, "The Solidarity Movement in Relation to Society and the State: Communication as an Issue of Social Movement," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 10(1988) p. 134. 16. Vera Rich, "Solidarity Seeks to Free Universities from Control by Polish Government," Chronicle of Higher Education, 23, 8(21 October 1981) p. 9. 17. Sue Masterman, "Poland's Universities Reopen Peacefully as Stu• dents, Teachers Gain Concessions," Chronicle of Higher Education, 21, 8(14 October 1980) pp. 1 and 21. 18. Jan Cywinski, "Niezalezny ruch studencki w latach, 1975-1979" (The Independent Student Movement in the years, 1975-1979), Tygodnik SolidarnoH:, 32(6 November 1981) p. 10. 19. Jan Malanowski, Polscy Robotnicy (Poland's Workers) (Warsaw: Ksil}zka i Wiedza, 1981). 20. "Odliczanie (The Countdown)," ltd., 41(12 October 1980). 21. Jacek Czaputowicz, Konjlikty spoleczne w relacji studenci-decydenci w historii PRL (The Social Conflicts Between Students and Decision• Makers in the History of the Polish People's Republic), Master's thesis (Warsaw: Central School for Planning and Statistics, 1986) p. 61. 22. "Odliczanie," ltd., 41. A list of catalogues of Polish libraries in Poland and elsewhere is presented in Stefan Kub6w, "Publications on the History of Books and Libraries in Poland, 1981-1988," Libraries and Culture, 25, !(Winter 1990) pp. 65-8. 23. Editorial, ltd., 41(12 October 1980). 24. Jerzy Holzer, SolidarnoH: 1980-1981: geneza i historia (Solidarity 1980-1981: Genesis and History), Biblioteka "Kultury" (Kultura Library) series, 387, (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1984) p. 151. 25. Vera Rich, "Under Pressure from Polish Academic Groups, Minister Vows Not to Alter University Reforms," Chronicle of Higher Education, 23, 7(14 October 1981) p. 17. 26. Report in the Polish Communist Party's official newspaper Trybuna Ludu of March 1982 as summarized in "Masowe Czystki w Partii: Studenci Zl}dajl} powrotu rektora (Mass Purges in the Party: Students Notes and References 231

Demands Return of the University Rector)," Nowy Dziennik, 2826(23-24 April 1982) pp. 1, 16. 27. Manfred Spieker, "Pluralismus in Polen 1980/1 und in der Tschechos• lowakei 1968: Zur Problematik autonomer Gruppen in Sozialistischen Herrschaftssystemen (Pluralism in Poland, 1980--81 and in Czechoslo• vakia 1968-the Problem of Autonomous Groups in Socialist Sys• tems)," Osteuropa, 33, 11(November 1983) p. 904. 28. Dieter Bingen, "Polen 1982-1984: Verschiirfung der Krise oder Stabilisierung?" (Poland 1982-1984: The Worsening of the Crisis or Stabilization?), in Polen 1980-1984, Dauerkrise oder Stabi/isierung?, Dieter Bingen (ed.) (Baden-Baden, FRG: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1985) p. 386. 29. Ibid. 30. Ibid. 31. For a discussion of the various parties in Poland at that time see Pedro Ramet, "Poland's 'Other' Parties," World Today, 37, 9(September 1981) pp. 332-8. 32. Bingen, "Polen 1982-1984," p. 386. 33. Ibid. 34. Grzegorz Lindenberg, Zmiana Spoleczna a Swiadomosc Po/ityczna: Dynamika postaw po/itycznych student6w Warszawy 1979-83 (Social Change and Political Consciousness: The Dynamics of Political Attitudes of Warsaw Students, 1979-83) (unpublished doctoral dis• sertation accepted in the Institute of Sociology, University of Warsaw, 1985) p. 115. 35. Bronislaw Ratus, Ruch Mlodziezowy w Polsce Ludowej. Zagadnienia Teoretyczne (The Youth Movement in People's Poland: Theoretical Problems) (Warsaw: PWN, 1981) pp. 18-19. 36. Ibid., pp. 6-7. 37. Ibid., pp. 101-102. 38. Ibid., p. 7. 39. I understand "young employees" to refer to non-tenured researchers, doctoral candidates and assistants (a category roughly equivalent to American assistant professors). 40. Editorial, ltd., (The SZSP weekly published in Warsaw), 39(28 September 1980). 41. "Po co komu nowa organizacja" (Why Do We Need a New Organiza• tion?), Biuletyn Niezaleznego Zrzeszenia Student6w, 1(1 October 1980) pp. 3-4. 42. "Z ostatniej chwili," 0 co chodzi? (Wrodaw Polytechnic NZS), 23 June 1981 (special issue) p. 6. 43. "Pragn~ autonomii (They Desire Autonomy)," 0 co chodzi? (Wrodaw Polytechnic NZS), 12 December 1980, p. 2. 44. Jola Chwastyk, "0 sejmiku (On a Meeting)," 0 co chodzi? (Wrodaw Polytechnic NZS), 12 December 1980, p. 2. 45. Jaroslaw Guzy in Jaroslaw Guzy, Jacek Czaputowicz, Jacek Rako• wiecki and Lech Lipinski (interview by Wojciech Arkuszewski and Miroslaw Kowalski) "NZS," Tygodnik So/idarnosi:, 9(29 May 1981) p. 14. 232 Notes and References

46. Wejnert reported "about 60% of all students" prior to the odnowa. Barbara Wejnert, "The Student Movement in Poland, 1980-1981," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 10(1988) p. 177. 47. Obituary notice for the SZSP, Latarnia (Weekly NZS periodical at the Maritime Academy in Gdynia), ([March?] 1981), p. 20. 48. Stanislaw Gabrielski, "Address to the Meeting of the SZSP in Uniej6w," ltd., 39(28 September 1980). 49. Williams, "Poland: The Window to Higher Education in Eastern Europe?," p. 523. 50. Ibid. 51. Cf. Anthony Jones (ed.) Professions and the State: Expertise and Autonomy in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990); and Michael D. Kennedy, Profes• sionals, Power and Solidarity in Poland: A Critical Sociology of Soviet• type Society (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990). 52. Note the use in Poland of "apolitical" corresponded in some cases, such as this one, to "independent" of the ruling Party. 53. At the time of the interview Czaputowicz was the leader of a Polish civil rights organization called Freedom and Peace (Wolnosc i Pok6j) that was supporting conscientious objectors to military service. 54. Guzy in Guzy et al., "NZS," p. 14. 55. Devastating earthquakes struck southern Italy (Naples, Salerno, Azvellino, Potenza, Balvano and Belluno) in October and November 1980. 56. Wejnert, "The Student Movement in Poland, 1980-1981," p. 177. 57. Jacek Rakowiecki in Guzy et al., "NZS," p. 14. 58. Guzy in Guzy et al. "NZS," p. 14. 59. Andrzej Friszke, "Autonomia, samorz~dnosc, wsp6lnota: rozmowa z przedstawicielami NZS (Autonomy, Self-governing, Community: A Conversation with the representatives of the NZS)," Wifz, 276(April 1981) pp. 76-90. 60. Ibid. 61. Ibid. 62. Wejnert, "The Student Movement in Poland, 1980-1981," p. 178. 63. Editorial, ltd., p. 41. 64. Ibid. 65. Ibid. 66. Ibid. 67. Ibid., p. 39. 68. Gabrielski's (the national chairman of the SZSP) speech at Uniej6w, ltd., 39. 69. Dennis H. Wrong, Power: Its Forms, Bases and Uses (New York: Harper and Row, 1979) p. 176. 70. Cf. Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy and Mayer N. Zald, "Social Movements," in Handbook of Sociology, Neil J. Smelser, ed. (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1988) pp. 709, 711, 713, 716. 71. Ibid., p. 711. 72. Ibid., p. 709. Notes and References 233

73. Ibid., p. 713. 74. Ibid., p. 716. 75. Max Heirich, "Change of Heart: A Test of Some Widely Held Theories about Religious Conversion," American Journal of Sociology, 83, 3(November 1977) p. 673. 76. Aldon D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change (New York: Free Press, 1984) pp. 120--38. 77. Steven E. Barkan, "Interorganizational Conflict in the Southern Civil Rights Movement," Sociological Inquiry, 56, 2(Spring 1986) pp. 190--209. 78. Ibid., p. 190. 79. For example, Barkan who surveyed the literature related to this concerning the abolitionist, feminist and anti-war movements. Bark• an, "Interorganizational Conflict," p. 190. 80. Suzanne Staggenborg, "Coalition Work in the Pro-Choice Movement: Organizational and Environmental Opportunities and Obstacles," Social Problems, 33, 5(June 1986) p. 374. 81. Jacek Rakowiecki in Guzy et al., (interview), "NZS," p. 14. 82. Andrzej Friszke, "Strajk studencki (The Student Strike)," Wi~i, 276(April 1981) pp. 143-8. 83. "Polish Students Demand Independence for Students," Chronicle of Higher Education, 21, 21(2 February 1981) p. 19. 84. Wojciech Arkuszewski and Mirostaw Kowalski, Solidarity editors and interviewers, characterized the L6dz strike and the NZS demand concerning military training as "difficult to understand ... (and) to accept" for the "rest of society," in Guzy et al., "NZS," p. 14. 85. Sue Masterman, "10,000 Students Join Protests in Poland; Workers' Union Won't Support Demands," Chronicle of Higher Education, 21, 22(9 February 1981) p. 16. 86. A social psychological analysis of the dynamics of these negotiations was undertaken on the fifty hours of tape-recordings of these talks by University of L6dz sociologists Marek Czyzewski, Andrzej Piotrowski and Wtodzimierz A. Rostocki, "Analiza interakcji strategicznej: pr6ba zastosowania do opisu negocjacji" (An Analysis of a Strategic Interaction: An Attempt at Utilizing Negotiation Transcription), in Krystyna Lutynska (ed.) Z metodologii i metodyki sociologicznych badan terenowych, 8 (Warsaw: Polish Academy of Science, Institute of Philosophy and Sociology, 1985) pp. 85-98. 87. Friszke, "Strajk studencki," pp. 143-8. 88. Wolf Oschlies, Jugend in Osteuropa (Youth in East Europe), vol. 2: Polens Jugend-Kinder der Solidarity (Poland's Youth: Children of Solidarity) (Cologne: Bohlau, 1982), p 107. 89. Raina, Poland 1981 p. 76. 90. Holzer, Solidarnosi: 1980-1981, p. 179. 91. Raina, Poland 1981 p. 77. 92. Holzer, Solidarnosi: 1980-1981, p. 180. 93. Raina, Poland 1981, p. 77. 234 Notes and References

94. Holzer, Solidarnosc 1980-1981, p. 179. 95. Williams, "Poland: The Window to Higher Education in Eastern Europe?," p. 522. 96. Holzer, Solidarnosc 1980-1981, p. 179. 97. Holzer, Solidarnosc 1980-1981, p. 179. Obviously, the figure for the number of students involved varied over the strike. A Western journalist estimated that "5,000 of the 9,000 students at the University of L6dz ..." participated, (Spencer Davidson, "A Fire in the Country," Time (February 9, 1981) p. 30.) though this estimate might have referred to an early time in the action. 98. Oschlies, Jugend in Osteuropa, vol. 2, p. 107. 99. Wejnert reported that the strikers were subjected to intense psycho• logical stress, discomfort and less than adequate food. Wejnert, "The Student Movement in Poland, 1980--1981," p. 175. 100. Friszke, "Strajk studencki," pp. 143-8. 101. Komisja Rewizyjna NZS Uniwersytetu Jagiellonskiego, (Report on the Jagiellonian University Strike Committee's Handling of the L6dz Support Strike), Donosiciel: Informator NZS UJ (Stool pigeon), 1(5 March 1981) pp. 2-3. 102. Friszke, "Strajk studencki," pp. 143-8. 103. Masterman, "10,000 Students Join Protests," p. 1. 104. Jacek Rakowiecki in Guzy et al., (interview) "NZS," p. 14. 105. Jaroslaw Guzy in Guzy et al., (interview) "NZS," p. 14. 106. Friszke, "Strajk studencki," pp. 143-8; and Holzer, Solidarnosc 1980- 1981, p. 180. 107. Jacek Czaputowicz, "Komentarz (Commentary)," in Jacek Czaputo• wicz (compiler) and Henryk Glowacki (ed.) Rejestracja Niezaleznego Zrzeszenia Student6w: dokumenty (The Registration of the Independent Student Association: Documents) (Warsaw: SOWA, Studencka Oficy• na Wydawnicza, 1981) p. 2. 108. Sue Masterman, "Polish Government Recognizes Students' Union," Chronicle of Higher Education, 22, 1(23 February 1981) p. 15. 109. Henry W. Degenhardt, "Poland," Political Dissent: An International Guide to Dissident, Extra-Parliamentary, Guerrilla and Illegal Political Movements (Detroit: Gale Research Co., 1983) p. 21. 110. Sue Masterman, "Polish Students Halt Demonstrations After Signing Pact with Government," Chronicle of Higher Education, 22, 2(2 March 1981) p. 17. 111. Czaputowicz, "Komentarz," p. 2. 112. Ibid. 113. Jan B. de Weydenthal, Bruce D. Porter and Kevin Devlin, The Polish Drama: 1980-1982 (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1983) p. 19. 114. Masterman, "Polish Government Recognizes Students' Union," p. 1. 115. Ibid., p. 15. 116. Ibid., p. 1. 117. Masterman, "Polish Students Halt Demonstrations," p. 17. 118. Masterman, "Polish Government Recognizes Students' Union," p. 15. 119. Friszke, "Strajk studencki," pp. 143-8. 120. Ibid. Notes and References 235

121. Jacek Rakowiecki, "Komunikat [Communique, from the Conference of University NZS Chapters] (Konferencja Organizacji Uczelnianych NZS)," Donosiciel: Informator NZS UJ (Stool pigeon), 1(5 March 1981) p. 3. 122. Tygodnik Solidarnosc (Solidarity Weekly) first appeared on April 3, 1981. Its weekly circulation of half a million issues sold out at newsstands just minutes after its delivery on Fridays. Todd Leven• thal, "Poland: The Role of the Press in Political Change," Washington Quarterly, 7, !(Winter 1984) p. 158. 123. Friszke, "Strajk studencki," pp. 143-8. 124. "Szczeg6lowe postulaty dotycze}ce zmian w strukturze i programie nauczania Uczelni opracowane przez Mi~dzyuczelniane} Komisj~ Porozumiewawcze}" (Specific Demands with Regard to the Changes in the Structure and the Program of the University Developed by the Regional Coordinating Committee), Wi{!Z, 276(April 1981) pp. 107- 11. 125. Friszke, "Strajk studencki," pp. 143-8. 126. Masterman, "Polish Government Recognizes Students' Union," p. 15. 127. Friszke, "Strajk studencki," pp. 143-8. 128. Ibid. 129. Masterman, "Polish Students Halt Demonstrations," p. 17. 130. Jaroslaw Guzy in Guzy et a!., (interview) "NZS," p. 14. 131. Ibid. 132. Jacek Rakowiecki in Guzy eta!., (interview) "NZS," p. 14. 133. Jaroslaw Guzy in Guzy eta!., (interview) "NZS," p. 14. This view was echoed by a veteran student activist in "Dawno, Dawno Temu ...." (Once Upon a Time ....), Strajk (L6d:Z), special issue (February 1986) pp. 1-2. 134. Jacek Czaputowicz in Guzy eta!. (interview) "NZS," p. 14. 135. Quoted by Jacek Rakowiecki in Guzy eta!., (interview) "NZS," p. 14. 136. Krystyna Lutynska, "Strajk student6w 1981 w opinii publicznej mieszkanc6w Lodzi" (The Student Strike of 1981 in the Opinion of L6dz Inhabitants), Unpublished paper (Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Philosophy and Sociology, 1982). Additional information may be found in Matti Parjanen "Puolassa riittiiisi sosiologeille tutkittavaa" (About Sociological Research on Student Strikes in Poland), Sosiologia 19, 1(1982) pp. 47-51. 137. Wejnert, "The Student Movement in Poland, 1980-1981," p. 176. 138. Lutynska, "Strajk student6w 1981." 139. The first degree that Polish undergraduates attain in Poland is the master's degree. 140. Lutynska, "Strajk student6w 1981." 141. Ibid. 142. Ibid. 143. Ibid. 144. Ibid. 145. Staggenborg, "Coalition Work in the Pro-Choice Movement," p. 374; One attempt to systematically address this area was Mayer N. Zald and John D. McCarthy, "Social Movement Industries: Competition 236 Notes and References

and Cooperation Among Movement Organizations," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 3(1980) pp. 1-20. 146. Barkan, "Interorganizational Conflict in the Southern Civil Rights Movement," p. 190. 147. Ed Walsh and Sherry Cable, "Realities, Images and Management Dilemmas in Social Movement Organizations: The TMI Experience," in Bert Klandermans, Hanspeter Kriesi and Sidney Tarrow (eds) Organizing for Change, International Social Movement Research series, 2 (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, August 1989). 148. McAdam, McCarthy and Zald, pp. 716-17. 149. Walsh, "Resource Mobilization," pp. 18-19. 150. "Studenci Szkoly Poi:arniczej: oczekiwalismy rozm6w-Akcja Milicji nas zaskoczyla" (Students of the Firefighters' Academy: We awaited negotiations-the police action took us by surprise), Nowy Dziennik, 2731(8 December 1981) p. 2. 151. Joseph W. Scott and Mohamed El-Assal, "Multiversity, University Size, University Quality and Student Protest: An Empirical Study." American Sociological Review, 34, 5(0ctober 1969) p. 702. Cf. Harold Hodgkinson, "Student Protest: An Institutional and National Profile," The Record, 71, 4(May 1970) pp. 537-55. 152. Ibid., p. 702. 153. "The Port Huron Statement (an edited version)," Socialist Review, 17, 3-4(May-August 1987) p. 138. 154. "Konflikt w Wyi:szej Oficerskiej Szko1e Poi:arnicej" (Conflict at the Firefighters School), Tygodnik Solidarnosi:, 35(27 November 1981) p. 15. 155. "Szturm na szkol~ poi:arnictwa (akcja milicji i wojska)" (Assault on the Firefighters' School [Action of Militia and the Army]), Nowy Dziennik, 2728(3 December 1981) pp. 1 and 12. 156. "Studenci Szkoly Poi:arniczej," Nowy Dziennik, p. 2. 157. "Fire Cadets Join Student Strike at University of Warsaw," Chronicle of Higher Education, 23, 16(16 December 1981) p. 20. 158. "Szturm na szkol~ poi:arnictwa," Nowy Dziennik, pp. 1 and 12. 159. Zmotoryzowane Oddzialy Milicji Obywatelskiej (the motorized units of the militia). Created by Gomulka in 1957. They were infamous in Poland for their brutality. They were full-time professionals whose numbers have been estimated at 25 000--30 000 men and who were considered highly reliable by the regime. They were something like what in the United States are called "tactical police." 160. "Studenci Szkoly Poi:arniczej," Nowy Dziennik, p. 2. 161. "0 strajku w WOSP" (On the Strike at the Firefighters Academy), Strajkowy Serwis Informacyjny UKS UWr. (Wroclaw), 26(9 December 1981) p. 2. 162. The PAP (Polska Agencja Prasowa, or Polish News Agency) reported that about 1000 militiamen and troops participated in the action. "Szturm na Szkol~ Poi:arnictwa," Nowy Dziennik, pp. 1, 12. One firefighter cadet who was there estimated that 1500 soldiers were involved. "0 strajku w WOSP," p. 2. 163. "Szturm na szkol~ poi:arnictwa," Nowy Dziennik, pp. 1 and 12. Notes and References 237

164. "0 strajku w WOSP," Strajkowy Serwis lnformacyjny UKS UWr., pp. 1-2. 165. "Szturm na szkol~ pozarnictwa," Nowy Dziennik, pp. 1, 12. 166. "Studenci Szkoly Pozarniczej," Nowy Dziennik, p. 2. 167. "0 strajku w WOSP," Strajkowy Serwis lnformacyjny UKS UWr., p. 2. 168. "Studenci Szkoly Pozarniczej," Nowy Dziennik, p. 2. 169. "Szturm na szkol~ pozarnictwa," Nowy Dziennik, pp. 1, 12. 170. Note: I received divergent reports on telephone service on that day. 171. Krzysztof Gottesman and Mateusz Wyrwich, "Gaszenie pozaru" (Putting Out the Fire), Tygodnik Solidarnosi:, 37(11 December 1981) p. 6. 172. "Studenci Szkoly Pozarniczej," Nowy Dziennik, p. 2. 173. Ibid. 174. "Szturm na szkol~ pozarnictwa, Nowy Dziennik, pp. 1, 12. 175. "Studenci Szkoly Pozarniczej," Nowy Dziennik, p. 2. 176. Gottesman and Wyrwich, "Gaszenie pozaru," p. 6. 177. Ibid. 178. Krajowa Konferencja Rektor6w Polskich Wyzszych Uczelni (National Conference of University Rectors), "Oswiadczenia" (Statements (from its 6 December 1981 meeting in Warsaw)), Tygodnik Solidarnosi:, 37(11 December 1981) p. 7. 179. Gustaw Moszcz, "From the Prisons of Poland: Two Activists Tell What Happened After Martial Law," Dissent, 30, 1 (Winter 1983) p. 66. 180. Dimitri K. Simes, "Clash Over Poland," Foreign Policy, 46(Spring 1982) p. 52. 181. Moszcz, "From the Prisons of Poland," pp. 57-66. 182. Stefan Amsterdamski (interview by Wieslawa Grochola), "Czego potrzeba szkolom wyzszym? (What do the Universities Need?)," Tygodnik Solidarnosi:, 7(15 May 1981) p. 6. 183. Ibid. 184. Ibid. 185. Ibid. 186. Ibid. 187. Ibid. 188. Ibid. 189. In its Article 137, para. 2, for instance, as quoted in Raina, Poland 1981 p. 161. 190. Raina, Poland 1981 p. 161. 191. Cf. Article 165, para 1, as quoted in Raina, Poland 1981 p. 166. 192. Amsterdamski, "Czego potrzeba szkolom wyzszym?," p. 6. 193. Ibid. 194. Ibid. 195. "U student6w" (Among students), Tygodnik Solidarnosi:, 27(3 October 1981) p. 2. 196. The full text of the draft of the bill to reform the higher education system appears in English translation in Raina, Poland 1981, pp. 105-68. 238 Notes and References

197. Williams, "Poland: The Window to Higher Education in Eastern Europe?," p. 527. 198. "OburzajCJCe poprawki do ustawy," (Outrageous Amendments to the Bill of Higher Education), Nowy Dziennik, 2678(23 September 1981) p. 2. 199. Ibid. 200. "Uchwala KKK NZS z dnia 1.09.1981 w sprawie projektu ustawy o szkolnictwie wyzszym (Resolution of the KKK of the NZS concerning the proposed higher education bill dated 1 September 1981), Tygodnik Solidarnosc, 24(11 September 1981) p. 15. 201. "Komunikat o spotkaniu prymasa polski z delegacja NZS," Tygodnik Solidarnosc, 24(11 September 1981) p. 15. 202. "OburzajCJCe poprawki do ustawy," Nowy Dziennik, p. 2. 203. "U student6w," Tygodnik Solidarnosc, 27, p. 2. 204. "Krakowscy studenci oglosili gotowosc strajkowCJ (Students of Cra• cow proclaim readiness to strike)," Nowy Dziennik, 2680(25 September 1981) p. 3. 205. "Uchwala KKK NZS z dnia 1.09.1981," Tygodnik Solidarnosc, p. 15. 206. Such indexed elections were used to elect rectors at many schools in Poland. At the University of L6dz, for example, the university community was divided up into three groups: Professors, Assistants (somewhat similar to untenured faculty in American universities) and students. Each group was assigned one third of a total of electors. Thus, students would be eligible to vote for the individuals on the roster of student electors. Those chosen would then join the group of electors who would select the rector. This was explained in an interview (INT25) with Agnieszka Romaszewska-Guzy, New Haven, 30 December 1988. 207. Piotr Aleksandrowicz, "Dni rektorskie," (Rector's Days, [holidays]), Nowy Dziennik, 2724(26--27 November 1981) pp. 7, 15. (original in Kultura (Warsaw), 47[1981].) 208. Ibid. 209. Ibid. 210. Ibid. 211. Polish legal term for a paralegal assistant to a judge. In Polish courts, one judge and two lawnicy represent the voice of the community in trials. But, in matters relating to collegiums, the lawnicy preside without a judge. Lawnicy reportedly were often susceptible to pressures from governmental and political officials in making their rulings. This was particularly characteristic of rulings in political cases. 212. Aleksandrowicz, "Dni rektorskie," pp. 7, 15. 213. Ibid. 214. Ibid. 215. Ibid. 216. Ibid. 217. "Strajk w Uczelni" (Strike at College), Tygodnik Solidarnosc, 33(13 November 1981) p. 2. 218. Aleksandrowicz, "Dni rektorskie," pp. 7, 15. Notes and References 239

219. "Brak post~pu w negocjacjach" (Lack of Progress in Negotiations), Nowy Dziennik, 2715(12 November 1981) p. 3. 220. Aleksandrowicz, "Dni rektorskie," pp. 7, 15. 221. "OSwiadczenie KKP NZS" (Statement of the KKK of the NZS), Tygodnik Solidarnosi:, 35(27 November 1981) p. 15. 222. Aleksandrowicz, "Dni rektorskie," pp. 7, 15. 223. "Prezydium KKP (Solidarnosc)," or The Presidium of the (National) Coordinating Committee of Solidarity, Tygodnik Solidarnosi:, 34(20 November 1981) p. 15. 224. "Akcja protestacyjna student6w (Student Protest Action)," Tygodnik Solidarnosi:, 35(27 November 1981) p. 15. 225. Stanistawa Domagalska, "Ping-pong na trzy r~ce" (Ping-pong for three hands), Tygodnik Solidarnosi:, 37(11 December 1981) p. 6. 226. "Studenci kontynuujl} akcj~ protestacyjnq" (Students Continue Their Protest), Nowy Dziennik, 2724(26-27 November 2724) p. 3. 227. "Akcja protestacyjna student6w" (Student Protest Action), Tygodnik Solidarnosi:, 35(27 November 1981) p. 15. 228. Ibid. 229. "Wiec na Politechnice L6dzkiej" (Rally at the L6d:i: Polytechnic), Tygodnik Solidarnosi:, 35(27 November 1981) p. 15. 230. Ibid. 231. "Studenci kontynuujq akcj~ protestacyjnq," Nowy Dziennik, 2724, p. 3. 232. Domagalska, "Ping-pong na trzy r~ce," p. 6. 233. "Konferencja rektor6w" (The Rectors' Meeting), Tygodnik Solidarnosi:, 35(27 November 1981) p. 15. 234. Domagalska, "Ping-pong na trzy r~ce," p. 6. 235. Jerzy Wocial, "WSI-Radom: studium pewnej gry" (WSI-Radom: A Case of A Certain Game), Tygodnik Solidarnosi:, 35(27 November 1981) p. 14. 236. Ibid., p. 6. 237. Prezydium KK i przwodniczqcych zarzqd6w regionalnych NSZZ "Solidarnosc" (National Committee of the NSZZ Solidarnosc and the Chairpersons of the Regional Units of the NSZZ "Solidarnosc"), "Oswiadczenie" (Statement), Tygodnik Solidarnosi:, 37(11 December 1981) p. 6. 238. "Decyzja o strajku" (Decision on Striking), Tygodnik Solidarnosi: 35(27 November 1981) p. 15. 239. Domagalska, "Ping-pong na trzy r~ce," p. 6. 240. Sekcja lnformacyjna Komitetu Strajkowego UMK Torun, (Report of Solidarity's Appeal), Biuletyn strajkowy, 15(28 November 1981) p. 1. 241. Og6lnopolska Konferencja Rektor6w Wyiszych Uczelni (National Conference of Rectors of Polish Colleges and Universities), "Os• wiadczenia" (Statements [from a meeting in Warsaw, 6 December 1981]), Tygodnik Solidarnosi:, 37(11 December 1981) p. 7. 242. Timothy Garton Ash, The Polish Revolution: Solidarity 1980-82 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1983) p. 259. 243. This date was recalled by Sylwester Wojtkowski. 244. Walsh, "Resource Mobilization and Citizen Protest," pp. 18-19. 240 Notes and References

245. Tilly, "Social Movements, Old and New," p. 3. 246. McAdam, McCarthy and Zald, "Social Movements," p. 711. 247. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement, pp. 120--38. 248. Barkan, "lnterorganizational Conflict," pp. 190--209. 249. Walsh, "Resource Mobilization and Citizen Protest," pp. 18-19.

4 How a Small Number of Prior Qandestine Activists Came to Found and Control a Large National Student Movement Organization

I. Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy and Mayer N. Za1d, "Social Movements," in Neil J. Smelser (ed.) Handbook of Sociology (New• bury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1988) p. 708. 2. Ibid. 3. Doug McAdam, Freedom Summer (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988) p. 64. 4. McAdam, McCarthy and Zald, "Social Movements," p. 708. 5. William A. Gamson, Bruce Fireman and Steven Rytina, Encounters with Unjust Authority (Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press, 1982) pp. 86--7. 6. McAdam, McCarthy and Zald, "Social Movements," p. 708. 7. Howard S. Becker, Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (New York: Free Press, 1973) pp. 24-5. 8. John W. C. Johnstone, "Recruitment to a Youth Gang," Youth and Society, 14, 3(March 1983) p. 297. 9. Jacek Czaputowicz, Konjlikty spoleczne w relacji studenci-decydenci w historii PRL (The Social Conflicts Between Students and Decision• Makers in the History of the Polish People's Republic), Master's thesis (Warsaw: Central School for Planning and Statistics, 1986) p. 42. 10. Jan J6zef Lipski, KOR: A History of the Workers' Defense Committee in Poland, 1976-1981, trans. Olga Amsterdamska and Gene M. Moore (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985) p. 200. 11. Ibid., pp. 17, 200. 12. This quote is Czaputowicz, Konflikty spoleczne, p. 42, quoting Lipski, KOR, p. 23. 13. Jan Cywinski, "Niezalezny ruch studencki w latach, 1975-1979" (The Independent Student Movement in the years, 1975-1979), Tygodnik Solidarnosc, 32(6 November 1981) p. 10. 14. Ibid. 15. Ibid. KOR's Intervention Bureau was a group within KOR charged with the formalities of assisting those whom the organization decided to help with legal appeals and related problems and it collected information on repression for sympathetic organizations in the West. Lipski, KOR, p. 173. 16. Cywinski, "Niezalezny ruch studencki w latach, 1975-1979," p. 10. 17. Stefan Kawalec, Demokratyczna opozycja w Polsce: Wydarzenia czerwcowe i rok dialalnosci Komitetu Obrony Robotnikow, (The Democratic Opposition In Poland: The June Events and a Year of KOR Activity), 2nd ed. (Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Glos, 1980) p. 23. Notes and References 241

18. Czaputowicz, Konflikty spoleczne, p. 48. 19. Lipski, KOR p. 64. 20. Cf. Pyotr Verhovensky's career in Fyodor Dostoevsky, The Possessed (New American Library, 1962). 21. Luther P. Gerlach and Virginia H. Hine, "Five Factors Critical to the Growth and Spread of a Modern Religious Movement," Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 7, 1(Spring 1968) p. 33. 22. McAdam, Freedom Summer, p. 44. Cf. Roland Eckert and Helmut Willems, "Youth Protest in Western Europe: Four Case Studies," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 9 (1986) p. 146. 23. McAdam, Freedom Summer, p. 44. 24. Bert Klandermans and Dirk Oegema, "Potentials, Networks, Motiva• tions and Barriers: Steps Towards Participation in Social Move• ments," American Sociological Review, 52, 4(August 1987) p. 520. 25. Bert Klandermans, "Union Action and the Free-rider Dilemma," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 10(1988) p. 77. 26. William A. Gamson, The Strategy of Social Protest (Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press, 1975) p. 65. 27. Klandermans and Oegema, "Potentials, Networks, Motivations and Barriers," p. 520. 28. Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971) p. 63. 29. Eric L. Hirsch, "The Creation of Political Solidarity in Social Move• ment Organizations," Sociological Quarterly, 27, 3(September 1986) p. 374. 30. Hansjorg Siegenthaler, "Organization, Ideology and the Free Rider Problem," Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics, 145 1(March 1989) p. 229. 31. Cf. Michael I. Harrison, "Dimensions of Involvement in Social Movements," Sociological Focus, 10, 4(0ctober 1977) pp. 353-366. 32. Hirsch, "The Creation of Political Solidarity," p. 374. 33. , My!sli nowoczesnego Polaka (Thoughts of a Modern Pole), 3rd ed. (Lw6w: Nakt. Tow. Wydawniczego, 1907). 34. Some of these wary NZS activists belonged to rival oppositionist groups to the KOR associates. Others were cautious about getting the NZS entangled with any other groups. 35. McAdam, McCarthy and Zald, "Social Movements," p. 716. 36. Cf. S. M. Lipset, Agrarian Socialism: The Cooperative Commonwealth Federation in Saskatchewan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1950) p. 196. 37. Peter K. Eisinger, "The Conditions of Protest Behavior in American Cities," American Political Science Review, 67, !(March 1973) p. 11. 38. "Krzyi:6wka z hastem" (Crosswords with a Slogan), Latarnia (Weekly NZS periodical at the Maritime Academy in Gdynia), ([March?]1981) p. 19. 39. Lipski, KOR p. 17. 40. Barbara Wejnert, "The Student Movement in Poland, 1980-1981," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 10(1988) p. 175. 242 Notes and References

41. Ibid., p. 176. 42. Buck Bloombecker, "Of Systems, Solidarity and Struggle," Data• mation, 33, 21(1 November 1987) p. 53. 43. Doug McAdam, "Recruitment to High-Risk Activism: The Case of Freedom Summer," American Journal of Sociology, 92, !(July 1986) p. 66. 44. Andrzej Korybutowicz, Grudzien 1970 (December 1970) (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1983). 45. Lipski, KOR pp. 104--6. 46. Cywinski, "Niezalezny ruch studencki w Iatach, 1975~1979," p. 10. 47. Lipski, KOR, pp. 176 (note 14), 231, 245. 48. Czaputowicz, Konflikty spoleczne, pp. 78~79. Italics added. 49. Robotnik was "a particularly important underground journal" pub• lished by KOR regularly for three years prior to the summer 1980 strikes. Its circulation was about 40,000. It focused on workers' issues and called for genuine unions to replace the official ones which it called "dead institutions." Todd Leventhal, "Poland: The Role of the Press in Political Change," Washington Quarterly, 7, !(Winter 1984) pp. 157~8. Cf. Helga Hirsch, "Unabhangiges Publikationswesen in Polen 1976--1983" (Independent Publication in Poland 1976--1983), Osteuropa, 34, ?(July 1984) p. 518. 50. Jacek Rakowiecki in Jaroslaw Guzy, Jacek Czaputowicz, Jacek Rakowiecki and Lech Lipinski (interview by W ojciech Arkuszewski and Miroslaw Kowalski) "NZS," Tygodnik Solidarnosi:, 9(29 May 1981) p. 14. 51. Maria Halamska, "Peasant Movements in Poland, 1980-1981: State Socialist Economy and the Mobilization of Individual Farmers," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 10(1988) p. 152. 52. Bronislaw Misztal and Barbara A. Misztal, "Democratization Proces• ses as an Objective of New Social Movements," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 10(1988) p. 96. 53. Jaroslaw Guzy in Guzy et al., "NZS", p. 14. 54. Jacek Rakowiecki in Guzy et al., "NZS", p. 14. 55. An excellent study of the contribution of KOR to the odnowa is Werner Mackenbach (ed.) Das KOR und der "polnische Sommer." Analysen, Dokumente, Artikel und Interviews, 1976~1981 (Hamburg: Junius-Verlag, 1982). 56. Lipski, KO R, p. 442. 57. Quoted in "Editorial," Po prostu his (Cracow), 6(April 1981) p. 24. 58. Jerzy Wocial, "WSI-Radom: studium pewnej gry" (WSI-Radom: A study of a Certain Game), Tygodnik Solidarnosi:, 35(27 November 1981) p. 14. 59. Ibid., p. 14. 60. Georg W. Strobel, NSZZ "Solidarnosi:": Beitrag zur politischen Wirkungsanalyse einer sozialen Sammlungsbewegung (The NSZZ Solidarnosi:: A Contribution to the Political Analysis of Effects of Social Mass Movement) (Cologne: Berichte des Bundesinstituts fiir ostwissenschaftliche und internationale Studien, 1983) pp. 19~20; see also NSZZ "Solidarnosc," The Solidarity Congress, 1981: The Great Notes and References 243

Debate, George Sanford (ed. and trans.) (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990). 61. Antoni Rajkiewicz, "Pluralizm zwil}zkowy stat si~ faktem" (The Pluralism of Associations Became Factual [an interview]), Kurier Polski (9-10 January 1981) p. 3, as quoted in Wolf Oschlies, Jugend in Osteuropa (Youth in East Europe), vol. 2, Polens Jugend-Kinder der Solidarity (Poland's Youth: Children of Solidarity) (Cologne: Bohlau, 1982) p. 105. Kurier Polski was a Warsaw daily newspaper published by the Stronnictwo Demokratyczne (SD) (Democratic Party) which was one of three parties allied with, though "claiming" to be independent of, the Communist Party. 62. Wolf Oschlies, '"Verlorene Generation.' Polens Jugend 1980-1984," ('The Lost Generation.' Poland's Youth, 1980-1984), in Dieter Bingen (ed.) Polen 1980-1984, Dauerkrise oder Stabilisierung? (Baden-Baden, FRG: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1985) p. 216. 63. Czaputowicz, Konflikty spoleczne, p. 88. 64. Jan Szczepanski, Higher Education in Eastern Europe (New York: International Council for Educational Development, 1974) pp. 12-13. 65. One of my interviewees, Agnieszka Romaszewska (INT29) was a member of the commission. 66. Strobel, NSZZ "Solidarnosc", p. 21. 67. Dariusz Cecuda, Leksykon opozycji politycznej, 1976-1989 (Warsaw: Biuro Informacji Studenckiej ZSP/TRUST, 1989) pp. 45-6. 68. This tentative beginning, though, was undercut by the Confederation Generate du Travail's (CGT) (an influential Communist-dominated union) acceptance of a rich settlement from the Gaullist government. Bernard E. Brown, Protest in Paris: Anatomy of a Revolt (Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press, 1974) pp. 6-- 7, 13-14, 20-21. 69. Jacek Rakowiecki (presenter), "Rezolucja" (Resolution-by a 24 March 1981 meeting of Jagiellonian University Students), SPIS: systematyczny przeglqd informacji studenckich (Jagiellonian Univers• ity), 4(26 March 1981) p. 2. 70. Maciej Lopinski, Marcin Moskit and Mariusz Wilk. Konspira: Solidarity Underground, trans. Jane Cave (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990). 71. Jacek Czaputowicz in Guzy eta!., "NZS", p. 14. 72. Jarostaw Guzy in Guzy eta!., "NZS", p. 14. 73. More than one thousand dollars. 74. Jarostaw Guzy in Guzy eta!., "NZS", p. 14. 75. "Star marches" involved groups of marching protesters converging on a central locus as if down the arms of a star. 76. For the vicissitudes of the bill look under the section on the Radom strike in Chapter 3. 77. According to Guzy, two representatives of the Wrodaw Solidarity leadership, Szumiejko and Waszkiewicz, who worked in higher education but did not approve of the draft of the Higher Education Bill that the NZS and the OKPN of Solidarity both supported, provided a significant amount of what seemed to be misinformation about the bill to Wat~sa and Solidarity's leadership. They argued, until 244 Notes and References

the Radom Conference, that it was not in harmony with Solidarity's wider interests. 78. John Tagliabue, "Polish Police Fight Protesters as Solidarity and Regime Talk," New York Times, 26 February 1989, p. 19. 79. Comment of Sylwester Wojtkowski, 7 January 1989. 80. Indeed such tee-shirts were sold for 150 zlotys from tables just inside the campus gates of universities. One student who had just purchased one described it to a journalist as communicating "a takeoff on Soviet criticism of Poland." Sonya Za1ubowski, "Poland's Students Flaunt Solidarity T-Shirts but Stick to Their Studies," Christian Science Monitor, 25 June 1981, p. 10. 81. Grzegorz Lindenberg, Zmiana Spoleczna a Swiadomost Polityczna: Dynamika postaw politycznycfz studentow Warszawy 1979-83 (Social Change and Political Consciousness: The Dynamics of Political Attitudes of Warsaw Students, 1979-83) unpublished doctoral disserta• tion accepted in the Institute of Sociology, University of Warsaw, 1985, pp. 169-70. 82. That is, 13 December 1981-21 July 1983. Adam Lopatka, "The Polish People's Republic in Its Fortieth Year of Development," State and Law, 39, 7(July 1984) p. I. 83. Lindenberg, Zmiana Spoleczna a Swiadomost Polityczna, p. 167. 84. Lindenberg credits the former Chairman of the Student Self-govern• ment at the University of Warsaw, Maciej Strzembosz, with providing "extremely helpful" information on this. However, he does not consider the conflicts that student self-governments and the NZS had in evaluating this source of information. 85. Lindenberg, Zmiana Spoleczna a Swiadomost Polityczna, p. 167. 86. Ibid., p. 168. The italics are mine. 87. Ibid., pp. 168-9. 88. Ibid., p. 169. 89. Ibid. 90. Ibid., pp. 169-70. 91. R. L. Schnell, "Expressive and Instrumental Politics in the American Student Movement: The 1930s as a Case Study," Paedagogica Historica, 17, 2(1977) p. 387. 92. Eisinger, "The Conditions of Protest Behavior in American Cities," p. 15. 93. McAdam, McCarthy and Zald, "Social Movements," p. 699. 94. J. Craig Jenkins and Charles Perrow, "Insurgency of the Powerless: Farm Worker Movements (1946-1972)," American Sociological Review, 42, 2(April 1977) pp. 250, 266. 95. Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979) p. 285. 96. McAdam, McCarthy and Zald, "Social Movements," p. 700. 97. Klandermans and Oegema, "Potentials, Networks, Motivations and Barriers," p. 519. 98. Alan Marsh and Max Kaase, "Background of Political Action," in Samuel H. Barnes, Max Kaase, et a!., Political Action: Mass Notes and References 245

Participation in Five Western Democracies (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979) pp. 97-136. 99. Ibid. 100. This metaphor is from Klandermans and Oegema, "Potentials, Net- works, Motivations and Barriers," p. 519. 101. Ibid., p. 520. 102. Wejnert, "The Student Movement in Poland, 1980-1981," p. 176. 103. Klandermans and Oegema, "Potentials, Networks, Motivations and Barriers," p. 520. 104. Misztal and Misztal, "Democratization Processes," p. 96. 105. Oschlies, '"Verlorene Generation,"' p. 216. 106. Lewis S. Feuer, The Conflict of Generations. The Character and Significance of Student Movements (New York: Basic, 1969) p. 8. 107. Eisinger, "The Conditions of Protest Behavior in American Cities," p. 15. 108. Jenkins and Perrow, "Insurgency of the Powerless," pp. 250, 266. 109. Klandermans and Oegema, "Potentials, Networks, Motivations and Barriers," p. 519. 110. Hirsch, "The Creation of Political Solidarity in Social Movement Organizations," p. 382.

5 Theoretical ImpHcations and Conclusions

1. Charles Tilly, "Social Movements, Old and New," Research in Social Movements, Coriflicts and Change: Social Movements as a Factor of Change in the Contemporary World, 10(1988) p. 3. 2. Edward J. Walsh, "Resource Mobilization and Citizen Protest in Communities Around Three Mile Island," Social Problems, 29, !(October 1981) pp. 18-19. 3. J. Stasinska (ed.) Report of the negotiations between the government and Solidarity in early August 1981, AS (abbreviation of Agencja Solidarnosc, the Solidarity press bureau), 27(28 July-4 August 1981) pp. 1-3. 4. David Ost, Solidarity and the Politics of Anti-politics: Opposition and Reform in Poland Since 1968 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990) p. 128. 5. Cf. Todd Gitlin, The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (New York: Bantam, 1987) p. 338. 6. Cf. Karol Jakubowicz, "Musical Chairs? The Three Public Spheres of Poland," Media, Culture and Society, 12, 2(1990) pp. 195-212. 7. Jacek Czaputowicz, Konflikty spoleczne w relacji studenci-decydenci w historii PRL (The Social Conflicts Between Students and Decision• Makers in the History of the Polish People's Republic), Master's thesis (Warsaw: Central School for Planning and Statistics, 1986) p. 42. 8. Jan Jozef Lipski, KOR: A History of the Workers' Defense Committee in Poland, 1976-1981, trans. Olga Amsterdamska and Gene M. Moore (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985) p. 23. 246 Notes and References

9. For a discussion of the importance of such linkages between SMOs see Adrian F. Aveni, "Organizational Linkages and Resource Mobiliza• tion: The Significance of Linkage Strength and Breath," Sociological Quarterly, 19, 2(Spring 1978) pp. 186 et passim. 10. John Tagliabue, "Polish Union Says Yes to Discussing its Legal Status," New York Times, (23 January 1989) pp. A1, A9. 11. Cf. Barttomiej Kaminski, The Collapse of the State Socialism: The Case of Poland (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991). 12. John Tagliabue, "Polish Police Fight Protesters as Solidarity and Regime Talk," New York Times, 26 February 1989, p. 19. 13. Steven E. Barkan, "Interorganizational Conflict in the Southern Civil Rights Movement," Sociological Inquiry, 56, 2(Spring 1986) pp. 190--1. 14. Michael Lipsky, "Protest as a Political Resource," American Political Science Review, 62, 4(December 1968) pp. 1144-58; John D. McCar• thy and Mayer N. Zald, "Resource Mobilization and Social Move• ments: A Partial Theory," American Journal of Sociology, 82, 6(May 1977) pp. 1212-40; John D. McCarthy and Mayer N. Zald, "The Trend of Social Movements in America: Professionalization and Resource Mobilization," in Mayer N. Zald and John D. McCarthy (eds) Social Movements in an Organizational Society (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1987) pp. 337-91; and Gary T. Marx and Michael Useem, "Majority Involvement in Minority Movements: Civil Rights, Abolition, Untouchability," Journal of Social Issues, 27, 1(1971) pp. 81-104.

Appendix 1: Glossary

1. "Powstaje Komunistyczny Zwi<}zek Mlodziezy Polskiej (The Com• munist Association of Polish Youth is formed), Dziennik L6dzki (22 Aprill981), as cited by WolfOschlies, Jugend in Osteuropa (Youth in East Europe), vo. 2: Polens Jugend-Kinder der Solidarity (Poland's Youth: Solidarity's Children) (Cologne: Bohlau, 1982) pp. 108-9.

Appendix 2: Methodology

1. Norman K. Denzin, The Research Act, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw• Hill, 1978) pp. 291-307. 2. Michael Quinn Patton, Qualitative Evaluation Methods (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1980) p. 28. 3. John Lofland, Analyzing Social Settings (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1971) p. 7. 4. Ibid. 5. Patton, Qualitative Evaluation Methods, pp. 28, 36. 6. Douglas R. Berdie and John F. Anderson, Questionnaires: Design and Use (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1974) p. 18. 7. Maurice Punch, The Politics and Ethics of Fieldwork (Beverly Hills, Notes and References 247

CA: Sage, 1986) p. 12. See also Jeffrey C. Johnson, Selecting Ethnographic Informants (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1990). 8. Paul Kecskemeti, The Unexpected Revolution: Social Forces in Hungarian Uprising (Stanford University Press, 1961) p. 7. 9. T. M. F. Smith, "On the Validity of Inferences from Nonrandom Samples," Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A-General, 146, 4(1983) p. 402. 10. This research strategy was employed by Brian C. Aldrich, "Problems and Strategies of Cross-National, Qualitative Research on Social Movements," Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, 17-21 August 1987, Chicago, p. 4. 11. Patton, Qualitative Evaluation Methods, p. 333. 12. Robert Bogdan and Steven J. Taylor, Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods: A Phenomenological Approach to the Social Sciences (New York: Wiley, 1975) p. 41. 13. Amy S. Hubbard, "Social Movements and Social Science: Can Activists and Researchers Work Together?," Annual Meeting of the Society for the Study of Social Problems, 1987, p. 11. 14. Jerome Kirk and Marc L. Miller, Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1986) p. 31. 15. Ibid., p. 32. 16. David Silverman, Qualitative Methodology and Sociology: Describing the Social World (Brookfield, VT: Gower, 1985) p. 160. 17. Claire Selltiz, Marie Jahoda, Morton Deutsch and Stuart W. Cook, Research Methods in Social Relations, rev. ed., (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1959) p. 264. 18. For a discussion and illuminating anecdote on the relative paucity of English speaking people in Poland as contrasted to Western Europe see Piotr Lukasiewicz, "A Polish Sociologist in Finland-Helsinki, Lahti, Tampere; January 1981," in J. P. Roos and Andrzej Sicinski (eds) Ways of Life in Finland and Poland: Comparative Studies on Urban Populations (Brookfield, Vermont: Avebury, 1987) p. 193. 19. Patton, Qualitative Evaluation Methods, p. 29. 20. Wini Breines, Community and Organization in the New Left: 1962-1968: The Great Refusal (New York: Praeger, 1982) p. xiii. 21. Bryan Pfaffenberger, Microcomputer Applications in Qualitative Research (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988) pp. 30--6. 22. For a discussion of the merits of the leading Western European Polish libraries see Christine Nowacki, "The Polish Libraries in Paris and London," Journal of Librarianship, 15, 2(April1983) pp. 87-104. For a discussion of the practical problems in using social science libraries in Poland see A. Sitarska and A. Moczulska, "Central Social Science Research Libraries in Poland: Origins and Selected Problems for Investigation," Social Science Information, 3, 1(1983) pp. 21-31. 23. Ibid, p. xiii. 24. Bronislaw Misztal, "Foreword," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 10(1988) p. x. 25. R. Bivand, "Towards a Geography of'SolidarnosC'," Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 1, 1(1983) p. 402. 248 Notes and References

26. An excellent discussion of the political culture of Poland is Janina Frentzel-Zagorska, "The Dominant Political Culture in Poland," Politics, 20, l(May 1985) pp. 82-98. 27. Rosette C. Lamont, "Dog Meat: Notes From Poland," Dissent, 31, 3(Summer 1984) p. 361. 28. Aldrich, "Problems and Strategies of Cross-National, Qualitative Research," p. 2. 29. David S. Mason, Public Opinion and Political Change in Poland, 1980- 1982 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985) p. 9. 30. Vera Rich, "Harsh Attacks on Academics in Poland Preceded Decision to Outlaw Union," Chronicle of Higher Education, 25, 5(20 October 1982) p. 19. 31. Ibid. 32. Ibid. 33. Ibid. 34. Sue Masterman, "Polish Union's Call for Massive Protests Sparks Brief Campus Demonstrations," Chronicle of Higher Education, 25, 12(17 November 1982) p. 20. A detailed description of the ordeal of Roman Laba is in Jane Kramer, "Letter From Europe," New Yorker, 58, 44(20 December 1982) pp. 106-14. 35. "Poland Deports American Accused of Spying," Chronicle of Higher Education, 25, 14(1 December 1982) p. 18. 36. Vera Rich, "Poland Expels American Lecturer for 'Anti-Socialist Activities,"' Chronicle of Higher Education, 25, 23(16 February 1983) p. 19. 37. Vera Rich, "Polish Communist Party Attacks 'Ideological Alienation' of Youth," Chronicle of Higher Education, 26, 7(13 April 1983) p. 17. 38. Vera Rich, "Head of Physics Institute at Warsaw U., a Moderate, Is Chosen for Rector's Post," Chronicle of Higher Education, 29, 16(12 December 1984) p. 29, 31. 39. Valerian J. Derlega and Ewa Gurnik Stepin, "Norms Regulating Self• Disclosure Among Polish University Students," Journal of Cross• Cultural Psychology, 8, 3(September 1977) pp. 374-375. 40. Cf. Tom W. Smith, "Response to Levine," Contemporary Sociology, 18, 2(March 1989) p. 166. 41. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, ed. Richard D. Heffner, (New York: New American Library, 1956 (orig. 1835 and 1840)). 42. Margaret Watson, "Sociology in Poland," Network, 38(May 1987) p. 4. 43. John Rex, "Foreword," to Jadwiga Koralewicz, Ireneusz Bialecki and Margaret Watson (eds) Crisis and Transition: Polish Society in the 1980s (New York: Berg, 1987) p. l. 44. Adam Podgorecki, Glimpse of a Socialistic Scholar; The Rise, Development and Downfall of the Institute of Social Prevention and Resocialization in Poland: 1972-1976, Department of Sociology and Anthropology Working Paper 84-5. (Ottawa: Carleton University, 1984.) p. 19. Roland Scharff (ed.) Sozialwissenschaften in der Volksre• publik Polen: theoretische Orientierungen, Methoden, Forschungsfelder (Erlangen: Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Zeitgeschichtliche Fragen: Ver- Notes and References 249

trieb, Institut fiir Gesellschaft und Wissenschaft (IGW) an der Universitiit Erlangen-Nurnberg, 1989). 45. Podgorecki, Glimpse of a Socialistic Scholar, p. 19. 46. Ibid., p. 18. 47. Ibid., p. 22. 48. As recounted in Watson, "Sociology in Poland," p. 5. Another discussion of the problems of practicing sociology in Poland is Christopher G. A. Bryant, "Sociology in a Socialist Society: the Case of Poland," in his Sociology in Action: A Critique of Selected Conceptions of the Social Role of the Sociologist (New York: Wiley, 1976) pp. 197-227. 49. Adam Podgorecki, The Case of an Alienated Society and Sociological Profession as an Agent of Macro-social Change, Department of Sociology and Anthropology Working Paper 88-2, (Ottawa: Carleton University, 1988) p. 29. 50. Norman Davies, "The Heart of Europe (an interview)," Polish Perspectives, 31, 3(1988) p. 44. 51. For instance, Howard S. Becker, "Field Methods and Techniques: A Note on Interviewing Tactics," Human Organization, 12, 4(Winter 1954) pp. 31-2. 52. Keith John Lepak, Prelude to Solidarity: Poland and the Politics of the Gierek Regime (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988) p. xiii. 53. Czestaw Mitosz, Native Realm: A Search for Self-Definition, trans. Catherine S. Leach (New York: Doubleday, 1968) p. 104. 54. Breines, Community and Organization in the New Left, p. 19. 55. Zygmunt Gostkowski, "Specjalne kategorie respondent6w i ich postawy wobec wywiad6w i ankiet w Polsce" (Special Categories of Respondents and their Attitudes towards Interviews and Question• naire Surveys in Poland), Przeglpd Socjologiczny, 30(1978) p. 131-41. A summary report of various questionnaires administered on student movements in the USA and West Germany is given in Klaus R. Allerbeck, Soziologie radikaler Studentenbewegungen: Eine verglei• chende Untersuchung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und den Vereinigten Staaten (The Sociology of Radical Student Movements: A Comparative Study in the Federal Republic of Germany and the United States) (Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 1973) pp. 264-8. 56. Denzin, The Research Act, p. 121, discusses this problem though with a focus on research in the American context. 57. Jasper, "Two or Twenty Countries," p. 211. 58. See Howard S. Becker and Blanche Geer, "Participant Observation and Interviewing: A Comparison," Human Organization, 16, 3(1957) pp. 28-32. 59. See Severyn T. Bruyn, The Human Perspective in Sociology (Engle• wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1966) pp. 212-14. 60. Bogdan and Taylor, Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods, p. 53. 61. Jasper, "Two or Twenty Countries," p. 219. 62. Patton, Qualitative Evaluation Methods, p. 22 provides such a con• sideration as an advantage of qualitative methodology. 250 Notes and References

63. Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1978) p. 7. 64. Jeffrey W. Riemer, "Varieties of Opportunistic Research," Urban Life, 5, 4(January 1977) p. 473. 65. Bogdan and Taylor, Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods, p. 37. 66. Krzysztof Nowak, "Covert Repressiveness and the Stability of a Political System: Poland at the End of the Seventies," Social Research, 55, 1-2(Spring-Summer 1988) p. 194. 67. Punch, The Politics and Ethics of Fieldwork, p. 46; and R. Wallis, "The Moral Career of a Research Sociologist," in Colin Bell and Howard Newby (eds) Doing Sociological Research (New York: Free Press, 1977) pp. 149-169. 68. Bogdan and Taylor, Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods, p. 36. 69. Allan J. Kimmel, Ethics and Values in Applied Social Research (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988) p. 94. 70. Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution, p. 6. 71. Jaber Gubrium, Analyzing Field Reality (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988) p. 72. 72. Harry H. Hiller, "A Reconceptualization of the Dynamics of Social Movement Development," Pacific Sociological Review, 18, 3(July 1975) pp. 353-4. 73. Benigno E. Aguirre and E. L. Quarantelli, "Methodological, Ideolo• gical and Conceptual-Theoretical Criticisms of the Field of Collective Behavior: A Critical Evaluation and Implications for Future Study." Sociological Focus, 16, 3(1983) p. 197. Bibliography

Aguirre, Benigno E. and E. L. Quarantelli, "Methodological, Ideological and Conceptual-Theoretical Criticisms of the Field of Collective Behavior: A Critical Evaluation and Implications for Future Study," Sociological Focus, 16, 3(1983) pp. 195-216. Aldrich, Brian C., "Problems and Strategies of Cross-National, Qualitative Research on Social Movements," Paper delivered at the Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association, Chicago, 17-21 August 1987. Aleksandrowicz, Piotr, "Dni rektorskie" (Rector's Days, [holidays]), Nowy Dziennik [New York], 2724(26--27 November 1981) pp. 7, 15. Allerbeck, Klaus R., Soziologie radikaler Studentenbewegungen: Eine verglei• chende Untersuchung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und den Vereinigten Staaten (The Sociology of Radical Student Movements: A Comparative Study in the Federal Republic of Germany and the United States) (Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 1973). Amsterdamski, Stefan, "Czego potrzeba szkolom wyi:szym?" (What do the Universities Need?). (Interview by Wiestawa Grochola), Tygodnik Solidarnosc, 7(15 May 1981) p. 6. Ascherson, Neal, The Polish August: The Self-Limiting Revolution (New York: Viking Press, 1982). Ash, Timothy Garton, The Polish Revolution: Solidarity 1980-82 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1983). Aveni, Adrian F., "Organizational Linkages and Resource Mobilization: The Significance of Linkage Strength and Breath," Sociological Quarterly, 19, 2(Spring 1978) pp. 185-202. Bakuniak, Grzegorz and Krzysztof Nowak, "The Creation of a Collective Identity in a Social Movement: The Case of 'Solidarnosc,'" Theory and Society, 16, 3(May 1987) pp. 401-29. Banas, Josef, The Scapegoats: The Exodus of the Remnants of Polish Jewry, trans. Tadeusz Szafar (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1979). Baranczak, Stanislaw, "The Polish Intellectual," Salmagundi, nos. 70--1 (Spring-Summer 1986) pp. 217-33. Barkan, Steven E., "Interorganizational Conflict in the Southern Civil Rights Movement," Sociological Inquiry, 56, 2(Spring 1986) pp. 190--209. Basta, Alicja, "Przesilenie" (Turning Point), Perspektywy, (13 February 1981) p. 6--7. Becker, HowardS., "Field Methods and Techniques: A Note on Interviewing Tactics," Human Organization, 12, 4(Winter 1954) pp. 31-2. Becker, Howard S., Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (New York: Free Press, 1973). Becker, Howard S. and Blanche Geer, "Participant Observation and Interviewing: A Comparison," Human Organization, 16, 3(1957) pp. 28-32. Berdie, Douglas R. and John F. Anderson, Questionnaires: Design and Use (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1974).

251 252 Bibliography

Bielinski, Konrad, "The Report of Konrad Bielinski, 10 April 1979," in "Documents Concerning Acts of Violence by Gangs of the Socialist Union of Polish Students (SZSP): The Case of Henryk Wujec," in Prologue to Gdansk: A Report on Human Rights by the Polish Helsinki Watch Committee, edited by Polish Helsinki Watch Committee and Co-workers of the Intervention Bureau of the Social Self-Defense Committee "KOR," pp. 119-121 (New York: U.S. Helsinki Watch Committee, 1980). Bielski, M., "Do Krakowa przyjechal minister" (The Minister Came to Cracow), ltd., 42(19 October 1980). Bingen, Dieter, "Polen 1982-1984: Verschiirfung der Krise oder Stabilisier• ung?" (Poland 1982-1984: The Worsening of the Crisis or Stabilization?), in Polen 1980-1984, Dauerkrise oder Stabilisierung?, edited by Dieter Bingen (Baden-Baden, FRG: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1985) pp. 345-95. . Editorial. June 1977 p. 96. Biuletyn Niezaleinego Zrzeszenia Student6w, "Po Co Komu Nowa Organi• zacja" (Why do We Need a New Organization?) 1(1 October 1980) pp. 1-4. Bivand, R., "Towards a Geography of 'Solidarnosc," Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 1, 1(1983) pp. 397-404. Blazynski, George, Flashpoint Poland (New York: Pergamon Press, 1979). Bloombecker, Buck, "Of Systems, Solidarity and Struggle," Datamation, 33, 21(1 November 1987) pp. 47-8ff. Bogdan, Robert and Steven J. Taylor, Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods: A Phenomenological Approach to the Social Sciences (New York: Wiley, 1975). Bonasegna, Cristina, "Under Military Rule in Argentina, 'U. of the Catacombs' Flourishes," Chronicle of Higher Education, 26, 24(10 August 1983) pp. 1, 13. Borowski, Gustaw J. and Wieslaw Wisniewski, "Factors Related to Students' Voluntary Social Work," Polish Sociological Bulletin, 1-2, 27-8(1973) pp. 87-100. Boudon, Raymond, "La crise universitaire fran<;aise: Essai de diagnostic sociologique" (The French University Crisis: A Sociological Diagnostic Essay]," Annales, 24, 3(May-June 1969) p. 742. Bratniak, "3 Maja-Gdansk," 23(May-June 1980) pp. 7-11. Breines, Wini, Community and Organization in the New Left: 1962-1968: The Great Refusal (New York: Praeger, 1982). Brown, Bernard E., Protest in Paris: Anatomy of a Revolt (Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press, 1974). Brus, Wlodzimierz, The Market in a Socialist Economy (Og6lne problemy funkcjonowania gospodarki socjalistycznej [1961]), trans. Angus Walker (Boston: Routledge and K. Paul, 1972). Bruyn, Severyn T., The Human Perspective in Sociology (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1966). Bryant, Christopher G. A., "Sociology in a Socialist Society: the Case of Poland," in Sociology in Action: A Critique of Selected Conceptions of the Social Role of the Sociologist by the author (New York: Wiley, 1976) pp. 197-227. Brzezinski, Zbigniew, "Poland: A Political Glimpse," Problems of Comm• unism, 6, 5(September--October 1957) pp. 26--30. Bibliography 253

Buczynska-Garewicz, Hanna, "The Flying University in Poland, 1978-1980," Harvard Education Review, 55, l(February 1985) pp. 20-33. Cecuda, Dariusz, Leksykon opozycji polityr;znej, 1976-1989 (Warsaw: Biuro Informacji Studenckiej ZSP/TRUST, 1989). Chronicle of Higher Education, "Fire Cadets Join Student Strike at University of Warsaw," 23, 16(16 December 1981) p. 20. Chronicle of Higher Education, "Poland Deports American Accused of Spying," 25, 14(1 December 1982) p. 18. Chronicle of Higher Education, "Polish Students Demand Independence for Students," 21, 21(2 February 1981) p. 19. Chronicle of Higher Education, "Wladyslaw Bartoszewski, a Polish Hist• orian ... Lecturing at a 'Flying University,"' 19, 14(3 December 1979) p. 9. Chwastyk, Jola, "0 sejmiku" (On a Meeting) 0 co chodzi? (Wroclaw Polytechnic NZS) 12 December 1980, p. 2. Cislo, Maciej, "Prohibity" (Prohibited), Wir;i, 6(1981) pp. 155-8. Cohen, Marjorie, "Poland's Future: An Interview with Henryk Flakierski," Canadian Forum, 60, 706(February 1981) p. 6. Curry, Jane Leftwich (ed. and trans.) The Black Book of Polish Censorship (New York: Vintage Books, 1984). Curtis, Russell and Louis A. Zurcher, "Stable Resources of Protest Move• ments: The Multi-Organizational Field," Social Forces, 52, !(September 1973) pp. 53-61. Cywinski, Jan, "Niezalei:ny ruch studencki w latach, 1975-1979" (The Independent Student Movement in the years, 1975-1979)," Tygodnik Solidarnosl: 32(6 November 1981) p. 10. Cywinski, Jan, "The Report of Jan Cywinski, 10 April1979," in "Documents Concerning Acts of Violence by Gangs of the Socialist Union of Polish Students (SZSP): The Case of Henryk Wujec," in Prologue to Gdansk: A Report on Human Rights by the Polish Helsinki Watch Committee, edited by Polish Helsinki Watch Committee and Co-workers of the Intervention Bureau of the Social Self-Defense Committee "KOR," pp. 121-2 (New York: U.S. Helsinki Watch Committee, 1980). Cywinski, Jan, "W rocznic~ wydarzen marcowych" (The Anniversary of the March Events), Wir;i, 276(April 1981) pp. 148-50. Czaputowicz, Jacek, "Petition to the Minister of Science, Higher Education and Technology for the revocation of the Decree of the Minister of Higher Education of March 17, 1960 (September 30, 1980)," in Rejestracja Niezaleinego Zrzeszenia Student6w: dokumenty, compiled by Czaputowicz and edited by Glowacki (1981, see below) p. 4. Czaputowicz, Jacek, "Komentarz" (Commentary)," in Rejestracja Niezalei• nego Zrzeszenia Student6w: dokumenty (The Registration of the Indepen• dent Student Association: Documents), compiled by Jacek Czaputowicz and edited by Henryk Glowacki, passim (Warsaw: SOWA, Studencka Oficyna Wydawnicza, 1981). Czaputowicz, Jacek, Konjlikty spoleczne w relacji studenci-decydenci w historii PRL (The Social Conflicts Between Students and Decision-Makers in the History of the Polish People's Republic), unpublished master's thesis (Warsaw: Central School for Planning and Statistics, 1986). 254 Bibliography

Czaputowicz, Jacek, Teodor Klincewicz and Krzysztof Osinski, Wniosek o zarejestrowanie organizacji studenckiej (Petition to Register a Student Organization) (16 January 1981) in Jacek Czaputowicz, in Rejestracja Niezaleinego Zrzeszenia Student6w: dokumenty, compiled by Czaputowicz and edited by Gtowacki (1981) p. 4. Czuma, Elzbieta, "Deklaracja Studenckiego Komitetu Solidarnosci" (De• claration of the Student Solidarity Committee), Bratniak, 8-9(May-June 1978) pp. 26--7. Czyzewski, Marek, Andrzej Piotrowski and Wlodzimierz A. Rostocki, "Analiza interakcji strategicznej: pr6ba zastosowania do opisu negocjac• ji" (Analysis of a Strategic Interaction: A Try at the Use of Negotiation Transcription), in Z metodologii i metodyki sociologicznych badan terenowych, 8, edited by Krystyna Lutynska (Warsaw: Polish Academy of Science, Institute of Philosophy and Sociology, 1985) pp. 85-98. Davidson, Spencer, "A Fire in the Country," Time (9 February 1981) pp. 3o--l. Davies, Norman, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 2: 1795 to the Present (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982). Davies, Norman, "The Heart of Europe" (an interview)," Polish Perspect• ives, 31, 3(1988) pp. 42-6. D~bski, Wieslaw, "Z badan w srodowisku studenckim: Kiedy stereotypy zast~pujl} wlasne przemyslenia" (From a Survey of the Student Commun• ity: When Stereotypes Replace Self-perception), Trybuna Ludu, 35, 225(22 September 1982) p. 3. Degenhardt, Henry W., "Poland," in Political Dissent: An International Guide to Dissident, Extra-Parliamentary, Guerrilla and Illegal Political Movements (Detroit: Gale Research Co., 1983) pp. 19-32. Denzin, Norman K., The Research Act, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978. Derlega, Valerian J. and Ewa Gurnik Stepin, "Norms Regulating Self• Disclosure Among Polish University Students," Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 8, 3(September 1977) pp. 369-76. de Weydenthal, Jan B., "Workers and Party in Poland," Problems of Communism, 29, 6(November-December 1980) pp. 1-22. de Weydenthal, Jan B., Bruce D. Porter and Kevin Devlin, The Polish Drama: 1980-1982 (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1983). Djilas, Milovan, The New Class: An Analysis of the Communist System (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1957. Dmowski, Roman, Mysli nowoczesnego Polaka (Thoughts of a Modern Pole), 3rd ed. (Lw6w: Nakl. Tow. Wydawniczego, 1907). Domagalska, Stanislawa, "Ping-pong na trzy r~ce" (Ping-pong for three hands), Tygodnik Solidarnosc, 37(11 December 1981) p. 6. Dostoyevsky, Fyodor, The Possessed (New York: New American Library, 1962. Dyk, Piotr, et al., "Deklaracja Studenckiego Komitetu Solidarnosci wyzs• zych uczelni Tr6jmiasta" (Declaration of Student Solidarity Committee of the Tri-City Universities), Indeks, 2(November 1977) p. 20. Dziewicka, Maria, "The report of Prof. Maria Dziewicka, 28 April 1979," in "Documents Concerning Acts of Violence by Gangs of the Socialist Union Bibliography 255

of Polish Students (SZSP): The Case of Henryk Wujec," in Prologue to Gdansk: A Report on Human Rights by the Polish Helsinki Watch Committee, edited by Polish Helsinki Watch Committee and Co-workers of the Intervention Bureau of the "KOR," (New York: U.S. Helsinki Watch Committee, 1980) pp. 118-19. Eckert, Roland and Helmut Willems, "Youth Protest in Western Europe: Four Case Studies," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 9(1986) pp. 127-53. Eisinger, Peter K., "The Conditions of Protest Behavior in American Cities," American Political Science Review, 67, l(March 1973) pp. 11-28. Feuer, Lewis S., The Conflict of Generations. The Character and Significance of Student Movements (New York: Basic, 1969). Flis, Andrzej, "Crisis and Political Ritual in Postwar Poland," Problems of Communism, 37, 3-4(May-August 1988) pp. 43-54. Frentzel-Zagorska, Janina, "The Dominant Political Culture in Poland," Politics, 20, l(May 1985) pp. 82-98. Friszke, Andrzej, "Autonomia, samorz~Jdnosc, wspolnota: Rozmowa z przed• stawicielami NZS" (Autonomy, Self-governing, Community: A Conversa• tion with the representatives of the NZS), WifZ, 276(April1981) pp. 76-90. Friszke, Andrzej, "Strajk studencki" (The Student Strike)," Wifi, 276(April 1981) pp. 143-8. Gabrielski, Stanislaw, "Address to the Meeting of the SZSP in Uniejow," ltd., 39(28 September 1980). Gamson, William A., "Introduction," to Social Movements in an Organiza• tional Society, edited by Mayer N. Zald and John D. McCarthy (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1987) pp. 1-7. Gamson, William A., The Strategy of Social Protest (Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press, 1975). Gamson, William A., Bruce Fireman and Steven Rytina, Encounters with Unjust Authority (Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press, 1982). Gerlach, Luther P. and Virginia H. Hine, "Five Factors Critical to the Growth and Spread of a Modern Religious Movement," Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 7, !(Spring 1968) p. 23-40. Gitlin, Todd, The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (New York: Bantam, 1987). Got~biowski, Edward and Stanistawa Jarecka-Kimlowska (eds) Zwipzek Mlodzieiy Wiejkiej RP "Wici": W walce o postfp i sprawiedliwos/:: Wybor dokumentow, 1928-1948 (Rural Youth Union of the Polish Republic 'Wici': In the Struggle for Progress and Social Justice: Selected Documents) (Warsaw: Ludowa Spotdzielnia Wydawnicza, 1978). Gorski, J., "Rozporz~Jdzenie Ministra Nauki Szkolnictwa Wyi:szego i Techniki, z dnia 18 grudnia 1980 r., w sprawie organizacji studenckich," Dziennik Ustaw, no. 1, item 3 (14 January 1981) pp. 3-4. Gorski, Janusz and the OKZ of the NZS, joint communique, (28 November 1980 [assumed]), in Rejestracja Niezaleznego Zrzeszenia Studentow: dokumenty, compiled by Czaputowicz and edited by Glowacki (1981) p. 8. Gostkowski, Zygmunt, "Specjalne kategorie respondentow i ich postawy wobec wywiadow i ankiet w Polsce" (Special Categories of Respondents 256 Bibliography

and their Attitudes towards Interviews and Questionnaire Surveys in Poland), Przeg/pd Socjo/ogiczny, 30(1978) pp. 131-41. Gottesman, Krzysztof and Mateusz Wyrwich, "Gaszenie poi:aru" (Putting out the Fire), Tygodnik Solidarnosi:, 37(11 December 1981) p. 6. Gubrium, Jaber, Analyzing Field Reality (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988). Guzy, Jaroslaw, Jacek Czaputowicz, Jacek Rakowiecki and Lech Lipinski (interview by Wojciech Arkuszewski and Miroslaw Kowalski), "NZS," Tygodnik Solidarnosi:, 9(29 May 1981) p. 14. Hajnicz, Artur, "Sprawozdane z prac XI komisji zjazdowej: zwi

Hodgkinson, Harold, "Student Protest: An Institutional and National Profile," The Record, 71, 4(May 1970) pp. 537-55. Holzer, Jerzy, Solidarnosc 1980-1981: geneza i historia (Solidarity 1980- 1981: Genesis and History), Biblioteka "Kultury" (Kultura Library) series, 387 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1984). Hubbard, Amy S., "Social Movements and Social Science: Can Activists and Researchers Work Together?", annual meeting of the Society for the Study of Social Problems, 1987). Indeks, "Wiadomosci studenckie: w Krakowie" (Student News: Cracow) 2(November 1977) p. 4. Indeks, "Wiadomosci studenckie: w Warszawie" (Student News: Cracow) 2(November 1977) p. 4. Irwin-Zarecka, Iwona, Neutralizing Memory: The Jew in Contemporary Poland (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1989). ltd., Editorial, 39(28 September 1980). ltd., Editorial, 41(12 October 1980). ltd., "Odliczanie" (The Countdown)," 41(12 October 1980). Jakubowicz, Karol, "Musical Chairs? The Three Public Spheres of Poland," Media, Culture and Society, 12, 2(1990) pp. 195-212. Jarecka, Stanistawa, "Postawy Mtodziezy Wiejskiej w 25-Leciu PRL," in Mlodziez w 25-Leciu PRL: Materialy Konferencji Historyk6w Ruchu Mlodziezowego, Lublin 16-17 Grudnia 1969 (Youth in the 25 Years of the PRL: Proceedings of the Youth Movement Historians' Conference, Lublin 16-17 December 1969), edited by Marian Malinowski (Warsaw: Iskry, 1973) pp. 47-65. Jarecka-Kimlowska, Stanistawa, Zwiqzek Mlodziezy Wiejskiej 'Wici': Walka o oblicze ideowe i nowy model organizacyjny 1944-1948 (Rural Youth Union "Wici": Struggle for an ideological program and a new organizational model, 1944-1948) (Warsaw: Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1972). Jasper, James M., "Two or Twenty Countries: Contrasting Styles of Comparative Research," Comparative Social Research, 10(1987) pp. 205- 29. Jedlicki, Witold, "The Crooked Circle Club," in Poland Since 1956, edited by Tadeusz N. Cieplak, (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1972) pp. 120--9. Jenkins, J. Craig and Charles Perrow, "Insurgency of the Powerless: Farm Worker Movements (1946--1972)," American Sociological Review, 42, 2(April 1977) pp. 249-68. Johnson, Jeffrey C. Selecting Ethnographic Informants (Newbury Park, CA: Sage 1990). Johnstone, John W. C., "Recruitment to a Youth Gang," Youth and Society, 14, 3(March 1983) p. 281-300. Jones, Anthony (ed.) Professions and the State: Expertise and Autonomy in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990). Kaminski, Bartolomiej, The Collapse of the State Socialism: the Case of Poland (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991). Kaniewska, Irena, "Les etudiants de l'Universite de Cracovie aux XVe et XVIe siecles (1433-1560)," in Les universites europeennes du XV/e au 258 Bibliography

XVIlle siecle: Historie sociale des populations etudiantes, vol. 1: Boheme, Espagne, Etats italiens, Pays germaniques, Pologne, Provinces-Unies, edited by Dominique Julia, Jacques Revel and Roger Chartier (Paris: Editions de l'Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, 1986) pp. 113-27. Kassow, Samuel D., Students, Professors and the State in Tsarist Russia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). Katsiaficas, George, The Imagination of the The New Left: A Global Analysis of 1968 (Boston: South End Press, 1987). Kawalec, Stefan, Demokratyczna opozycja w Polsce: Wydarzenia czerwcowe i rok dialalnosci Komitetu Obrony Robotnikow, (The Democratic Opposition In Poland: The June Events and a Year of KOR Activity), 2nd ed. (Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Glos, 1980). Kecskemeti, Paul, The Unexpected Revolution: Social Forces in Hungarian Uprising (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961). Kemp-Welch, A. (ed. and trans.), The Birth of Solidarity, 2nd ed. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991). Kennedy, Michael D., Professionals, Power, and Solidarity in Poland: A Critical Sociology of Soviet-type Society (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990). Kersten, Krystyna, Narodziny systemu wladzy: Polska 1943-1948 (The Birth of the Political System: Poland 1943-1948) (Paris: Libella, 1986). Kibre, Pearl, Scholarly Privileges in the Middle Ages: The Rights, Privileges and Immunities, of Scholars and Universities at Bologna, Padua, Paris and Oxford (Cambridge, MA: Mediaeval Academy of America, 1962). Kibre, Pearl, The Nations in the Mediaeval Universities (Cambridge, MA: Mediaeval Academy of America, 1948). Kimmel, Allan J., Ethics and Values in Applied Social Research (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988). Kirk, Jerome and Marc L. Miller, Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1986). Klandermans, Bert, "Union Action and the Free-rider Dilemma," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 10(1988) p. 77-91. Klandermans, Bert and Dirk Oegema, "Potentials, Networks, Motivations and Barriers: Steps Towards Participation in Social Movements," Amer• ican Sociological Review, 52, 4(August 1987) pp. 519-31. Kolakowski, Leszek, Kultura ifetysze: zbior rozpraw (Culture and Fetishes) (Warsaw: PWN, 1967). Komisja Programowa Towarzystwa Kurs6w Naukowych, "Oswiadczenie" (Statement of 2 March 1978), Bratniak: Pismo Ruchu Mlodej Polski, 6- 7(March-April 1978) pp. 28-9. Komisja Rewizyjna NZS Univwersytetu Jagiellonskiego (Report on the Jagiellonian University Strike Committee's Handling of the L6dz Support Strike), Donosiciel: lnformator NZS UJ (Stool Pigeon) 1(5 March 1981) pp. 2-3. Korybutowicz, Andrzej, Grudzien 1970 (December 1970) (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1983). Kostecki, Marian J. and Krzysztof Mrela, "Workers and Intelligentsia in Poland: During the Hot Days and In Between," Media, Culture and Society, 4, 3(1982) pp. 225-41. Bibliography 259

Kourdakov, Sergei, The Persecutor (Carmel, New York: Fleming Revell, 1974). Krajowa Konferencja Rektor6w Polskich Wyi:szych Uczelni (National Conference of University Rectors), "Oswiadczenia" (Statements from its December 6, 1981 meeting in Warsaw), Tygodnik Solidarnosc, 37(11 December 1981) p. 7. Kramer, Jane, "Letter From Europe (Arrest of American Doctoral Stu• dent}," New Yorker, 58, 44(20 December 1982) pp. 106-14. "Krzyi:6wka z haslem" (Crosswords with a Slogan), Latarnia (Weekly NZS periodical at the Maritime Academy in Gdynia) ([March?] 1981) p. 20. Kub6w, Stefan, "Publications on the History of Books and Libraries in Poland, 1981-1988,"Libraries and Culture, 25, !(Winter 1990) pp. 48-72. Kuczynski, Pawel and Krzysztof Nowak, "The Solidarity Movement in Relation to Society and the State: Communication as an Issue of Social Movement," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 10(1988) pp. 127-45. Lamont, Rosette C., "Dog Meat: Notes From Poland," Dissent, 31, 3(Summer 1984) pp. 359-61. Lepak, Keith John, Prelude to Solidarity: Poland and the Politics of the Gierek Regime (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988). Leventhal, Todd, "Poland: The Role of the Press in Political Change," Washington Quarterly, 7, !(Winter 1984) pp. 157-60. Lindenberg, Grzegorz, Zmiana Spoleczna a Swiadomosc Polityczna: Dyna• mika postaw politycznych student6w Warszawy 1979-83 (Social Change and Political Consciousness: The Dynamics of Political Attitudes of Warsaw Students, 1979-83). Ph.D. diss. (Warsaw: Institute of Sociology, University of Warsaw, 1985). Lipset, Seymour Martin, Agrarian Socialism: The Cooperative Common• wealth Federation in Saskatchewan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1950. Lipset, S.M., "Students and Politics in Comparative Perspective," Daedalus, 97, !(Winter 1968) pp. 1-20. Lipski, Jan J6zef, KOR: A History of the Workers' Defense Committee in Poland, 1976-1981, trans. Olga Amsterdamska and Gene M. Moore (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985). Lipsky, Michael, "Protest as a Political Resource," American Political Science Review, 62, 4(December 1968) pp. 1144-58. Lofland, John, Analyzing Social Settings (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1971). Lopatka, Adam, "The Polish People's Republic in Its Fortieth Year of Development," State and Law, 39, ?(July 1984) p. 1. Lopinski, Maciej, Marcin Moskit and Mariusz Wilk, Konspira: Solidarity Underground, trans. Jane Cave (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990). Lukasiewicz, Piotr, "A Polish Sociologist in Finland-Helsinki, Lahti, Tampere; January 1981," in Ways of Life in Finland and Poland: Comparative Studies on Urban Populations, edited by J. P. Roos and Andrzej Sicinski (Brookfield, Vermont: Avebury, 1987) pp. 191-203. Lutynska, Krystyna, "Strajk student6w 1981 w opinii publicznej mieszkan• c6w Lodzi" (The Student Strike of 1981 in the Opinion of L6dz 260 Bibliography

Inhabitants) (Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Philosophy and Sociology, 1982). Unpublished paper. Mackenbach, Werner (ed.) Das KOR und der "polnische Sommer," Analysen, Dokumente, Artikel und Interviews, 1976-1981 (Hamburg: Junius-Verlag, 1982). Malanowski, Jan, Polscy Robotnicy (Poland's Workers) (Warsaw: Ksiai:ka i Wiedza, 1981). Maleszka, Leslaw, "0 utworzeniu SKS w Warszawie" (On the Founding of the SKS in Warsaw), Indeks, 2(November 1977) pp. 2-3. Marrou, H. 1., A History of Education in Antiquity, trans. George Lamb (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1956). Marsh, Alan and Max Kaase, "Background of Political Action," in Political Action: Mass Participation in Five Western Democracies edited by Samuel H. Barnes, Max Kaase, et al. (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979) pp. 97-136. Marx, Gary T. and Michael Useem, "Majority Involvement in Minority Movements: Civil Rights, Abolition, Untouchability," Journal of Social Issues, 27, 1(1971) pp. 81-104. Mason, David S., Public Opinion and Political Change in Poland, 1980-1982 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985). Mason, DavidS., "Solidarity as a New Social Movement," Political Science Quarterly, 104, !(Spring 1989) pp. 41-58. Masterman, Sue. "Poland's Universities Reopen Peacefully as Students, Teachers Gain Concessions," Chronicle of Higher Education, 21, 8(14 October 1980) pp. 1, 21. Masterman, Sue, "Polish Academics Carry on Subsurface Resistance," Chronicle of Higher Education, 27, 17 (4 January 1984) p. 27. Masterman, Sue, "Polish Government Recognizes Students' Union," Chro• nicle of Higher Education, 22, 1(23 February 1981) p. 15. Masterman, Sue, "Polish Students Halt Demonstrations After Signing Pact with Government," Chronicle of Higher Education, 22, 2(2 March 1981) p. 17. Masterman, Sue, "Polish Students Seek Right to Unionize, Press Demands for University Autonomy," Chronicle of Higher Education, 21, 14(24 November 1980) p. 21. Masterman, Sue, "Polish Union's Call for Massive Protests Sparks Brief Campus Demonstrations," Chronicle of Higher Education, 25, 12(17 November 1982) p. 20. Masterman, Sue, "10,000 Students Join Protests in Poland; Workers' Union Won't Support Demands," The Chronicle of Higher Education, 21, 22(9 February 1981) p. 16. McAdam, Doug, Freedom Summer (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988). McAdam, Doug, "Recruitment to High-Risk Activism: The Case of Free• dom Summer," American Journal of Sociology, 92, 1 (July 1986) pp. 64-90. McAdam, Doug, John D. McCarthy and Mayer N. Zald, "Social Move• ments," in Handbook of Sociology, edited by Neil J. Smelser (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1988) pp. 695-737. McCarthy, John D. and Mayer N. Zald, "Resource Mobilization and Social Bibliography 261

Movements: A Partial Theory," American Journal of Sociology, 82, 6(May 1977) pp. 1212--40. McCarthy, John D. and Mayer N. Zald, "The Trend of Social Movements in America: Professionalization and Resource Mobilization, in Social Move• ments in an Organizational Society, edited by Mayer N. Zald and John D. McCarthy (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1987) pp. 337-91. Melucci, Alberto, "An End to Social Movements? Introductory Paper to the Sessions on 'New Movements and Change in Organizational Forms," Social Science Information, 23, 4--5(1984) pp. 819-35. Michnik, Adam, "0 ideologii marca 1968" (On the Ideology of March 1968), an interview by Leslaw Maleszka, Indeks, 6(March-April 1979) pp. 59-62. Michta, Andrew A., Red Eagle: The Army in Polish Politics, 1944-1988 (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1990). Mickiewicz, Adam, Forefathers' Eve, trans. Dorothea Prall Radin (London: School of Slavonic Studies, University of London, King's College, 1925). Milosz, Czeslaw, Native Realm: A Search for Self-Definition, trans. Catherine S. Leach (New York: Doubleday, 1968). Misztal, Bronislaw, "Foreword," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 10(1988) pp. ix-x. Misztal, Bronislaw and Barbara A. Misztal, "Democratization Processes as an Objective of New Social Movements," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 10 (1988) pp. 93-106. Mond, Georges H., "La universidad y el movimiento estudiantil en Polonia" (The University and the Student Movement in Poland), Revista de Estudios Sociales, 7 (January-April 1973) pp. 11-60. Mond, George, "Transformation du modele polonais actuel entre la censure and la liberte d'expression" (Transformation of the present Polish model: Censorship versus Freedom of Expression), Revue D'Etudes Comparatives Est-Ouest, 13, 1(March 1982) pp. 63-82. Morgiewicz, Emil, "Amnesty International," interview by Sergiusz Kowalski, Indeks, 2(November 1977) pp. 15-18. Morris, Aldon D., The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change (New York: Free Press, 1984). Moszcz, Gustaw, "From the Prisons of Poland: Two Activists Tell What Happened After Martial Law," Dissent, 30, 1 (Winter 1983) pp. 56--74. Mueller, Carol McClurg, "Collective Consciousness, Identity Transforma• tion and the Rise of Women in Public Office in the United States," in The Women's Movements of the United States and Western Europe: Conscious• ness, Political Opportunity and Public Policy, edited by Mary Fainsod Katzenstein and Carol McClurg Mueller (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987) pp. 89-108. Nawrocki, Ireneusz, "Nie moze bye straconego pokolenia," Trybuna Ludu, 29-30 May 1982 p. 6. Niezaleznego Zrzeszenia Student6w, Og6lnopolski Komitet Zalozycielski (Independent Students' Association, National Founding Committee), "Wniosek o zarejestrowanie" (Application for Registration)," in Rejestrac• ja Niezaleznego Zrzeszenia Studentow: dokumenty, compiled by Czaputo• wicz and edited by Glowacki (1981) p. 3. 262 Bibliography

Niezalei:ne Zrzeszenie Student6w, "Niezalei:nego Zrzeszenia Student6w Statut'' (Charter of the Independent Student Association)," in Rejestracja Niezaleznego Zrzeszenia Studentow: dokumenty, compiled by Czaputowicz and edited by Glowacki pp. 27-30. Noblit, George W. and R. Dwight Hare, Meta-Ethnography: Synthesizing Qualitative Studies (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988). Nowacki, Christine, "The Polish Libraries in Paris and London," Journal of Librarianship, 15, 2(April 1983) pp. 87-104. Nowak, Krzysztof, "Covert Repressiveness and the Stability of a Political System: Poland at the End of the Seventies," Social Research, 55, 1- 2(Spring-Summer 1988) pp. 179-208. Nowy Dziennik, "Brak postypu w negocjacjach" (Lack of Progress in Negotiations), 2715(12 November 1981) p. 3. Nowy Dziennik, "Krakowscy studenci oglosili gotowosc strajkow~J" (Students of Cracow proclaim readiness to strike), 2680(25 September 1981) p. 3. Nowy Dziennik, "Masowe Czystki w Partii: Studenci i:~Jdaj~J powrotu rektora" (Mass Purges in the Party: Students Demands Return of the University Rector), 2826(23-24 April 1982), pp. 1, 16. Nowy Dziennik, "Oburzaj~Jce poprawki do ustawy," (Outrageous Amend• ments to the Bill of Higher Education),' 2678(23 September 1981) p. 2. Nowy Dziennik, "Studenci kontynuuj~J akcjy protestacyjn~J" (Students continue their protest), 2724(26-27 November) p. 3. Nowy Dziennik, "Studenci Szkoly Poi:amiczej: oczekiwalismy rozm6w-akcja Milicji nas zaskoczyla" (Firefighters' Academy Students: We Awaited Negotiations; the Police Action Took Us by Surprise), 2731(8 December 1981) p. 2. Nowy Dziennik, "Szturm na szkoly poi:amictwa (akcja milicji i wojska)" (Assault on the Firefighters' School (Action of Militia and the Army]),'' 2728(3 December 1981) pp. 1, 12. NSZZ "Solidamosc," The Solidarity Congress, 1981: The Great Debate, George Sanford, ed. and trans. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990). NZS Congress, Resolution, November 22-23, 1980, Warsaw, in Rejestracja Niezaleznego Zrzeszenia Studentow: dokumenty, compiled by Czaputowicz and edited by Glowacki p. 7. Obituary notice for the SZSP, Latarnia (Weekly NZS periodical at the Maritime Academy in Gdynia), ([March?] 1981) p. 20. 0 co chodzi? (Wroclaw Polytechnic NZS), "Pragn~J autonomii" (They Desire Autonomy), 12 December 1980, p. 2. 0 co chodzi? (Wroclaw Polytechnic NZS), "Z ostatniej chwili,'' 23 June 1981 (special issue) p. 6. Og6lnopolska Konferencja Rektor6w Wyi:szych Uczelni (National Confer• ence of Rectors of Polish Colleges and Universities), "Oswiadczenia" (Statements from a meeting in Warsaw, December 6, 1981),'' Tygodnik So/idarnoSi:, 37(11 December 1981) p. 7. Olson, Mancur, The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971. Oschlies, Wolf, Jugend in Osteuropa (Youth in East Europe), 2: Polens Jugend-Kinder der Solidarity (Poland's Youth: Solidarity's Children) (Cologne: Bohlau, 1982). Bibliography 263

Oschlies, Wolf. '"Verlorene Generation.' Polens Jugend 1980--1984," ('The Lost Generation.' Poland Youth, 1980--1984)," in Polen 1980-1984, Dauerkrise oder Stabilisierung? edited by Dieter Bingen (Baden-Baden, FRG: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1985) pp. 215-263. Osinski, Krzysztof, "Protok6l (Minutes [of the meeting of representatives of the Ministry of Science, Higher Education and Technology and the NZS, on the subject of NZS registration of January 22, 1981 in Warsaw]), in Rejestracja Niezaleinego Zrzeszenia Studentow: dokumenty, compiled by Czaputowicz and edited by Glowacki pp. 15-20. Osinski, Krzysztof, Jacek Czaputowicz, Wojciech Bogaczyk and Barbara Kozlowska, letter to S!Jdu Najwyiszego (Superior Court), November 27, 1980, in Rejestracja Niezaleinego Zrzeszenia Studentow: dokumenty, compiled by Czaputowicz and edited by Glowacki p. 9. Osinski, Krzysztof, Jacek Czaputowicz, Wojciech Bogaczyk and Barbara Kozlowska, "Uzasadnienie" (Substantiation of Appeal November 27, 1980 to the Superior Court)," in Rejestracja Niezaleznego Zrzeszenia Studentow: dokumenty, compiled by Czaputowicz and edited by Glowacki pp. 9-11. Ossowski, Stanislaw, Ku nowym formom zycia spolecznego (Towards New Forms of Public Life) (Warsaw: Ksi::Jika i Wiedza, 1956). Ost, David, Solidarity and the Politics of Anti-Politics: Opposition and Reform in Poland Since 1968 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990). Parjanen, Matti, "Puolassa riittiiisi sosiologeille tutkittavaa" (About Socio• logical Research on Student Strikes in Poland), Sosiologia 19, 1(1982) pp. 47-51. Patton, Michael Quinn, Qualitative Evaluation Methods (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1980). Pfaffenberger, Bryan, Microcomputer Applications in Qualitative Research (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988). Pietrasik, Eugeniusz and the OKZ of the NZS, Komunikat (Joint Commu• nique), November 17, 1980, in Rejestracja Niezaleznego Zrzeszenia Studentow: dokumenty, compiled by Czaputowicz and edited by Glowacki (1981) p. 7. Podgorecki, Adam, The Case of an Alienated Society and Sociological Profession as an Agent of Macro-social Change, Department of Sociology and Anthropology Working Paper 88-2. (Ottawa: Carleton University, 1988). Podgorecki, Adam, Glimpse of a Socialistic Scholar; The Rise, Development and Downfall of the Institute of Social Prevention and Resocialization in Poland: 1972-1976, Department of Sociology and Anthropology Working Paper 84--5 (Ottawa: Carleton University, 1984). Pogonowski, Iwo Cyprian, Poland: A Historical Atlas (New York: Hippo• crene Books, 1987). Polish Helsinki Watch Committee and Co-workers of the Intervention Bureau of the Social Self-Defense Committee "KOR," (eds.), Prologue to Gdansk: A Report on Human Rights by the Polish Helsinki Watch Committee (Prepared for the 1980-1981 Madrid Review Meeting of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe) (New York: U.S. Helsinki Watch Committee, 1980). 264 Bibliography

Popov, Nebojsa, "Prilozi proucavanju studentskih pokreta u Jugoslaviji" (Contributions to the Investigation of Students' Movements in Yugosla• via)," Socioloski Pregled, 18, 1-2(1984) pp. 1~2. Po prostu his (Cracow), "Editorial," 6(April 1981) p. 24. Pratzer, Barbara, "Z jak zakazane" (P as in Prohibited), ltd. (12 July 1981) p. 11. Prezydium KK i przwodnicz~Jcych zarz~Jd6w regionalnych NSZZ 'Solidar• nosc (National Committee of the NSZZ Solidarnosc and the Chairpersons of the Regional Units of the NSZZ Solidarnosc), "Oswiadczenie" (Statement), Tygodnik Solidarnosl:, 37(11 December 1981) p. 6. Punch, Maurice, The Politics and Ethics of Fieldwork (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1986). Rachwald, Arthur R., In Search of Poland: The Superpowers' Response to Solidarity, 1980-1989 (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1990). Radio Free Europe-Radio Liberty, RFE Research, "Commercial Shops Increase Their Meat Allocation," Polish Situation Report 14 (9 July 1980) p. 3. Raina, Peter, Poland 1981: Towards Social Renewal (Boston: George Allen and Unwin, 1985). Rakowiecki, Jacek, "Komunikat" (Communique [from the Conference of University NZS Chapters-Konferencja Organizacji Uczelnianych NZS]), Donosiciel: lnformator NZS UJ (Stool Pigeon), 1(5 March 1981) pp. 34. Ramet, Pedro, "Poland's 'Other' Parties," World Today, 37, 9(September 1981) pp. 332-8. Ratus, Bronislaw, Ruch Mlodziezowy w Polsce Ludowej. Zagadnienia Teoretyczne (The Youth Movement in People's Poland: Theoretical Problems) (Warsaw: Pailstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1981). Remmer, Alexander, "A Note on Post-Publication Censorship in Poland 1980-1987," Soviet Studies, 61, 3(July 1989) pp. 415-25. Rex, John, "Foreword," To Crisis and Transition: Polish Society in the 1980s, edited by Jadwiga Koralewicz, Ireneusz Bialecki and Margaret Watson (New York: Berg, 1987) pp. 1-2. Rich, Vera, "Harsh Attacks on Academics in Poland Preceded Decision to Outlaw Union," Chronicle ofHigher Education, 25, 5(20 October 1982) p. 19. Rich, Vera, "Head of Physics Institute at Warsaw U., a Moderate, Is Chosen for Rector's Post," Chronicle of Higher Education, 29, 16(12 December 1984) pp. 29, 31. Rich, Vera, "Poland Expels American Lecturer for 'Anti-Socialist Activi• ties,"' Chronicle of Higher Education, 25, 23(16 February 1983) p. 19. Rich, Vera, "Polish Communist Party Attacks 'Ideological Alienation' of Youth," Chronicle of Higher Education, 26, 7(13 April 1983) p. 17. Rich, Vera, "Polish Students Express Dissatisfaction with Agreement on Independent Union," Chronicle of Higher Education, 22, 6(30 March 1981) p. 17. Rich, Vera, "Solidarity Seeks to Free Universities from Control by Polish Government," Chronicle of Higher Education, 23, 8(21 October 1981) p. 9. Rich, Vera, "Under Pressure from Polish Academic Groups, Minister Vows Not to Alter University Reforms," Chronicle of Higher Education, 23, 7(14 October 1981) p. 17. Bibliography 265

Riemer, Jeffrey W., "Varieties of Opportunistic Research," Urban Life, 5, 4(January 1977) pp. 467-77. Rybicki, Arkadiusz, "Pierwszy etap: kilka uwag o dzialalnosci SKS" (The First Stage: Several Remarks on the Activity of the SKS), Bratniak, 10-ll(July-August 1978) p. 9-11. Sanford, George, Polish Communism in Crisis (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1983). Sl}d Wojew6dzki w Warszawie Wydzial I Cywilny (Warsaw Regional Court, Department I of Civil Law), "Postanowienie (Ruling) no. Ns rz 32/80," in Rejestracja Niezaleznego Zrzeszenia Student6w: dokumenty, compiled by Czaputowicz and edited by Glowacki, p. 3. Scharff, Roland (ed.) Sozialwissenschaften in der Volksrepublik Polen: theoretische Orientierungen, Methoden, Forschungsfelder (Erlangen: Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Zeitgeschichtliche Fragen. Vertrieb: Institut fiir Gesellschaft und Wissenschaft (IGW) an der Universitiit Erlangen• Nurnberg, 1989). Schnell, R. L., "Expressive and Instrumental Politics in the American Student Movement: The 1930s as a Case Study," Paedagogica Historica, 17, 2(1977) p. 387. Scott, Joseph W. and Mohamed El-Assal, "Multiversity, University Size, University Quality and Student Protest: An Empirical Study," American Sociological Review, 34, 5 (October 1969) pp. 702-9. Selltiz, Claire, Marie Jahoda, Morton Deutsch and Stuart W. Cook, Research Methods in Social Relations, rev. ed. (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1959). Shelton, Anita K., "A Bibliographic Essay on National Communism and the Polish October," East European Quarterly, 17, 3(September 1983) pp. 283-98. Sherman, George, "Poland's Angry and Un-Angry Young Men," Problems of Communism, 7, 3(May-June 1958) p. 30-8. Shils, Edward, "Dreams of Plenitude, Nightmares of Scarcity," in Students in Revolt, edited by Seymour Martin Lipset and Philip G. Altbach (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1969) pp. 1-31. Siegenthaler, Hansjorg, "Organization, Ideology and the Free Rider Pro• blem", Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics, 145, 1(March 1989) pp. 215-31. Silverman, David, Qualitative Methodology and Sociology: Describing the Social World (Brookfield, VT: Gower, 1985). Simes, Dimitri K., "Clash Over Poland," Foreign Policy, 46 (Spring 1982) pp. 49-66. Sitarska, A. and A. Moczulska, "Central Social Science Research Libraries in Poland: Origins and Selected Problems for Investigation," Social Science Information, 3, 1(1983) pp. 21-31. Skocpol, Theda, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979). Slonimski, Antoni, Rozmowa z gwiazdq: poezje 1916-1961 (Conversations with a Star: Poetry 1916-1961) (Warsaw: Pail.stwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1961). 266 Bibliography

Slownik Organizacji Mlodziezowych w Polsce 1918-1970 (Dictionary of Youth Organizations in Poland, 1918-1970) (Warsaw: Iskry, 1971). Smith, T. M. F., "On the Validity of Inferences from Nonrandom Samples," Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A-General, 146, 4(1983) pp. 394-403. Smith, Tom W., "Response to Levine," Contemporary Sociology, 18, 2(March 1989) p. 166. Socialist Review, "The Port Huron Statement [an edited version]," 17, 3- 4(May-August 1987) p. 106-40. Social Self-Defense Committee KOR, "Statement: The Case of Stanislaw Pyjas (April 18, 1978, Warsaw)," in Prologue to Gdansk: A Report on Human Rights by the Polish Helsinki Watch Committee (Prepared for the 1980-1981 Madrid Review Meeting of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe), edited by Polish Helsinki Watch Committee and Co-workers of the Intervention Bureau of the Social Self-Defense Committee "KOR," (New York: U.S. Helsinki Watch Committee, 1980) pp. 79-82. Spieker, Manfred, "Pluralismus in Polen 1980/1 und in der Tschechoslowakei 1968: Zur Problematik autonomer Gruppen in Sozialistischen Herrschafts• systemen" (Pluralism in Poland, 1980-81 and in Czechoslovakia 1968-the Problem of Autonomous Groups in Socialist Systems), Osteuropa, 33, ll(November 1983) p. 904. Spivak, Jonathan, "Striking Results: Poland's New Activism Spreads to Professional and Academic Realms," Wall St. Journal, 5 September 1980 pp. I, 7. Staggenborg, Suzanne, "Coalition Work in the Pro-Choice Movement: Organizational and Environmental Opportunities and Obstacles," Social Problems, 33, 5(June 1986) pp. 374-390. Staniszkis, Jadwiga, Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution (Princeton University Press, 1984). Stasiitska, J. (ed.), "Report of the negotiations between the government and Solidarity in early August 1981," AS (abbreviation of Agencja Solidamosc, the Solidarity press bureau), 27(28 July-4 August 1981) pp. 1-3. Statera, Gianni, Death of a Utopia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975. Strajk [L6d2:], "Dawno, Dawno Temu ..."(Once Upon a Time ...), special issue (February 1986) pp. 1-2. Strajkowy Serwis lnformacyjny UKS UWr (Wroclaw), "0 strajku w WOSP" (On the Strike at the Firefighters Academy), 26(9 December 1981) pp. 1-2. Strobel, Georg W., NSZZ "Solidarnos/:": Beitrag zur politischen Wirkungs• analyse einer sozialen Sammlungsbewegung (The NSZZ Solidarnosi:: Contribution to the Political Analysis of Effects of Social Mass Move• ment) (Cologne: Berichte des Bundesinstituts fiir ostwissenschaftliche und intemationale Studien, 1983). Studium News Abstracts, "Official Repression Continues While Society Struggles for Freedom," 2, 3(July 1978) pp. 1-ll. Swidlicki, Andrzej, Political Trials in Poland 1981-1986 (New York: Croom Helm, 1988). Bibliography 267

Syrop, Konrad, Spring in October: The Story of the Polish Revolution, 1956 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1976). Szczepanski, Jan, Higher Education in Eastern Europe (New York: Interna• tional Council for Educational Development, 1974). Sztompka, Piotr, "Social Movements: Structures in Statu Nascendi," Polish Sociological Bulletin, 2(1988) pp. 5--26. Tagliabue, John, "Polish Police Fight Protesters as Solidarity and Regime Talk," New York Times, 26 February 1989 pp. 1, 19. Tagliabue, John, "Polish Union Says Yes to Discussing its Legal Status," New York Times (23 Janurary 1989) pp. Al and A9. Tatur, Melanie, Solidarnosc als Modernisierungsbewegung: Sozialstruktur und Konflict in Polen (Frankfurt: Campus, 1989). Tilly, Charles, From Mobilization to Revolution (Reading, MA: Addison• Wesley, 1978. Tilly, Charles, "Social Movements," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 10(1988) pp. 1-18. Tilly, Charles, "Social Movements and National Politics," in Statemaking and Social Movements: Essays in History and Theory, edited by Charles Bright and Susan Harding (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1984) pp. 297-317. TKZ NSZS Politechnika Wroclawska (Wroclaw Polytechnic NZS), "Kom• munikat: TKZ NSZS" (NZS Communiqu6), 0 co chodzi?, 16 October 1980) p. 4. Tocqueville, Alexis de, Democracy in America, edited by Richard D. Heffner (New York: New American Library, 1956 [orig. 1835 and 1840]). Torail.ska, Teresa, Oni (Them) (London: Aneks, 1985). Trybuna Ludu, "Ciekawe liczby i fakty: ruch mlodziezowy" (Interesting Figures and Facts: the Youth Movement," 28, 120(21 May 1976) p. 6. Tygodnik So/idarnosc, "Akcja protestacyjna student6w" (Student Protest Action)," 2, 35(27 November 1981) p. 15. Tygodnik Solidarnosc, "Decyzja o strajku" (Decision on Striking)," 35(27 November 1981) p. 15. Tygodnik So/idarnosc, "Komunikat o spotkaniu prymasa polski z delegacj~ NZS," 24(11 September 1981) p. 15. Tygodnik Solidarnosc, "Konferencja Rektor6w" (The Rectors' Meeting)," 35(27 November 1981) p. 15. Tygodnik Solidarnosi:, "Konflikt w Wyzszej Oficerskiej Szkole Pozarnicej" (Conflict at the Firefighters School)," 35(27 November 1981) p. 15. Tygodnik So/idarnosi:, "Oswiadczenie KKP NZS" (Statement of the KKK of the NZS)," 35(27 November 1981) p. 15. Tygodnik So/idarnosc, "Prezydium KKP" (The Presidium of the National Coordinating Committee [of Solidarity])," 34 (20 November 1981) p. 15. Tygodnik So/idarnosc, "Strajk w Uczelni" (Strike at College)," 33(13 November 1981) p. 2. Tygodnik Solidarnosc, "Uchwala KKK NZS z dnia 1.09.1981 w sprawie projektu ustawy o szkolnictwie wyzszym" (Resolution of the KKK of the NZS concerning the proposed higher education bill dated September 1, 1981)," 24(11 September 1981) p. 15. 268 Bibliography

Tygodnik Solidarnosc, "U student6w" (Among students)," 27 (3 October 1981) p. 2. Tygodnik Solidarnosc, "Wiec na Politechnice L6dzkiej" (Rally at the L6dz Polytechnic)," 35(27 November 1981) p. 15. Veteran [a pseudonym], "Jak mlodziez walczyla z carskim zaborc:f' (How Students Fought Against Tsarist Occupation), Bratniak, 6-7(March-April 1978) pp. 20-1. Wagner, Wolfgang, Marion Griifin Donhoff, Gerhard Fels, Karl Kaiser and Paul Noack, eds. Die Internationale Politik, 1979-1980 (Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 1983). Wallis, R., "The Moral Career of a Research Sociologist," in Doing Sociological Research, edited by Colin Bell and Howard Newby (New York: Free Press, 1977) pp. 149-169. Walsh, Edward J., "Resource Mobilization and Citizen Protest in Commu• nities Around Three Mile Island," Social Problems, 29, !(October 1981) pp. 1-21. Walsh, Ed and Sherry Cable, "Realities, Images and Management Dilemmas in Social Movement Organizations: The TMI Experience," in Organizing for Change, International Social Movement Research Series, 2, edited by Bert Klandermans, Hanspeter Kriesi and Sidney Tarrow (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, August 1989). Watson, Margaret, "Sociology in Poland," Network, 38(May 1987) pp. 4-5. Wawrykowa, Maria, Revolutioniire Demokraten in Deutschland und Polen 1815-1848: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Vormiirz (Revolutionary Democrats in Germany and Poland 1815-1848: An Observation Concern• ing the History of the Vormiirz) (Brunswick: A. Limbach, 1974). Wejnert, Barbara, "The Student Movement in Poland, 1980-1981," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 10(1988) pp. 173-81. W~gierski, Andrzej, "Pojawil si~ Polski Zwi!Jzek Akademicki" (The Appear• ance of the Polish Academic Union), NZS Informacje (NZS, Silesian Polytechnic) 21(26 April-10 May 1981) p. 3. White, Anne, De-Stalinization and the House of Culture: Declining State Control Over Leisure in the USSR, Poland, and Hungary, 1953-1989 (New York: Routledge, 1990). William, Don, "Poland: The Window to Higher Education in Eastern Europe?", Higher Education, 11, 5(September 1982) pp. 521-9. Wifi, "Szczeg6lowe postulaty dotycz!Jce zmian w strukturze i programie nauczania Uczelni opracowane przez Mi~dzyuczelnian!J Kornisj~ Porozu• miewawcz!J" (Specific Demands with Regard to the Changes in the Structure and the Program of the University Developed by the Regional Coordinating Committee)," 276(April 1981) pp. 107-111. Wnuk-Lipiitski, Edmund, "Social Dimorphism and its Implications," in Crisis and Transition: Polish Society in the 1980s, edited by Jadwiga Koralewicz, Ireneusz Bialecki and Margaret Watson (New York: Berg, 1987) pp. 159-76. Wocial, Jerzy, "WSI-Radom: studium pewnej gry" (WSI-Radom: A Case of A Certain Game), Tygodnik Solidarnosc, 35(27 November 1981) p. 14. Wrobel, Hanna, Department of Economic and Legal Affairs of the Ministry of Science, Higher Education and Technology, to Jacek Czaputowicz, Bibliography 269

letter (15 October 1980), in Rejestracja Niezaleinego Zrzeszenia Student6w: dokumenty, compiled by Czaputowicz and edited by Glowacki (1981) p. 6. Wrong, Dennis H., Power: Its Forms, Bases and Uses (New York: Harper and Row, 1979. Wujec, Henryk, "The Report of Henryk Wujec, 18 April 1979," in "Documents Concerning Acts of Violence by Gangs of the Socialist Union of Polish Students (SZSP): The Case of Henryk Wujec," in Prologue to Gdansk: A Report on Human Rights by the Polish Helsinki Watch Committee edited by Polish Helsinki Watch Committee and Co• workers of the Intervention Bureau of the Social Self-Defense Committee "KOR," (New York: U.S. Helsinki Watch Committee, 1980) pp. 119-121. Zald, Mayer N., "The Trajectory of Social Movements in America," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 10(1988) pp. 19-41. Zald, Mayer N. and John D. McCarthy, "Social Movement Industries: Competition and Cooperation Among Movement Organizations," Re• search in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 3(1980) pp. 1-20. Zalubowski, Sonya, "Poland's Students Flaunt Solidarity T-Shirts but Stick to Their Studies," Christian Science Monitor, 25 June 1981 p. 10. Zamoyski, Adam, The Polish Way: A Thousand-Year History of the Poles and their Culture (New York: Franklin Watts, 1988). Zielonka, Jan, "Die Bewegung der gesellschaftlichen Selbstverteidigung in Polen (KSS-KOR)" (The Movement for Social Self-Defense in Poland [KSS-KOR])," Osteuropa, 35, 2(February 1985) pp. 87-98. Name Index

Adamkiewicz, Marek, 35 Bielinski, Konrad, 18, 55, 136, 223, Aguirre, Benigno E., 250, 251 252 Aldrich, Brian C., 205, 213, 247, Bielski, M., 228, 252 248, 251 Bierut, Boleslaw, 9, 45 Aleksandrowicz, Piotr, 124, 238, Bingen, Dieter, 229, 231, 243, 252, 239, 251 263 Allerbeck, Klaus R., 249, 251 Bivand, R., 247, 252 Altbach, Philip G., 214, 265 Blajfer, Boguslawa, 16, 136, 143 Amsterdamska, Olga, 216, 240, 245 Blazynski, George, 215, 218, 252 Amsterdamski, Stefan, 16, 114, 116, Bloombecker, Buck, 242, 252 218, 237, 251 Blumsztajn, Seweryn, 13, 136 Anderson, John F., 246, 251 Bogaczyk, Wojciech, 141, 227, 263 Arkuszewski, Wojciech, 19, 226, Bogdan, Robert, 210, 247, 249, 250, 233, 256 252 Ascherson, Neal, 224, 225, 251 Bogucka, Teresa, 19 Ash, Timothy Garton, 222, 223, 239, Bolic, Ryszard, 70 251 Bonasegna, Cristina, 225, 252 Assai, Mohamed El-, see El-Assal, Borowski, Gustaw J., 218, 252 Mohamed Boudon, Raymond, 215, 252 Aveni, Adrian F., 246, 251 Bratek, Malgorzata, 34 Bratkowski, Stefan, 38 Breines, Wini, 204, 205, 208, 247, Bakuniak, Grzegorz, 68, 230, 251 249, 252 Banas, Josef, 21 7, 251 Bright, Charles, 213, 267 Banasiak, Lt. Col. Stanistaw, 206 Brown, Bernard E., 243, 252 Banaszkiewicz, Bolestaw, 97 Brus, Wlodzimierz, 217, 252 Baranczak, Stanistaw, 33, 218, 222, Bruyn, Severyn T., 249, 252 251 Bryant, Christopher G. A., 249, 252 Baranski, Marek, 31 Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 45, 216, 224, Barkan, Steven E., 91, 106, 193, 131, 252 233, 236, 240, 246, 251 Buczynska-Garewicz, Hanna, 50, Barnes, Samuel H., 244, 245, 260 225, 226, 253 Bartoszewski, Wladyslaw, 53, 226, Bujak, Zbigniew, 164 253 Basta, Alicja, 228, 251 Cable, Sherry, 236, 268 Becker, Howard S., 135, 240, 249, Cave, Jane, 243, 259 251 Cecuda, Dariusz, 216, 218, 221, 223, Bell, Colin, 250, 268 243, 253 Berdie, Douglas R., 246, 251 Celinski, Andrej, 19, 136 Biatecki, lreneusz, 222, 248, 264 Chartier, Roger, 258 Biatkowski, Grzegorz, 124 Chrzanowski, Wiestaw, 97 Biaton, Dr. Lidia, 41 Chwastyk, Jola, 231, 253

270 Name Index 271

Cieplak, Tadeusz N., 216, 257 Pels, Gerhard, 223, 268 Cislo, Maciej, 253 Feuer, Lewis S., 184, 245, 255 Cohen, Marjorie, 219, 253 Fireman, Bruce, 135, 240, 255 Cook, Stuart W., 247, 265 Flakierski, Henryk, 219, 253 Curry, Jane Leftwich, 219, 253 Flis, Andrzej, 217, 255 Curtis, Russell, 213, 253 Florek, Andrzej, 89 Cywinski, Jan, 14, 28, 49, 137, Folcik, Jerzy, 39 218-23, 225, 230, 240, 242, 253 Fr~ckiewicz, Wojciech, 43 Czajka, Stanislaw, 94 Frentzel-Zagorska, Janina, 223, 248, Czaputowicz, Jacek, 18, 23, 35, 42, 255 57, 62, 83, 88, 97, 102, 136, 137, Friszke, Andrzej, 99, 101, 226, 228, 141, 146, 150, 161, 180, 193, 232-5, 255 218, 223, 225-8, 230-2, 234, Fulinski, Prof. A., 114 235, 240-3, 245, 253, 254 Czuma, El:i:bieta, 222, 254 Gabrielski, Stanislaw, 18, 79, 80, 89, Czyzewski, Marek, 233, 254 232, 255 Gajewski, Krzysztof, 39 Gamson, William A., 135, 213, 240, Davidson, Spencer, 217, 254 241, 255 Davies, Norman, 214, 224, 225, 249, Garewicz, Hanna Buczynska-, see 254 Buczynska-Garewicz, Hanna D~bski, Wieslaw, 254 Geer, Blanche, 249, 251 Degenhardt, Henry W., 219, 224, Gerlach, Luther P., 241, 255 234, 254 Gierek, Edward (Party First Dembowski, Rev. Dr. Bronislaw, 51 Secretary 1970-80), 39, 45, 104, Denzin, Norman K., 246, 249, 254 249 Derlega, Valerian J., 248, 254 Gieysztor, Aleksander, 108, 110 de Tocqueville, Alexis, see Gitlin, Todd, 245, 255 Tocqueville, Alexis de Gleichgewicht, Boleslaw, 35 Deutsch, Morton, 247, 265 Glemp, Jozef (Roman Catholic Devlin, Kevin, 234, 254 Primate of Poland), 118, 128 de Weydenthal, Jan B., see Glowacki, Henryk, 63, 226-8, 234, Weydenthal, Jan B. de 253, 254 D~bski, Wieslaw, 229 Godek, Jerzy, 42 Djilas, Milovan, 224, 254 Gol~biowski, Edward, 214, 255 Dmowski, Roman, 141, 241, 254 Gombrowicz, Witold, 29 Domagalska, Stanislawa, 126, 239, Gomulka, Wladyslaw (Party First 254 Secretary, 1956-70), 11, 45, 236 Donhoff, Marion Gratin, 223, 268 Gorbachev, Mickail, 48 Dorn, Ludwig, 19, 25, 27, 30, 221 Gostkowski, Zygmunt, 249, 255 Dostoyevsky, Fyodor, 241, 254 Gottesman, Krzysztof, 237, 256 Dyk, Piotr, 221, 254 Gorski, Janusz (Minister of Higher Dziewicka, Maria, 222, 254 Education), 10, 23, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 67,80, 88, 94, 97, Eckert, Roland, 241, 255 98, 104, ll7, 120, 194, 227, 228, Eisinger, Peter K., 142, 177, 185, 255 241, 244, 245, 255 Grabinska, Hanna, 31 El-Assal, Mohamed, 107, 236, 265 Grochola, Wieslawa, 218, 237 Engels, Friedrich, 47 Gross, Jan, ll 272 Name Index

Grzelak, Dr. Janusz, 114, 158 Jarecka, Stanislawa, 215, 257; see Grzywaczewski, Maciej, 31 also Jarecka-Kimlowska, Gubrium, Jaber, 250, 256 Stanislawa Guzy, Agnieszka Romaszewska-, see Jarecka-Kimlowska, Stanislawa, Romaszewska-Guzy, Agnieszka 214, 255, 257 Guzy, Jaroslaw (Jarek) (NZS Jaroszewicz, Piotr, 48 national chairman), 76, 84, 87, Jaruzelski, General Wojciech, 97, 96, 102, 127, 128, 129, 130, 141, 126 142, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, Jasinski, M., 37 151, 154, 162, 165, 166, 167, Jasper, James M., 209, 213, 249, 257 168, 169, 170, 182, 183, 184, Jaworski, Seweryn, 110,111,164 226, 231-235, 242, 243, 256 Jedlicki, Witold, 216, 257 Gwiazda, Andrzej, 33, 145 Jenkins, J. Craig, 244, 245, 257 Gwozdziewski, Janusz, 42 Johnson, Jeffrey C., 247, 257 Johnstone, John W. C., 240, 257 Hajnicz, Artur, 224, 256 Jones, Anthony, 232, 257 Halak, Irena, 55 Julia, Dominique, 213, 258 Halamska, Maria, 212, 242, 256 Hall, Aleksander, 33 Kaase, Max, 244, 245, 260 Harding, Susan, 213, 267 Kaczynski, Jaroslaw, 97 Hare, R. Dwight, 213, 262 Kaiser, Karl, 223, 268 Harrison, Michael 1., 241, 256 Kaminski, Bartlomiej, 246, 257 Hebda, Prof. Michal (rector of WSI Kania, Stanislaw (Party First Radom), 120, 121, 122, 123, Secretary 1980-), 80, 104 124, 126 Kaniewska, Irena, 213, 257 Heffner, Richard D., 248 Karpinski, Wiktor, 39, 41 Herczynski, Ryszard, 206 Koralewicz, Jadwiga, 248, 264 Hess, Mieczyslaw, 29 Kassow, Samuel D., 214, 258 Heirich, Max, 91, 233, 256 Karpinski, Jakub, 17 Hillebrandt, Bogdan, 214, 215, 218, Katsiaficas, George, 218, 258 256 Katzenstein, Mary Fainsod, 218, Hiller, Harry H., 250, 256 261 Hine, Virginia H., 241, 255 Kawalec, Stefan, 49, 219, 225, 240, Hirsch, Eric L., 140, 241, 245, 256 258 Hirsch, Helga, 221-3, 242, 256 Kecskemeti, Paul, 202, 247, 258 Hodgkinson, Harold, 236, 257 Kelus, Jan, 17 Holakowna, Irena, 18 Kemp-Welch, A., 212, 258 Holzer, Jerzy, 94, 226, 230, 233, 234, Kennedy, Michael D., 232, 258 257 Kersten, Adam, 52 Hubbard, Amy S., 204, 247, 257 Kersten, Krystyna, 224, 258 Khrushchev, Nikita, 9, 45 Irwin-Zarecka, Iwona, 217, 257 Kibre, Pearl, 213, 214, 258 Iwaniec, Wladyslaw, 229 Kicha, Henryk, 24 Iwanowska, Anna, 43 Kielanowski, Jan, 30 Kimlowska, Stanislawa Jarecka-, see Jablonski, Henryk (Minister of Jarecka-Kimlowska, Stanislawa Higher Education), 13 Kimmel, Allan J., 250, 258 Jahoda, Marie, 247, 265 Kirk, Jerome, 204, 247, 258 Jakubowicz, Karol, 245, 257 Kisielewski, Stefan, 38 Name Index 273

Klandermans, Bert, 140, 236, 241, 137, 180, 190, 223, 225, 226, 244, 245, 258 240--2, 245, 259 Klincewicz, Teodor, 41, 43, 59, 141, Lipski, Jan Tomasz, 19 145, 163, 228, 254 Lipsky, Michael, 246, 259 Kolakowski, Leszek, 10, 217, 258 Lofland, John, 201,246,259 Kolakowski, Roman, 35 Lutynska, Krystyna, 103, 105, 233, Koralewicz, Jadwiga, 222 235, 254, 259 Korybutowicz, Andrzej, 242, 258 Lutynski, Jan, 208 Kostecki, Marian J., 68, 230, 258 Lopacki, Z., 41 Kourdakov, Sergei, 225, 259 Lopatka, Adam, 244, 259 Kowalski, Miroslaw, 226, 233, 256 Lopinski, Maciej, 243, 259 Kowalski, Sergiusz, 25, 27, 220, 221, Lukasiewicz, Piotr, 25, 27, 221, 247, 261 259 Kozlowska, Barbara, 227, 263 Krajewski, Stanislaw, 18 Kramer, Jane, 248, 259 Macierewicz, Antoni, 19, 49 Kriesi, Hanspeter, 236 Maciszewski, Jarema, 67 Kruk, Roland, 44 Mackenbach, Werner, 242, 260 Kruszewski, 137 Maj, Waldemar, 38, 39 Kruszyil.ski, Stanislaw, 21, 22, 23 Majewski, Janusz, 43 Kub6w, Stefan, 259 Makarenko, Anton Semenovich, 219 Kuczynski, Pawel, 230, 259 Malanowski, Jan, 230, 260 Kuron, Jacek, 51, 62, 141, 149, 150, Maleszka, Leslaw, 27, 221, 260, 261 166, 216, 225 Malinowski, Marian, 257 Malicki, 38 Laba, Roman, 206, 248 Marrou, H. 1., 213, 260 Labuda, Gerard, 34 Marsh, Alan, 244, 245, 260 Lachowski, Krzysztof, 39, 41 Marx, Gary T., 246, 260 Lamb, George, 213 Marx, Karl, 47 Lamont, Rosette C., 216, 248, 259 Mason, DavidS., 2, 206, 212, 248, Leach, Catherine S., 249 260 Leksinski, W., 39, 42 Masterman, Sue, 226, 228, 230, Lelewel, Joachim, 7 233-5, 248, 260 Lepak, Keith John, 215, 224, 225, McAdam, Doug, 131, 134, 135, 139, 249, 259 144, 212, 213, 232, 236, 240-2, Leventhal, Todd, 235, 242, 259 244, 260 Levine, Harry G., 248 McCarthy, John D., 131, 134, 212, Lindenberg, Grzegorz, 168, 172-7, 213, 232, 235, 236, 241, 244, 184, 231, 244, 259 246, 255 Lipinski, Lech, 226, 231, 242, 256 Melucci, Alberto, 212, 261 Lipinski,Edmund Wnuk-, see Michnik, Adam, 11, 13, 19, 38, 50, Wnuk-Lipinski, Edmund 61, 217, 261 Lipinski, Edward, 53, 62 Michta, Andrew A., 2, 212, 224, 261 Lipset, Seymour Martin, 214, 241, Mickiewicz, Adam, 12, 216, 261 259, 265 Mietkowski, Andrzej, 146, 182 Lipska, Agnieszka (Lipski's Miller, Marc L., 204, 247, 258 daughter), 31, 44, 69 Milosz, Czeslaw, 29, 208, 261 Lipski, Jan J6zef, 12, 13, 18, 29, 30, Misztal, Barbara A., 230, 242, 245, 33, 35, 40, 43, 44, 51, 53, 62, 261 274 Name Index

Misztal, Bronislaw, 205, 230, 242, Pietrasik, Eugeniusz (Director of 245, 247, 261 Department of Youth Moczar, General Mieczyslaw, 13, 14 Education), 59, 118, 227, 263 Moczulska, A., 247, 265 Moczulski, Pilka, Marian, 33 Leszek, 197 Piotrowska, Malgorzata, 19 Mond, George H., 15, 218, 261 Piotrowski, Andrzej, 233, 254 Moore, Gene M., 216, 240, 245 Pochitonow, Ziemowit, 29, 30 Morgiewicz, Emil, 220, 261 Podgorecki, Adam, 219, 248, 249, Morris, Aldon D., 91, 131, 233, 240, 263 261 Pogonowski, Iwo Cyprian, 216, 217, Moskit, Marcin, 243, 259 263 Moszcz, Gustaw, 113, 237, 261 Politowska, Marzena, 142 Mrela, Krzysztof, 68, 230, 258 Pope John Paul II (1978-), 36, 46; Mueller, Carol McClurg, 15, 218, see also W ojtyla, Karol 261 Popov, Nebojsa, 212, 264 Porter, Bruce D., 234, 254 Nawrocki, Minister Witold, 118, Pratzer, Barbara, 264 121, 123, 124, 126 Przemyk, Grzegorz, 205 Nawrocki, lreneusz, 218, 261 Punch, Maurice, 246, 250, 264 Newby, Howard, 250, 268 Pyjas, Stanislaw, 24, 36, 220 Noack, Paul, 223, 268 Noblit, George W., 213, 262 Quarantelli, E. L., 250, 251 Nowacki, Christine, 247, 262 Nowak, Krzysztof, 68, 230, 250, Rachwald, Arthur R., 212, 264 251, 259, 262 Radin, Dorothea Prall, 216, 261 Nowak, Stefan, 174 Raina, Peter, 94, 226, 229, 233, 237, 264 Rajkiewicz, Antoni, 243 Oegema, Dirk, 241, 244, 245, 258 Rakowiecki, Jacek, 87, 92, 96, 102, Olson, Mancur, 241, 262 147, 149, 226, 231-5, 242, 243, Olszowski, Stefan, 112 256, 264 Onyszkiewicz, Janusz, 111 Rakowski, Mieczslaw (Deputy Oschlies, Wolf, 153, 227, 228, 229, Premier), 23, 97, 98, 188 233, 234, 243, 245, 246, 262, Ramet, Pedro, 231, 264 263 Ratus, Bronislaw, 73, 74, 231, 264 Osinski, Krzysztof, 59, 142, 227, Remmer, Alexander, 221, 264 228, 254, 263 Renke, Marian, 11 Osinski, Prof. Z., 125 Resich, Zbigniew, 67, 117, 120 Ossowski, Stanislaw, 217, 263 Revel, Jacques, 213, 258 Ost, David, 245, 263 Rex,John,207, 248,264 Ostrowski, Wojciech, 19 Rich, Vera, 217, 230, 248, 264 Riemer, Jeffrey W., 250, 265 Palczewski, Dr. Andrzej, 114 Romaszewska, Agnieszka, 88, 110, Parjanen, Matti, 235, 263 243; see also Romaszewska• Pasynkiewicz, S., 37 Guzy, Agnieszka Patton, Michael Quinn, 203, 213, Romaszewska-Guzy, Agnieszka, 238 246, 247, 249, 263 Roos, J. P., 247, 259 Perrow, Charles, 244, 245, 257 Rospond, Marek, 35 Pfaffenberger, Bryan, 247, 263 Rostocki, Wlodzimierz A., 233, 254 Name Index 275

Rybicki, Arkadiusz, 223, 265 St~pien, Jan, 31 Rybicki, Zygmunt, 22, 23, 63 Strobel, Georg W, 153, 242, 243, 266 Rybinski, M., 230 Strzembosz, Maciej, 244 Rykowski, Zbigniew, 64, 87 Suss, Slawomir, 149 Rytina, Steven, 135, 240, 255 Swidlicki, Andrzej, 2, 212, 266 Swirgon, Waldemar, 207 Sadowski, Marek, 141 Syrop, Konrad, 224, 267 Sandford, George, 220, 243, 262, Syryjczyk, Dr. Tadeusz, 114 265 Szafar, Tadeusz, 217, 251 Santorski, Jacek, 55 Szaniawski, Klemens, 110 Schaff, Adam, 11 Szczepanski, Jan, 67, 228, 243, 267 Scharff, Roland, 248, 265 Sztompka, Piotr, 212, 267 Schnell, R. L., 177, 244, 265 Szumiejko, 243 Scott, Joseph W., 107, 236, 265 Swierczewski, General Karol Selltiz, Claire, 24 7, 265 (General Walter), 216 Seweryn, Andrzej, 16, 136, 143 Szaniawski, Klemens, 108 Shelton, Anita K., 215, 265 Szawiel, Tadek, 55 Sherman, George, 215, 216, 265 Szczepanski, Prof. Jan, 125, 126 Shils, Edward, 214, 265 Szlajfer, Henryk, 13 Sicinski, Andrzej, 247, 259 Szumiejko, Eugeniusz, 169 Sicinski, Dr. Michal, 41 Siegenthaler, Hansjorg, 241, 265 Tagliabue, John, 244, 246, 267 Sikora, Wojciech, 42 Tarrow, Sidney, 236 Silverman, David, 247, 265 Tatur, Melanie, 212, 267 Simes, Dimitri K., 237, 265 Taylor, Steven J., 210, 247, 249, 250, Sitarska, A., 247, 265 252 Siwierz, Marek, 88 Tilly, Charles, 2, 130, 187, 209, 210, Skocpol, Theda, 244, 265 213, 229, 240, 245, 250, 267 Slabek, Genowefa, 215, 256 Tocqueville, Alexis de, 207, 248, 267 Slominski, Antoni, 217, 266 Tomassi, Prof., 122, Smelser, Neil J., 212, 260 Toranska, Teresa, 215, 267 Smith, T. M. F., 247, 265 Torunczyk, Barbara, 19 Smith, Tom W., 248, 265 Smolar, Eugeniusz, 16, 136, 143 Useem, Michael, 246, 260 Smykala, Jacek, 21, 22, 23, 137 Sobczyk, Garrett Eugene, 207 Sokolowski, Janusz, 54 Verhovensky, Pyotr, 241 Sonik, Boguslaw, 145, 147 Veteran (a pseudonym), 214, 268 Spieker, Manfred, 231, 266 Spivak, Jonathan, 229, 266 Wagner, Wolfgang, 223, 268 Staggenborg, Suzanne, 91, 106, 233, Walasek, Dr., 121, 122 235, 266 Walentynowicz, Anna, 46 Staniszkis, Jadwiga, 47, 225, 266 Walker, Angus, 217, 252 Stasinska, J., 245, 266 Wallis, R., 250, 268 Staszewski, Stefan, 215 Walsh, Edward J. (Ed), 106, 131, Statera, Gianni, 217, 266 188, 229, 236, 239, 240, 245, 268 Stelmachowski, Andrzej, 97, 108, Walter, General, (alias for 110 Swierczewski, General Karol), Stepin, Ewa Gumik, 248, 254 216 276 Name Index

Wal~sa, Lech, 33, 47, 97, 145, 165, Wojtyla, Karol (Cardinal), 52; see 169, 170, 171, 184, 193 also Pope John Paul II in Wankel, Charles B. (author of this Subject Index book), 201-6, 208-9 Wolicki, Krzysztof, 38 Waszkiewicz, Jan, 243 W 6cicki, Kazimierz, 18 Watson, Margaret, 222, 248, 249, Wrong, Dennis H., 90, 232, 269 264, 268 Wrobel, Hanna, 58, 227, 268 Wawrykowa, Maria, 214, 268 Wujec, Henryk, 19, 222, 223, 252, Welch, A. Kemp-, see 253, 255, 269 Kemp-Welch, A. Wyrwich, Mateusz, 237, 256 Wejnert, Barbara, 143, 181, 217, Wyszynski, Stefan (Cardinal), 52 232, 234, 235, 241, 245, 268 Werblan, Andrzej, 67 Weydenthal, Jan B. de, 224, 234, 254 Zabielski, Dr., 35 W~gierski, Andrzej, 229, 268 Zagorska, Janina Frentzel-, see White, Anne, 216, 268 Frentzel-Zagorska, Janina Wiejskiej, Zwi~zek Mlodziezy, 229 Zakrzewski, Rafat, 30 Wilk, Mariusz, 243, 259 Zald, Mayer N., 131, 134, 212, 213, Willems, Helmut, 241, 255 232, 235, 236, 241, 244, 246, Williams, Don, 229, 232, 234, 238, 255, 260, 261, 269 268 Zalubowski, Sonya, 244, 269 Wisniewski, Wieslaw, 218, 252 Zaluski, Stanislaw, 32 Wnuk-Lipinski, Edmund, 222, 268 Zamoyski, Adam, 214-17, 269 Wocial, Jerzy, 127, 239, 242, Zarecka, lwona Irwin-, see 152, 268 Irwin-Zarecka, Iwona Wojtaszek, Tadeusz, 29, 30 Zawada, 154 Wojtkowski, Sylwester, 18, 88, 95, Zielonka, Jan, 225, 269 112, 119, 219, 239, 244 Zurcher, Louis A., 213, 253 Subject Index

academic freedom Akademickie Biuro Interwencyjne, administrative staffing, 17 see Academic Intervention compulsory attendance, 9 Bureau dormitory curfews, 9 Akademik (Dormitory) (cable radio political indoctrination, 9, 16 station), 58 political hiring criteria, 42 Almatur, 75 summer vacation physical American student movement labor, 16 (1960s), 177-9, 188-9; see also Academic Information Office SDS (Akademickie Biuro Amnesty International, 22 Informacyjne), 64 Amplitron Club, 38 Academic Intervention Bureau anti-merger groups, 18 (Akademickie Biuro anti-Semitism, 13-14 Interwencyjne), 42-3 see also Stowarzyszenie Academic Renewal Movement Patriotyczne "Grunwald" (Akademicki Ruch Odnowy), ARO, Akademicki Ruch Olnowy see ARO (Academic Renewal Academic Union, Polish (Polski Movement), 42, 64 Zwi:}zek Akademicki), see PZA ATK (Akademia Teologii activism Katolickiej-Academy of availability, personal, 139 Catholic Theology), 194 development of, 22; careers, 136; attitudes, in early eighties factors, 135 of Polish youth, 66 penalties for, 138-9, 143 populace generally, 68 prior student activism among students, 69, 71-2 founders and mentors of the AWF (Akademia Wychowania NZS, 134-44, 180 Fizycznego-Academy of see also NZS; student activism in Physical Training), 194 pre-odnowa Poland, history of Barykada ("The Barricade"), an AGH, see Akademia G6rniczo• underground publication, 194 Hutnicza Black Troop Number 1 ( Czarna Akademia G6rniczo-Hutnicza, 194 Jedynka), 19, 22 Akademia Teologii Katolickiej, see boycott: Juvenalia, 24 ATK Boze Cos Polskf (God Protect Akademicki Ruch Olnowy Poland) anthem, 160 (Academic Renewal Bratniak group, 27 Movement), see ARO Bratniaki (student mutual assistance Akademickie Biuro Informacyjne, societies), 4, 7-8, 62, 194 see Academic Information Bratnie Pomoce, see Bratniaki Office Bydgoszcz crisis, 150, 168

277 278 Subject Index

cable radio station, student, 58 Conference of University NZS Catholic church, Roman, 46, 160 Chapters, see Konferencja memorial Masses, 25, 109 Organizacji Uczelnianych NZS sponsorship, 7, 50, 52; see also Congress of Racial Equality, see TKN CORE supports NZS on Higher Contradictions Seekers' Club (Klub Education Bill, 118 Poszukiwaczy Sprzecznosci) see also KIK, Pope John Paul II a.k.a. Creeping Revisionists' Catholic Theology, Academy of Club (Klub Raczkujl}cych (Warsaw), 138 Rewizjonist6w), 11, 194 Catholic University of Lublin, 145 CORE (the Congress of Racial censorship Equality) (USA), 91 clandestine media, 143 Cracow Student Publishing regulation, 20 House, 40 shut down: Po Prostu (1957), 10; Creeping Revisionists' Club, see Dziady (196, 8), 12 Contradictions Seekers' Club Centralna Rada Zwil}Zk6w Crooked Circle Club (Klub Zawodowych, see CRZZ Krzywego Kola) (1956-62), 11, CGT (Confederation Generale du 194 Travail) France, 157 CRZZ (Centralna Rada Zwii}Zk6w Charter 77 movement, 39 Zawodowych-central Council Coalition of National Reconciliation of Trade Unions), 75, 194 (Koalicja Porozumienia Czarna Jedynka, see Black Troop Narodowego), 48 Number 1 Codification Commission of the Czechoslovak, 43 Cultural Main Council of Science and Center, 40 Higher Education (Kimisja Czechoslovak Support Kodyfikacyjna przy Radzie Demonstration, 39 Gl6wnej Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyi:szego), 114, 116, 117 Dissent, 205 Cologne, University of, 30 Dziady (Forefathers' Eve), 12 Commandos, see Komandosi Decree of the Minister of Higher Committee in Defense of Political Education, of 17 March Prisoners, 159 1960, 57 Communist Party Defense Committee for Prisoners of college for Communist Party Conscience, 155, 166 activists in Warsaw (Wyi:sza DTV (Dziennik Telwizyjny), nightly Szkola Nauk spolecznych news program, 160 przy KC PZPR), 69 membership loss, 71, 148, 182 NZS, opposition, 69-70, 126, 168 Eksperymenty Pedagogiczne reform, 47 (Pedagogical Experiments), sponsored student groups, 8-9, television series, 12 11, 70-1; see also KZMP, "Experience and the Future" Military Youth Circles, seminar group, 38 SZSP, ZMP struktury poziome (horizontal Family Affairs, State Council structures), within, 70 for, 67 see also nomenklatura farmers' Solidarity, see NSZZRI Subject Index 279

Firefighters' Academy, WSOP Gliwice miners, 26 (Wyzsza Szkola Oficer6w goon squads, see martial arts Pozarnictwa-Higher School of students Firefighters' Officers), Warsaw, Gromada Wl6cz~g6w (the Tramp 199; see also Firefighters' Gang), 19 Academy (WOSP) incidents Firefighters Academy (WOSP) Helsinki Conference on Security and incidents, 106-14, 131-3 188 . Cooperation in Europe, 21, 22 disinformation, 111-12 ' Htgher Education, Ministry of, 57, dual Ministerial jurisdiction, 107, 73, 107, 108, 168 108, 131-2 Decree of the Minister of Higher government view, 108 Education, of 17 March Higher Education Bill draft 1960, 57 132 omissions, Minister of, 10, 115; see also NZS recognition refused 108 Gorski, Janusz; Nawrocki, law declared (13 'nee martial Minister Witold 1981), 113 Higher Education Law (1958) 17 other Warsaw schools act 112 114 , , 128 police raids, 108, 109, 1Ii, Amendments to (1969), 16-17 provocations, 109, 132 amendments drafted school dissolved, 110, 133 (1980-1), 114-17, 168-9; Solidarity relations, 108, 109, 110, university self-government, 111, 132, 133 115; Main Council, 115, 116 student demands, 107, 132 enacted (1982), 129 132 strike (20 Nov 1981-), 107-14, omits WSOP, 132 summary, 131-3 Hundred Times Your Head Against the Wall, A (news bulletin) 38 Firefighters' Officers, Higher School 39 , , of (Wyzsza Oficercka Szkola Pozarnictwa) (WOSP), 199; see also Firefighters' Academy "information action", 41 (WOSP) incidents Initiating Committee of Free Trade Firefighters' Solidarity, 108 Unions, 145 University (Lataj~JCY Flying intelektualisci (intellectuals), 14, 137, Uniwersytet), 49-53, 100 136 194 , , 180, 194 Interplant Founding Committee see see also TKN MKZ ' Free Speech Movement (USA), 135 Interfactory Strike Committee see Freedom Summer (USA), 135, 139 MKS ' freedoms sought, 20 Interior, Ministry of (Ministerstwo French student movement Spraw Wewn~trznych), 107, (1960s), 177-9, 188-9 108, 112 funding of student associations, see Intervention Bureau, 138, 180, 191 student associations

Gdansk Agreement, 47, 117 Jac~son State (USA), 189 Gdansk Regional Solidarity Jagtellonian University (Uniwersytet Committee (MKZ Jagiellonski), 6, 7, 189 194 Gdanski), 119 Juvenalia boycotted, 24 ' 280 Subject Index

Kent State (USA), 189 Komitet Rektor6w Warszawskich KIK (Klub Inteligencji Wyzszych Uczelni (Committee Katolickiej-The Club of of Rectors of Warsaw Catholic Intelligentsia), 19, 194 Universities), a subgroup of the Klub Smoobrony Spolecznaj Ziemi Komitet Rektor6w, 195 Do1noslCJskie, see Social Konferencja Organizacji Self-Defense Club of Lower Uczelnianych NZS (Conference Silesia of University NZS KK (Krajowa Komisja-National Chapters), 99; see also NZS Committee) of Solidarity, 111, konwent ("convention"), 195 184; or of NZS, 128; see also KOR (Komitet Obrony KKP of Solidarity; KKK of Robotnik6w-Committee for NZS Workers' Defense), 14, 16, KKK (Krajowa Komisja 48-9, 141, 144-5, 180--1, 195 Koordynacyjna-National founders, 136 Coordinating Committee (of founding (Sep 1976), 48, 49, 137, the NZS)) (KK for 180 short), 42-3, 114, 117, 123, 128, Intervention Bureau, 138, 180 169, 194; see also NZS petitions, 138, 145 KKP (Krajowa Komisja strategy, 138 Porozumiewawcza NSZZ KOR (youth) associates, 136 Solidarnosc-National student associates, 27, 37, 40, 46; Coordinating Committee of academic centers, 145; 1968 Solidarity) (KK for short), 150, Student Movement, 136--7; 195 Student Movement Klub Krzywego Kola, see Crooked 1976--7, 137-8, 144-5 Circle Club KPN (Konfederacja Polski Klub Poszukiwaczy Sprzecznosci, Niepodleglej-Confederation see Contradictions Seekers' for an Independent Club Poland), 195 Klub RaczkujeJcych Rewizjonist6w, Krajowa Komisja see Creeping Revisionists' Porozumiewawcza, see KKP Club Krajowa Konferencja Rektor6w Kolegium do Spraw Wykroczen, see Polskich Wyzszych Uczelni, Sentencing Boards for also known as Komitet Misdemeanors Rektor6w, or the Rectors' Komandosi (Commandos), 12, Committee, the National 13-15, 19, 143 Conference of University Komitet Obrony Robotnik6w, see Rectors, 110, 196 KOR Kultura (opposition journal), 38 Komitet Rektor6w, also known as Kwadratowa, 77 Og6lnopolski Komitet KZMP (Komunistyczny ZwiCJzek Rektor6w, or the National Mlodziezy Polskiej• Committee of Rectors Communist Union of Polish (Og6lnopolska Konferencja Youth), 196 Rektor6w Wyzszych Uczelni), see Krajowa Konferencja LatajiJCY Uniwersytet, see Flying Rektor6w Polskich Wyzszych University Uczelni Lenin Shipyard, 46 Subject Index 281

Letter of the 59, 20 "State of War" declaration, 48 Letter of the 92, 21 Mazowsze Region Solidarity, 108, Letter of the 101, 20 128 Letter of the 300, 20 methodology of research for this liberum veto, 44 book, 201-11 libraries, independent, 62 "micro-mobilization context", Life and Light Movement (Ruch definition, 91 Swiatlo i Zycie), Mi~dzyzakladowy Komitet "Pro-lifers", 197 Strajkowy, see MKS Lindenberg's general evaluation of Mi~dzyzakladowy Komitet NZS--Solidarity Zalo:iycielski, see MKZ relationship, 172-7 Milicja Obywatelska, see MO Lower Silesian Social Self-Defense Military Youth Circles, 10 Club, 40 Minister/ Ministry of, see under L6dz (University of) specific name, e.g. Higher strike (Jan-Feb 1980), 60, 83, Education, Ministry of 90--106, 130--1, 175, 183, Mikrus dormitory, 55 187-8; assessing incident, 36--8, 43 outcome, 99-102, 106; MKS (Mi~dzyzakladowy Komitet winning official Strajkowy-The lnterfactory recognition, 99; barganing Strike Committee), 47, 48, 158, position of NZS, 102; 196 demands, 93-4; community MKZ (Mi~dzyzakladowy Komitet relations, 103, 105; focus of Zalo:iycielski-Interplant national student Founding Committee), 158, 196 movement, 93-4; MO (Milicja Obywatelska-Citizens' interorganizational Police), i.e. ordinary police, 13, cooperation, 106; location, 113, 138, 145, 196; see also why at Lodz?, 92; ZOMO negotiations, 94, 97-9; poster slogans, 95, 103-104; NAACP (National Association for Solidarity, relations with, 96, the Advancement of Colored 165; SZSP and NZS local People) (USA), 91 cooperation, 94, 95-96 National Association for the students of, 36 Advancement of Colored summary, 130--1 People, see NAACP National Defense, Minister of Main Council of Science and Higher (Minister Obrony Education (Rada Glowna Narodowej), 112 Nauki i Szkolnictwa National Program Council, 76 Wy:iszego), 115 nationalism Main Council of Higher Education anti-, 7 (Rada Gl6wna Szkolnictwa Polish, 7 Wy:iszego), 197 Nationwide Social Science Council martial arts students, 39 (Og6lnopolska Rada Nauk Academy of Physical Education Spolecznych), 76 SZSP goons, 51, 52 "new class, the", 45 martial law, 48, 107, 205 Niezale:ine Zrzeszenie Studentow, imposed (13 Dec 1981), 113 see NZS 282 Subject Index

Niezalemy SamorziJdny Zwil}Zek KKK (National Coordinating Zawodowy Rolnik6w Committee), 42-3, 114, 117, lndywidualnych "Solidarnosc", 123, 128, 169, 194 see NSZZRI membership, 139-40, 144, 182 Niezlemy SamorziJdny ZwiiJzek MKP (Inter-University Zawodowy "Solidamosc" Consulting Commission), 60 (Independent Self-governing name, origin, 54-5 Trade Union, national level, 56-60 "Solidarity"), 196; see also OKZ (National Founding Solidarity Committee) of, 102, 141, 143, 1968 student movement 150, 181, 184, 191 (Polish), 12-14 Party, the (Communist), relations effects of: negative, 14-15; to, 69-70, 168 positive, 15-16 prior activism among founders nomenklatura, 69, 85 and mentors, 134-44, 157, NOWa (underground publisher), 52, 179-80, 189-93; KOR and 138 the 1968 student movement, NSZZ Solidamosc, see Solidarity 136-7; KOR students NSZZRI (Niezalei:ny SamorZIJdny associates (1976-77), 137-8, Zwil}Zek Zawodowy Rolnik6w 144-5, 181; backgrounds of lndywidualnych "Solidamosc") founders, 141-3 Rural (Farmers') registration, 64, 73, 157, 166, 184 Solidarity, 196 resources, access to, 142 NZS (Niezaleme Zrzeszenie Solidarity, relationship Student6w-lndependent with, 144-77, 180; Students' Association), 1, 53-64 background: pre-August attractiveness, 78, 80--90 1980, 144-6; births of chapters: Cracow, 56, 147, 151, both, 146-8; conflicts with 154, 159, 161, 164; Gdansk, authorities, 164-72, 183-4; 53-54, 56, 60, 61; Poznan, 57; conflicts with each Warsaw, 55-56, 63-65, 151, other, 184-5 153, 161, 162; Lodz, 90--106, collaboration between workers 152, 164, 168, 175 (see also and students, 148-51, L6dz, University of: strike) 157-64, 182-3; cooperation charter, 60, 62 at local level, 154-64; comparison with American and co-sponsored candidates in French student movements, university elections, 152; 177-9, 188-9, 193 faculty, 148-9; joint Conference of University NZS activities, 151-3; Chapters, 99 Lindenberg's general confronting the authorities and evluation of, 172-7; youth their allies, 66-133 movements, both as, 153, critical view of early 178, 183; womens' actions, 60--1 role, 153-4, 178 demands, 63-65 SPGiS, 183 founders, 141-3, 189 strikes/sit-ins and threats to, 64; founding of, 53, 55 ff, 157, 177, Firefighters' Academy 181, 184; see also OKZ (WOSP), 106-114 (see also information center, 55 Firefighters Academy Subject Index 283

(WOSP)); L6dz, University ORMO (Ochotnicza Rezerwa of, 90--106, 164, 183, 184 (see Milicja Obywatelski• also L6dz, University of); Voluntary Reserve of the Radom WSI, 114-30, 185 Citizens' Militia), auxiliary (see also Radom WSI) police, 13, 14, 197; see also MO, SZSP, structure of conflict ZOMO with, 74fT summary,130-3; 179-86 Party, Communist, see Communist Ochotnicza Rezerwa Mi1icja Party Obywatelski, see ORMO PAX, a pro-regime Catholic odnowa (renewal) (1980--1), 1, 48-9, organization, 197 155, 192, 196 pizdziel, 156 precipitating: element, 36; Po prostu, 9, 10 factors, 46 riots, 10 Og6lnopolska Komisja Poland, brief political history, 44-8 Porozumiewawcza Szk6l police brutality and repression, 10, Wyzszych, see OKPSzW 13, 39, 41, 42, 45, 46, 48, 50, 52, Og6lnopolska Rada Nauk 53; see also ORMO, ZOMO Spolecznych, see Nationwide Polish Academic Union (Polski Social Science Council Zwi~zek Akademicki), see Og6lnopolski Komitet PZA Porozumiewawczy Nauki, see Polish Academy of Science (Polska OKPN Akademia Nauk), PAN, 130 Og6lnopolski Komitet Zalozycielski Polish Helsinki Watch NZS, see OKZ Committee, 197 OKPN (Og6lnopolski Komitet Polish News Agency (PAP), 109, Porozumiewawczy Nauki• 206 National Cooperating Polish Teachers' Union (Zwi~zek Committee of University Nauczycielstwa Polskiego Educators), 114, 196 (ZNP-Nauka)), 120, 121, 122 OKPSzW (Og6lnopolska Komisja Polish United Workers Party Porozumiewawcza Szk6l (PUWP}-Polska Zjednoczona Wyzszych-National Partia Robotnicza (PZPR), the Commission of Solidarity ot Communist Party (formed in Institutions of Higher 1948), 121, 168, 197 Education), 196 Polska Partia Socjalistyczna (Polish OKZ (Og6lnopolski Komitet Socialist Party), 8 Zalozycielski NZS-The Polski Zwi~zek Akademicki (Polish National Founding Committee Academic Union), see PZA of the NZS), 57, 141, 143, 150, Pope John Paul II; visits Poland (his 181, 184, 191, 197; see also homeland), 36, 46; see also NZS Wojtyla, Karol in Name Index Opinia, a newspaper, 196 PPR, 197 Organizacja Mlodziezy PPS, 197 Towarzystwa Uniwersytetu Private Farmers' Union, 96 Robotniczego (Youth Professors' Parliament, 7 Organization of the Workers' protests University Society), 8 farmers, 48; see also NSZZRI 284 Subject Index protests (cont.) martial law unexpected, 129 student, 38; Gdansk, Constitution national issue for NZS, 123-4, Day 1980, 42; "information 125-8, 133 action", against, 41; strikes, official propaganda, 127 sit-ins, 6, 58, 59, 60, 90-130, Solidarity's involvement, 115, 122, 133; see also NZS, SKS, 127, 128; appeals to NZS to KOR student associates end strike, 128 workers: 1956, 45; 1970, 45; 1976 summary, 133 (food price increase riots), 46, Rectors, National Conference of 48; 1980, 46; see also University, see Krajowa Solidarity Konferencja Rektor6w PW (Politechnika Warszawska• Polskich Wyzszych Uczelni Warsaw Polytechnic), 197 Rectors of Warsaw Institutions of Pyjas Obituary Posters Higher Education, Committee Incident, 24-6 of (Komitet Rektor6w memorial march and mass, 25 Warszawskich Wyzszych PZA (Polski Zwi~zek Akademicki• Uczelni), 112 The Polish Academic "Red University", see Szkota Union), 65, 197 Gt6wna Planowania i PZPR, see Polish United Workers Statystyki Party Reiff, Ryszard, 197 Rejtan High School, 22 Rada Gt6wna Nauki i Szkolnictwa Riviera students' residence, 36, 38 Wyzszego (Main Council of RMP (Ruch Mtodej Polski-The Science and Higher Young Poland Movement), 33, Education), 115 43, 197RMS (Ruch Mtodziezy Rada Gt6wna Szkolnictwa Szkolnej), 197 Wyzszego (Main Council of Robotnik, 141, 145, 147, 149, 182, Higher Education), 197 192, 197 Rada Wydziatowa (SZSP) ROPCiO (Ruch Obrony Praw (Department Council (of the Cztowieka i Obywatela-The SZSP)), 197 Movement for the Defense of Rada Wydziatu, the governing Human and Citizens' Rights, body of university 26, 33, 141, 197 departments, 197 Ruch Mtodej Polski, see RMP Radom conflict, WSI (Fall Ruch Mtodziezy Szkolnej, see RMS 1981), 114-30, 133, 168-70, 188 background-vicissitudes of the Samorz~d Studencki, students' self• Bill of Higher government, 197 Education, 114-19; draft SB (Stuzba Bezpieczeil.stwa• proposals, 115-18 "Security Service"), 21, 198; see evolution of conflict, direct vs. also secret police indexed school scholastic autonomy, brief history, 6 elections, 119-29; election of see also academic freedom Rector Hebda, 120-3; NZS Science, Higher Education and calls nationwide strike, 124 Technology, Ministry of (expands, 125, 127); salary (Ministerstwo Szkolnictwa scandal, 120, 121; school Wyzszego i Techniki), see under closed, 124 Higher Education, Ministry of Subject Index 285

SCLC (Southern Christian SMO (social movement Leadership Conference) organization), 2, 91, 131, 140, (USA), 91 179, 186, 187, 188, 193, 198 SDS (Students for a Democratic smuggling of Polish language books Society) (USA), 95, 107 into Poland, see Tatra secret police, 21, 198 Mountaineers meetings broken up, 32, 50, 52 Social Self-Defense Club of Lower searches, 29, 37, 41 Silesia (Klub Smoobrony Spole• see also Slu:i:ba Bezpieczenstwa cznaj Ziemi Dolnosll}skiej), 43 Sejm (the Polish parliament), 19, Socjalistyczny Zwil}zek Student6w Ill, 117, 119, 138, 145, 169, Polskich, see SZSP 198 Solidarity union (Solidarnosc), 2, 47, Sentencing Boards for 198 Misdemeanors (Kolegium do faculty, 148-9 Spraw Wykroczen), 12 KOR advisers, 149 SGPiS (Szkota Gt6wna Planowania predecessor, 47; see also MKS i Statystyki), 148, 183, 198 relationship with NZS, 144--57; Sigma Center for Political Work collaboration, worker• (Centrum Pracy Politycznej student, 157-64; conflicts SZSP Sigma), 58 with NZS, 164--72 SKS (Studencki Komitety relegalization, 193 Solidarnosci-Student youth movement, as, 153; see also Solidarity Committee), 4, 30, NZS 157 see also Niezle:i:ny Samorzl}dny critical evaluation of, 43--4 Zwil}zek Zawodowy chapters, 30: Cracow, 25-30, 40; "Solidarnosc" Gdansk, 26, 31-3; Solidarnosc, see Solidarity Poznan, 33-5, 40, 41; Southern Christian Leadership Szczecin, 36; Warsaw, 30-1, Conference (SCLC) (USA), 91 39, 40, 42; Wrodaw, 35-6, Soviet Union, 9, 100 40, 41 SOWA (Studencka Oficyna founding of (1977), 25-26, 138 Wydawnicza-Student name selection, 26 Publishing House), 198 1978-9 academic year, 38-9 SGPiS (the Central School of 1979-80 academic year, 39--40 Planning and Statistics in 1980 spring term, 41-2 Warsaw), "Red School", 162, NZS, on the eve of the, 43, 189; 190 see also NZS "star marches", 167 Pope's visit and the Mikrus dorm State Council for Family Affairs, 67 incident ( 1979), 36--8 Stowarzyszenie Patriotyczne publication, 40-1 "Grunwald" (Grunwald relationship to: KOR, 27; Patriotic Association), 198 NZS, 147, 189 Stronnictwo Ludowe (SL, the Slu:i:ba Bezpieczenstwa ("Security Peasants' Party), 8 Service"), 21, 198 Stronnictwo Demokratyczne (SD, see also secret police Democratic Alliance), 8, 126 SMI (social movement industry), 2, struktury poziome (horizontal 131, 140, 146, 179,182, 185, 186, structures), see under 187, 193, 198 Communist Party 286 Subject Index

Studencka Oficyna Wydawnicza, see membership inducements, 78, 79 SOWA Studencki Komitety Solidarnosci, Tatra Mountaineers, 17 see SKS Theater of the Eighth Day, 34 student activism in pre-odnowa theoretical implications and Poland, history of conclusions, 187-93 pre-Communist, 6-8 domination of macro-level policy Stalinist era, 8-9 by micro-level 1956-68, 9-12 decisions, 187-8 1968 student movement, 12-16 brief comparison of NZS with 1969-76, 16-28 French and American 1977-8 term, the, 29-35 student movements of see also SKS 1960s, 188-9, 193 student associations prior activism in clandestine dissolved by the government: groups, 189-93 Crooked Circle Club, 11; Theses for Discussion of the Contradictions Seekers' Independent Student Movement Club, 12 (Tezy do dyskusji nad funding of, 43 niezaleznym ruchem see also KOR associates, NZS, studenckim), 27-8, 30 SKS, SZSP TKN (Towarzystwo Kurs6w student collaboration with Naukowych-Society of workers, 54 Scholarly Courses), 50, 52, 198 Students for a Democratic Society, lectures, 50-3; SZSP (SDS) (USA), 95, 107 interfered, 38, 51 "sunk social costs", 135 see also Flying University Szkota Gt6wna Planowania i TKZ (Tymczasowy Komitet Statystyki (Central School of Zatoi:ycielski-Temporary Planning and Statistics), "Red Founding Committee), 198 University", 198 see also OKZ. SZSP (Socjalistyczny Zwi:}zek TKZ NZS, see TKZ Student6w Polskich-Socialist Towarzystwo Kurs6w Naukowych, Union of Polish Students), 37, (Society of Academic Courses), 41, 55, 72-3, 122, 126, 198; see see TKN also ZSP Tramp Gang, the, see Gromada attractiveness, 81; Wl6cz~g6w perceived negative twardoglowi (thickhead), 92, 112 characteristics, 80-90 Tygodnik SolidarnoSI: (Solidarity Communist Party: support, 70, Weekly), 151 72; view of, 73-74 conflict with NZS, structure UB (Urz:}d Bezpieczenstwa), 198 of, 74ff Universitiit ordinarien tradition, 153, control of campus resources 163 by, 77-9 Uniwersytet Jagiellonski, see creation of (1973), 18 Jagiellonian University defections to NZS, 148, 182, 192 Uniwersytet Warszawski (University goons from the Academy of of Warsaw), UW, 198 Physical Education, 51, 52 Urz:}d Bezpieczenstwa, see VB ltd. (bulletin), 89 UW, see Uniwersytet Warszawski Subject Index 287

Walterowcy (Walterites), 12 Yalta Aggreement, 45 Walterites (Walterowcy), 12 Young Poland Movement (Ruch Warsaw Agreemeny, 150 Mtodej Polski), see RMP Warsaw Polytechnic, 36-8 Council of the SZSP, 37 Warsaw University 49, 51 ZHP (Zwi'lzek Harcerstwa anti-merger movement, 136 Polskiego-Union of Polish political hiring criteria, 42 Scouts), 10, 11, 199 see also SKS Zjednoczone Stronnictwo Ludowe, "Wici", see ZMW see ZSL WifZ, a Catholic periodical, 14 ZMD, (Zwi'lzek Mtodzie:i:y WOSP (Wy:i:sza Oficercka Szkola Demokratycznej-The Union Po:i:arnictwa-Higher School of of Democratic Youth), 8, 199 Firefighters' Officers), ZMP (Zwi'lzek Mlodzie:i:y Warsaw, 199; see also Firefighters' Polskiej-Polish Youth Union) Academy (WOSP) incidents (1948-57), 8-9, 10, 18, 199 WOSP (Firefighters Academy) ZMS (Zwi'lzek Mtodzie:i:y incidents, see Firefighters' Socjalistycznej-Socialist Academy (WOSP) incidents Youth Union), 10, 11, 18, 55, WSI (Wy:i:sza Szkola In:i:ynierska• 199 Higher School of Engineering), ZMW (Zwi'lzek Mlodzie:i:y Wiejskiej in Radom, 119, 199; see also "WICI"-Rural Youth Union, Radom conflict, WSI 1943-8), 8, 10, 11, 65, 126, 199 WSI Radom conflict, see Radom ZNP (Zwi'lzek Nauczycielstwa conflict, WSI Polskiego-Polish Teachers' WSOP (Wy:i:sza Szkota Oficer6w Union (ZNP-Nauka)), 120, 121, Po:i:arnictwa-Higher School of 122 Firefighters' Officers), ZOMO (Zmotoryzowane Oddzialy Warsaw, 199; see also Milicji Obywatelskiej• Firefighters' Academy (WOSP) Motorized Units of the incidents Citizens' Militia), tactical or WSOP (Firefighters' Academy) riot police, 108, 109, 113, 114, incidents, see Firefighters' 132, 133, 199, 205; see also MO Academy (WOSP) incidents ZSL (Zjednoczone Stronnictwo Wy:i:sza Oficercka Szkola Ludowe-United Peasant Po:i:arnictwa (Higher School of Party), 10 Firefighters' Officers) ZSMP (Zwi'lzek Socjalistycznej (WOSP), 199 Mlodzie:i:y Polskiej-Socialist Wy:i:sza Szkola Oficer6w Union of Polish Youth), 199 Po:i:arnictwa, see WSOP ZSP (Zwi'lzek Student6w Wy:i:sza Szkota In:i:ynierska, Polskich-Polish Students' (Higher School of Union), 9, 10, 11, 55, 126, 136, Engineering),in Radom 199; see also SZSP (WSI), 119, 199, see also ZSR, 126 Radom conflict, WSI Zwi'lzek Harcerstwa Polskiego, see Wy:i:sza Szkola Nauk spolecznych ZHP przy KC PZPR (college for Zwi'lzek Mlodzie:i:y Demokratycznej Communist Party activists in (Democratic Youth Union), see Warsaw), 69 ZMD 288 Subject Index

Zwil}zek Mlodziezy Polskiej, see Rural Youth of the Polish ZMP Republic), see ZMP Zwil}zek Mlodziezy Socjalistycznej, Zwil}zek Student6w Polskich, see see ZMS ZSP Zwil}zek Mlodziezy Wiejskiej, see Zwiqzek Walki Mlodych, see ZWM ZMW ZWM (Zwil}zek Walki Mlodych• Zwil}zek Mlodziezy Wiejskiej Union of Fighting Youth), 8, Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej 200 "WICI" (Wici, the Union of Zycie Warszawy, 11