Sustainable Urban Environments

Ellen van Bueren s Hein van Bohemen s Laure Itard Henk Visscher Editors

An Ecosystem Approach Editors Ellen van Bueren Hein van Bohemen Faculty of Technology, Former Lecturer Ecological Policy and Management Engineering at Delft University Delft University of Technology of Technology; now Eco Jaffalaan 5, 2628 BX Delft Engineering Consultancy The Netherlands Holierhoek 36 [email protected] 2636 EK Schipluiden The Netherlands Laure Itard [email protected] OTB Research Institute for the Built Environment Henk Visscher Delft University of Technology OTB Research Institute for the Jaffalaan 9, 2628 BX Delft Built Environment The Netherlands Delft University of Technology [email protected] Jaffalaan 9, 2628 BX Delft The Netherlands [email protected]

ISBN 978-94-007-1293-5 e-ISBN 978-94-007-1294-2 DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1294-2 Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York

Library of Congress Control Number: 2011935998

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012 No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microﬁlming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied speciﬁcally for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.

Cover illustration: Impression ‘Hangende Tuinen’, Erasmusveld Den Haag. Artist: A. van Timmeren, Atelier 2T, Haarlem.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Contents

1 Introduction ...... 1 Ellen van Bueren 2 (Eco)System Thinking: Ecological Principles for Buildings, Roads and Industrial and Urban Areas ...... 15 Hein van Bohemen 3 Urban Ecology, Scale and Identity ...... 71 Taeke M. De Jong 4 Water Flows and Urban Planning ...... 91 Sybrand Tjallingii 5 Energy in the Built Environment ...... 113 Laure Itard 6 Material City: Towards Sustainable Use of Resources ...... 177 Loriane Icibaci and Michiel Haas 7 Air Quality and Human Health ...... 205 Arjen Meijer 8 Liveability ...... 223 Machiel van Dorst 9 Urban Transport and Sustainability ...... 243 Bert van Wee 10 Sustainable Urban Form ...... 263 Jody Milder 11 Environmental Strategies and Tools for Integrated Design ...... 285 Laure Itard 12 Climate Integrated Design and Closing Cycles ...... 313 Arjan van Timmeren

v vi Contents

13 Governance Tools ...... 341 Lorraine Murphy, Frits Meijer, and Henk Visscher 14 Managing Change ...... 365 Anke van Hal and Ellen van Bueren 15 Conclusions and Solutions ...... 399 Thorsten Schuetze, Hein van Bohemen, and Ellen van Bueren

Contributing Authors ...... 415

Index ...... 419 Abbreviations

AMESH Adaptive Methodology for Ecosystem Sustainability and Health ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations AU African Union BEE Building Environmental Efficiency BREEAM Building Research Establishment (BRE) Environmental Assessment Method C2C Cradle-to-Cradle CAFÉ Corporate Average Fuel Economy CBA Cost–benefit analysis CCPP Combined cycle power plan CCGT Combine cycle gas turbine C&D Construction and demolition waste CDM Clean development mechanism Ce Cerium CEO Chief executive officer CHP Combined heat power COP Coefficient of performance CPTED Crime prevention through environmental design CR Corporate responsibility CSD Committee on spatial development DALY Disability adjusted life years DC Direct current DFD Design for deconstruction DGBC Dutch Green Building Council DGNB Deutsche Gesellschäft für Nachhältiges Bauen EBI Environmental Building Index ECI Environmental costs indicator EGS Enhanced geothermal systems EIA Environmental impact assessment

vii viii Abbreviations

EM Effective microorganisms EMS Environmental management systems EPC Energy Performance Certiﬁcate EPD Environmental product declarations ESCO’s Energy service companies ESDP European Spatial Development Perspective EU European Union FROG Free range on grid FSC Forest Stewardship Council GHG Greenhouse gas GDP Gross domestic product GRI Global Reporting Initiative GSI Ground Space Index HVAC Heating, ventilating and air conditioning IRENA International Renewable Energy Agency IRM Integrated resource management J Joules Ktoe Kiloton oil equivalent La Lanthanum LCA Life cycle analysis/Life cycle assessment LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design MFA Material ﬂow analysis MIB Milieu-Index-Bedrijfsvoering MJ Megajoules MKI MilieuKostenIndicator Nd Neodymium

NOx Nitrogen oxides NIMBY Not in my back yard OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OEI Operational Environmental Index PRT Personal rapid transit SEA Strategic environmental assessment SHGC Solar heat gain coefﬁcient SI Sustainable implant SMY Standard meteorological year Sm Samarium SME Small and medium-sized enterprises

SO2 Sulphur dioxide Abbreviations ix

TMY Typical meteorological year Toe Ton oil-equivalent TPES Total primary energy supply TRY Test Reference Year UAE United Arab Emirates UN United Nations UNEP United Nations Environment Programme Va Voluntary agreement VOCs Organic compounds Wh Watt-hour ZPE Zero point energy

List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Relationships between scales ...... 5 Fig. 1.2 Activities, participants and time at different life cycle stages ...... 6 Fig. 1.3 Input, throughput and output of ﬂows in the built environment ...... 7 Fig. 1.4 The Ecodevice model ...... 7 Fig. 1.5 Outline of the book ...... 12 Fig. 2.1 Ecosystems as a black box ...... 19 Fig. 2.2 Ecosystems as a black box ...... 19 Fig. 2.3 Ecosystem representation showing input and output of nitrogen as well as internal ecosystem processes concerning Nitrogen ...... 20 Fig. 2.4 Meaning of symbols used in Figs. 2.5–2.7; developed by Odum (1983) ...... 20 Fig. 2.5 (a) Generalized ecosystem model and (b) A life-support model ...... 21 Fig. 2.6 Terrestial system according to the systematic and symbols of Odum (1978) ...... 21 Fig. 2.7 Model of a road ecosystem ...... 22 Fig. 2.8 The Ecodevice model ...... 23 Fig. 2.9 Flow management at different scales ...... 23 Fig. 2.10 Water balance of Brussels ...... 24 Fig. 2.11 Idealized cross-section of a large city with varying ecological features with intensive and extensive built up areas and inner and outer suburban zones ...... 24 Fig. 2.12 Ecosystem responses to disturbance: resistance, resilience and instability ...... 31 Fig. 2.13 Flora districts of the Netherlands ...... 41 Fig. 2.14 Road effect zone ...... 44

xi xii List of Figures

Fig. 2.15 Linear and circular metabolism ...... 48 Fig. 2.16 A “diamond” heuristic of the ecosystem approach ...... 50 Fig. 2.17 The traditional energy system versus a more sustainable one that uses waste heat optimally ...... 55 Fig. 2.18 A systems approach in the ﬁeld of agriculture ...... 57 Fig. 2.19 Glasshouses combined with buildings ...... 57 Fig. 2.20 The transportation system and built-up environment are sustained by the natural environment ...... 58 Fig. 2.21 Comparison of two living machines with different by-products ...... 61 Fig. 2.22 The interior of part of a living machine system: Tanks with rafted plants on the water surface ...... 62 Fig. 2.23 Example of a green roof ...... 63 Fig. 2.24 Example of a green roof with solar cell panels ...... 63 Fig. 2.25 Street canyons with green façades and green roofs and with trees, in relation to the movement of dust particles ...... 64 Fig. 3.1 Number of plant species per km2 found in the new town Zoetermeer ...... 73 Fig. 3.2 Number of species and landscape heterogeneity in West Flanders ...... 77 Fig. 3.3 Landscape heterogeneity and %built-up, adapted from Fig. 3.2 ...... 78 Fig. 3.4 Island theory predicting the number of birds in urban parks by size ...... 78 Fig. 3.5 Ecological tolerance in theory and reality ...... 80 Fig. 3.6 Scale paradox ...... 82 Fig. 3.7 Ecological evaluation of neighbourhoods named by designers (r = 300 m) according to the method of Joosten (1992) ...... 83 Fig. 3.8 Quality as a working of variety ...... 87 Fig. 4.1 Urban areas and the water cycle ...... 94 Fig. 4.2 Urban areas and the water balance ...... 94 Fig. 4.3 Two guiding principles: cascading and closing the circle ...... 102 Fig. 4.4 Ecosystems, from buildings to region ...... 103 Fig. 4.5 A toolkit of guiding models for urban water planning: some examples. From bottom-up: Single house level (left existing; right new; numbers refer to water use per person per day in litres); street/park level; urban district level; catchment level ...... 104 Fig. 5.1 The global ecosystem ...... 114 Fig. 5.2 Natural and human ecosystem ...... 115 List of Figures xiii

Fig. 5.3 Worldwide primary energy supply in 2006 from renewable resources (sun, wind, tide etc.), inorganic nutrients and organic matters (coal, oil and gas) (from the energy balances from IEA, www.iea.org) ...... 116 Fig. 5.4 Total final consumption per sector per region ...... 117 Fig. 5.5 Share of electricity in the final energy consumption in the residential and commercial and public services sectors ...... 118 Fig. 5.6 Final energy consumption in the residential sector and in the commercial and public services sector for 19 OECD countries ...... 119 Fig. 5.7 A generic energy chain ...... 120 Fig. 5.8 Energy chain in buildings ...... 122 Fig. 5.9 Environmental conditions influencing the energy balance of a building ...... 124 Fig. 5.10 Solar radiation on a building ...... 125 Fig. 5.11 Transmission losses through walls, roof, floor and windows (left) and their relationship with conduction, convection and radiation (right) in the

case where To < Ti. If To > Ti, the heat flows in opposite direction ...... 126 Fig. 5.12 The main types of ventilation systems ...... 130 Fig. 5.13 The process of absorption of solar radiation into the construction ...... 132 Fig. 5.14 The hourly heating and cooling capacities (above for the complete year, below for 10 days) that are also the hourly energy demand for heating ...... 140 Fig. 5.15 Calculated average annual energy demand (MJ/year) for a pre-1940 poorly insulated (A) and a modern 2 well-insulated (B) Dutch dwelling (Afloor = 80 m ) ...... 146 Fig. 5.16 Calculated average annual energy demand (MJ/year) for a pre-1940 poorly insulated (A) and a modern 2 well-insulated (B) Dutch office building (Afloor = 3,000 m ) ...... 146 Fig. 5.17 Exergy, or energy cascading ...... 151 Fig. 5.18 A simple gas/steam cycle ...... 154 Fig. 5.19 Combined heat and gas cycle ...... 155 Fig. 5.20 Working principle of a fuel cell ...... 156 Fig. 5.21 Hydropower ...... 158 Fig. 5.22 Enhanced geothermal system ...... 161 Fig. 5.23 Combined heat and power ...... 162 Fig. 5.24 Primary energy with electrical heating ...... 164 Fig. 5.25 Primary energy when using a boiler for heating ...... 165 Fig. 5.26 An example of a solar boiler ...... 166 Fig. 5.27 Heat pump/cooling machine ...... 168 xiv List of Figures

Fig. 5.28 Primary energy use when a heat pump or a cooling machine is used ...... 168 Fig. 5.29 Heat and cold storage in ground ...... 170 Fig. 5.30 Evaporative cooling ...... 170 Fig. 5.31 Environmental impacts from the production of 1 MJ heat with a gas boiler, an electrical heating and a heat pump with COP = 2.5 ...... 172 Fig. 5.32 Environmental impacts of several electricity production processes ...... 173 Fig. 6.1 Aerial photograph of mine ...... 178 Fig. 6.2 Global cement production by region ...... 179 Fig. 6.3 Comparison of environmental impact of three buildings with different designs ...... 181 Fig. 6.4 Example of the relative weightings of the BREEAM scores ...... 194 Fig. 6.5 GPR-Gebouw for existing buildings clearly shows the improvement that is achieved ...... 196 Fig. 6.6 Overview of GreenCalc analysis of energy consumption in kWh per year in a building design and in a reference design...... 197 Fig. 6.7 The three Dutch building tools and how they differ ...... 199 Fig. 7.1 Sources and transport routes of air pollutants ...... 207

Fig. 7.2 Map of NOx concentrations in Western Europe ...... 208 Fig. 8.1 The different perspectives: (a) The individual and his or her environment (people, artefacts, nature), (b) a community and the environment made of artefacts and nature, (c) humanity and our natural environment ...... 225 Fig. 8.2 Perceived liveability – the appraisal of the individual for his or her habitat ...... 226 Fig. 8.3 Apparent liveability – the perfect match between species and habitat ...... 226 Fig. 8.4 Presumed liveability is emphasising the presumed conditions for liveability ...... 226 Fig. 8.5 This island in the central district of Rotterdam has – due to the obvious boundaries – a strong identity ...... 228 Fig. 8.6 The neighbourhood Hoogvliet (Rotterdam) with multi-storey apartment blocks: the so-called ‘ﬂoating public space’ lacks obvious and defensible borders, and the result is an anonymous no-man’s land ...... 232 Fig. 8.7 The gallery; a zone with clear boundaries but not a setting for social behaviour ...... 235 Fig. 8.8 Subtle zones between private and public domein ...... 236 List of Figures xv

Fig. 8.9 The message is clear: this zone is primary for inhabitants and less for passing-by ...... 237 Fig. 8.10 Obvious boundary: you are entering a new zone ...... 237 Fig. 8.11 The front garden as a buffer between public and privacy, but also as a zone where interaction takes place ...... 238 Fig. 8.12 Making a gallery more than a narrow hallway by adding: (a) extra balconies for residing, (b) more width for respecting privacy, (c) more width to add a semi-private zone before the apartment, (d) shortcuts between galleries for more freedom in routing...... 238 Fig. 9.1 A conceptual framework for the impacts of the transport system on the environment, accessibility and safety ...... 245 Fig. 10.1 Compact city planning in Shanghai Urban Planning Exhibition Hall ...... 271 Fig. 10.2 Central Park in New York City is one of the most iconic green open spaces in the world ...... 272 Fig. 10.3 Examples of different forms of compact development in Berlin and Porto. Left: East Berlin’s Karl-Marx Allee; right: Porto’s dense historic inner city ...... 277 Fig. 10.4 The urban heat island effect ...... 279 Fig. 11.1 Relationship between the natural and human ecosystems...... 287 Fig. 11.2 Ecodevice model: general strategy to increase the sustainability of systems ...... 288 Fig. 11.3 Life cycle phases of building components ...... 295 Fig. 11.4 Energy savings for the six variants ...... 299 Fig. 11.5 Environmental impacts of the six renovation variants ...... 300 Fig. 12.1 The Vauban project on scales 1,000 × 1,000 m, 300 × 300 m, 100 × 100 m and 30 × 30 m ...... 317 Fig. 12.2 The working/living block of apartments in the district of Vauban, and its service room ...... 318 Fig. 12.3 System conﬁguration of the biogas system ...... 318 Fig. 12.4 Flintenbreite project on scales 1,000 × 1,000 m, 300 × 300 m, 100 × 100 m and 30 × 30 m ...... 319 Fig. 12.5 The “infra-box” (left, middle) during the construction phase of the project, and the model of the neighbourhood (right) ...... 320 Fig. 12.6 The Kolding project on scales 1,000 × 1,000 m, 300 × 300 m, 100 × 100 m and 30 × 30 m ...... 321 Fig. 12.7 The glass pyramid with (fenced-off) retention pond and helophytes puriﬁcation ...... 322 Fig. 12.8 Schematic representation of the ‘Zonneterp’ project and the cycles within the connected greenhouse and houses ...... 324 xvi List of Figures

Fig. 12.9 EVA Lanxmeer project on scales 1,000 × 1,000 m, 300 × 300 m, 100 × 100 m and 30 × 30 m ...... 325 Fig. 12.10 Lanxmeer district with orchard, drinking water extraction area, retention ponds and helophytes (left) and housing cluster organised around semi-open court yards (right) ...... 326 Fig. 12.11 The chosen transportation and processing option for different flows of waste waters (GW grey water, BW black water, GW green/organic domestic waste) ...... 327 Fig. 12.12 Longitudinal section over the EVA Centre with integrated Sustainable Implant, SI (left) and Living Machine integrated in the entrance area (right) ...... 328 Fig. 12.13 Conceptual plan of the EVA Centre with Sustainable Implant and model of the building ...... 328 Fig. 12.14 Impression of the Sustainable Implant (Subcomponent I, to the right, and subcomponent II, in front) integrated into the EVA Centre, in the EVA Lanxmeer district, Culemborg ...... 329 Fig. 12.15 The recognisable bus stops (left) in the city (similar to above-ground tube stations –without thresholds between bus and platform) and large fast-lane buses (right) ...... 334 Fig. 14.1 The benefits of early integration ...... 367 Fig. 14.2 Key-players in the supply chain for building and construction ...... 369 Fig. 14.3 The diffusion of environmental innovation in housing ...... 375 Fig. 14.4 Historical perspective on phases relating to sustainability ...... 380 Fig. 14.5 Overview of stakeholders in the construction sector ...... 382 Fig. 14.6 Target groups sorted out by opinion on sustainability ...... 382 Fig. 14.7 The traditional approach ‘thinking profit’ versus the merger of interests ...... 389 Fig. 14.8 Interpretation of Porter’s competitive strategy from a sustainable viewpoint ...... 389 Fig. 14.9 Innovations diffuse along an S-shaped curve ...... 395 List of Tables

Table 2.1 Deﬁnitions of biodiversity ...... 18 Table 2.2 Characteristics of immature and mature ecosystems ...... 26 Table 2.3 Examples of ecological engineering ...... 28 Table 2.4 Some often used terms to describe ecosystems ...... 32 Table 2.5 An overview of the different zonal vegetation of the main continents ...... 39 Table 2.6 Vegetation types of Europe ...... 40

Table 2.7 Average ecological footprint and CO2 emissions of a UK resident (in %) ...... 48 Table 2.8 Ten principles for systems analysis according to Hough and Day (2000) ...... 52 Table 2.9 Comparison of different city types...... 54 Table 3.1 Six ecologies and their key concepts ...... 75 Table 3.2 Urban dynamics on different time scales ...... 81 Table 3.3 Operational variation per level of scale ...... 81 Table 3.4 Ecologies arranged to their primary supposed range of scale ...... 83 Table 3.5 The levels of scale in Dutch synecological nature conservation policy ...... 85

Table 5.1 Typical Rc values of constructions ...... 127

Table 5.2 Estimates of gglass values for windows ...... 133

Table 5.3 Rough estimates of gshade values for shading devices ...... 133

Table 5.4 Typical heat gains (PM) caused by people in W/people ...... 135 Table 5.5 Luminous efﬁcacy range of light bulbs in lumen/W ...... 135 Table 5.6 Maximum allowable lighting power per square meter 2 ﬂoor area, Plight (W/m ) ...... 135 Table 5.7 Power of appliances in (W) ...... 135 Table 5.8 Estimates of the total electrical power of appliances 2 Pappliances (W/m ) ...... 137

xvii xviii List of Tables

Table 5.9 Conversion table for energy units (note that 1 W = 1 J s−1) ...... 138 Table 5.10 Unit prefixes ...... 138 Table 5.11 Estimation of typical full load hours for heating and cooling in the Netherlands ...... 141 Table 5.12 Average daily hot water demand (in litres) in the US ...... 145 Table 5.13 Net calorific value per fuel type ...... 152 Table 5.14 Classification of energy generation systems ...... 153 Table 6.1 Concepts for understanding resource use and developing design strategies ...... 184 Table 6.2 Overview of well-known building assessment tools ...... 192 Table 6.3 Summary of BREEAM categories and main issues ...... 193 Table 7.1 Health effects as a result of indoor environmental problems...... 215 Table 9.1 Relationships between the spatial scale of traffic and environmental effects ...... 248 Table 9.2 Share of transport in emissions in the USA, 2008 ...... 250

Table 9.3 Share of transport CO2 emissions (excluding aircraft, marine ships), 2001, world regions ...... 250 Table 9.4 Road fatalities for selected EU countries, 1970−2006 ...... 251 Table 9.5 (Expected) Road fatalities 2000 and 2020 for selected world regions ...... 251 Table 9.6 Travel time losses (hours) due to congestion on the main road network in the Netherlands, 2000−2007 (index 2000 = 100) ...... 252 Table 9.7 Travel time losses due to congestion, USA, 1982−2009 ...... 252 Table 9.8 Dominant relationships between determinants for sustainability relevant impact of transport and policy instruments ...... 255 Table 10.1 Urban forms and their main characteristics ...... 268 Table 11.1 Comparison of LEED, BREEAM, SB Tool and GPR ...... 302 List of Boxes

Box 2.1 Examples of Resilient Processes Within Different Ecosystems ...... 34 Box 2.2 Example of Using Resilience as a Management Strategy in the Field of Water Management ...... 36 Box 2.3 Habitat Patch–Corridor–Matrix Model ...... 45

Box 5.1 Amount of Solar Radiation ...... 116 Box 5.2 Electrical Energy Demand Buildings ...... 146 Box 6.1 Raw Materials from a Geopolitical Perspective ...... 182

Box 7.1 Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALY) ...... 210

Box 13.1 Environmental Management Systems...... 345 Box 13.2 ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution ...... 346 Box 13.3 Climate Change Act ...... 348 Box 13.4 Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ...... 349 Box 13.5 The Green Map System ...... 349 Box 13.6 Planning Regulation ...... 352 Box 13.7 Tax Credits ...... 353 Box 13.8 CDM Project – Biogas Support Programme ...... 354 Box 13.9 Green Roof Subsidies ...... 355 Box 13.10 Corporate Responsibility Reporting ...... 355 Box 13.11 Energy Performance Certiﬁcates ...... 357

xix