Africa

Aedesius (4th century). Syrian pioneer mission- ratism and persecution. Despite the failure of ary to Ethiopia. Aedesius and his brother Fru- North African Christianity to contextualize the mentius were traveling on a ship with their fa- faith, Augustine’s observation that the story of ther from Tyre to India when the ship was the African church is the story of the clash of wrecked. All on board except the two brothers two kingdoms, the City of God and the earthly were killed; they were found by representatives city, continued to illuminate African church his- of the Ethiopian King Ella Amida and taken into tory. his service. Their education stood them in good Ethiopia. Solid evidence for the conversion of stead and they introduced the king and his Ethiopia appears in 350, when King Ezana be- young son to the Christian faith. When Aeizanas, gins to ascribe his victories to the “Lord of All the prince, became king he and his court gave . . . Jesus Christ who has saved me” rather than themselves to Christ. Eventually Aedesius re- to the traditional gods. Crucial to this change turned to Tyre, while Frumentius was appointed was the ministry of Bishop Frumentius, who had bishop and returned to Ethiopia. been commissioned by Athanasius of Alexandria A. Scott Moreau as a missionary to Ethiopia. The precedent set by Athanasius became entrenched and the Ethio­ Bibliography. S. C. Neill, HCM. pian Orthodox Church continued to receive its abun (bishop) by appointment of the Egyptian Africa. The growth of the church in Africa is one Coptic patriarch. By Ezana’s death in 400 Chris- of the most surprising facts of twentieth-century tianity was firmly rooted at court but had made church history. From an estimated 4 million pro- little impact on the countryside. That changed in fessing Christians in 1900 African Christianity the sixth century with the coming of a new mis- has grown to over 300 million adherents by the sionary force from Syria. The tesseatou Kidous- year 2000. What accounts for such growth? The san (“nine saints”) established monasteries in the common notion that nineteenth-century mis- rural areas and engaged in widespread evange- sionary efforts explain African Christianity’s re- lism. Linked with the Egyptian Coptic Christian- cent explosion is an oversimplification. The true ity and armed with the Scriptures in the vernac- story behind these statistics reaches back to the ular the Christians of Ethiopia entered the very earliest centuries of Christian history. Middle Ages, where they “slept near a thousand Beginnings. The roots of African Christianity years, forgetful of the world, by whom they were are to be found in the four regional churches of forgotten” (Gibbon). Africa in the Roman era—Egypt, North Africa, Nubia. Like Ethiopia, Nubia (modern Sudan) Nubia, and Ethiopia. The origins of Christianity was never part of the Roman Empire. The Chris- in Egypt are obscure. The first documentary evi- tianity that infiltrated Nubia began a religious dence of the existence of an Egyptian church revolution in Nubia that transformed both peo- dates from a.d. 189 with Bishop Demetrius. Per- ple and prince by the sixth century. Archaeologi- secution in the third century caused the faith to cal evidence that came to light only in the 1960s spread down the Nile into rural Egypt among the has revealed the vigor of Nubian Christianity. Coptic-speaking population, where it found a Two sixth-century missionaries from Byzantium, new champion in Antony, the father of monasti- Julian and Longinus, are credited with officially cism. After a period of syncretism in the fourth introducing the Christian faith, in its Mono- century, mature Coptic churches emerged in the physite form, to this kingdom along the Blue fifth century under the leadership of inde- Nile. pendently minded monastic leaders such as She- The African Middle Ages. These four original nout. The signs of an indigenous Christianity sources of African Christianity faced their great- rooted in the language and life of the people est challenge during the African Middle Ages. were everywhere evident, including Cop- The first challenge, which inaugurated the Afri- tic-speaking clergy and Coptic liturgies together can Middle Ages, came from a new religion— with Scripture translations. Islam. The second challenge, which brought the North Africa. While Egyptian Christianity was African Middle Ages to an end, came from the a testimony to the importance of a contextual- kingdoms of European Christendom represented ized Christianity, North Africa was a sober re- by the Portuguese and the Dutch. minder of the fragility of a faith insufficiently North African and Nubian collapse. The rise rooted in the life of the people. The Roman seg- and spread of Islam across Africa’s northern ment of North Africa embraced the gospel with shore in the seventh and eighth centuries was vigor but the Punic and Berber peoples were followed in the tenth and eleventh centuries by a never adequately reached. The brilliance of southward expansion led by the merchant and North African Christianity cannot be doubted. the missionary. North Africa was most dramati- The genius of Tertullian, Cyprian, and Augustine cally affected by this expansion of Islam. The de- is well known, yet even their brilliance could not cline of North African Christianity was nearly prevent the decline of a church troubled by sepa- total by the sixteenth century. Attempts by the 1 Africa fourth crusade (1215) to liberate North Africa pean “discovery” of Africa and the establishment politically and Franciscan attempts to revive it of a trading empire that spread from Lisbon to spiritually ended in failure. A faith only lightly India. Christian communities were established rooted in the life of the people faded into mem- in West Africa and in port cities along the south- ory. ern and eastern coasts but Portuguese missions Nubia proved more resistant. During the enjoyed its greatest success in the ancient king- eighth through tenth centuries, while Islam con- dom of Congo, where the king Afonso I pro- tinued to expand in Africa, Nubian Christianity moted the new faith aggressively. Yet the mis- reached its height. But in 1272 Muslim Turks sionary efforts of the Catholic missionaries were sent by the legendary Saladin overthrew north- eventually undermined by the commercial inter- ern Nubia. In 1504 the southernmost kingdom, est of Portuguese merchants who quickly saw Alwa, was conquered by a tribe from the south potential for a profit in the slave trade. Hatred of recently converted to Islam. The last word from the Portuguese trader soon was directed at the Nubian Christianity occurs in 1524 when they Portuguese priest. By the time of Livingstone’s wrote to the Coptic patriarch of Egypt for help to travels in the mid-nineteenth century few ves- meet their critical shortage of clergy. The lack of tiges of Portuguese Christianity could be found. indigenous church leaders combined with the Dutch Expansion. In 1652, one hundred repre- failure to evangelize the peoples to the south sentatives of the Dutch East India Company conspired to undermine Nubian Christianity. landed on Africa’s southernmost tip and pro- Egyptian and Ethiopian survival. Christianity ceeded to establish a way station for the com- survived the onslaught of Islam but not without pany ships traveling from Amsterdam to Batavia losses. Caliph Umar had forbidden new churches in the Pacific. From this modest beginning came or monasteries but under the Umayyids (661– Cape Town and the beginnings of the nation of 750) this law was not enforced. Other forms of South Africa. The first church established was pressure, however, were applied. In 744 the Mus- that of the Dutch Reformed Church but by 1900 lim governor of Egypt offered tax exemption for Lutherans and Moravians had also begun their Christians who converted to Islam. Twenty-four work. The churches of the settlers soon came thousand responded. Throughout the African into conflict with a missionary Christianity Middle Ages the Coptic church suffered from a spawned by the wave of Great Awakenings that lack of trained leadership, discriminatory laws, were sweeping North America, England, and Eu- and a stagnant ritualism in worship. Nonethe- rope in the eighteenth century. An early repre- less, it survived. By 1600 Egypt was a “country of sentative of this new evangelical movement was dual religious cultures.” the Moravian Georg Schmidt, who began work Ethiopian Christianity also followed the path among the Khoisan of the Cape in 1738. He soon of survival. After a crisis in the tenth century came into conflict with the established church when the pagan Agau nearly toppled the king, and was stopped from further mission work in Ethiopian clergy began to work for reform and 1748. revival of the national faith. One movement of African Christianity in the Nineteenth and renewal brought a new dynasty to the imperial Early Twentieth Centuries. The Antislavery cru- throne of Ethiopia. The most popular leader of sade. While Schmidt was struggling with the the Zagwe dynasty, Lalibela, strengthened Ethio- stubbornness of his Dutch hosts, English evan- pia’s religious patriotism by building a New Jeru- gelicals began to struggle with the issue of slav- salem in the Ethiopian highlands and strength- ery. John Wesley condemned slavery in a pam- ening the belief that Ethiopians were the new phlet of 1774, and a number of his followers took Israel through whom God would bring light to up the cause. Early opposition to slavery came the nations. Under the missionary monk Tek- from Granville Sharp, Thomas Clarkson, and la-Haymanot Ethiopian Christianity experienced William Wilberforce through the support of his revival. New missionary efforts among the Shoa upper-class evangelical friends (the Clapham of the south met with success. Emperor Zara-Ya- Sect). The first breakthrough came in 1807 with qob (d. 1468) brought Ethiopia to new heights of the passage of a bill prohibiting the slave trade glory but by 1529 the kingdom was in decline. but allowing ownership. By 1833 legislation was Ahmad Gragn, a Muslim, successfully overthrew passed abolishing slavery everywhere in the Brit- the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia but his reign ish Empire. British evangelicals had opposed was short-lived. Within a few years Christian slavery both on humanitarian grounds as well as Ethiopia was restored, this time with the help of missiological ones. They realized that their de- a new player on the African stage—the Portu- sire to engage in missions in Africa would be se- guese. riously thwarted by the existence of slavery. The The Portuguese. Inspired by their visionary missionaries that English societies sent out to leader, Prince Henry, the Portuguese embarked Africa were therefore equipped with the dual on a campaign of aggressive expansion between message of “Christianity and commerce.” It was 1450 and 1700. This expansion led to the Euro- thought that Western-style commerce would 2 Africa make slavery economically unnecessary, thus Afrikaner Christians were an elect nation en- permitting the message of Christianity to make dowed by God with both a right to rule the land its way deep into the lives of the hearers. and a right to resist the nonelect. This religious The growth of Christianity in Western Africa. In tradition became a political and cultural force 1787, 411 freed blacks left London to found a that found expression in the formation of the Af- community called Freetown in what is now Si- rikaner Nationalist Party. erra Leone. It became a haven for freed slaves A second expression of South African church and an outpost for the spread of the gospel. Like life in the nineteenth century was that of “mis- the Puritans who settled New England, these sionary Christianity,” which made major inroads early settlers burned with religious zeal. Free- into the Xhosa community and produced out- town became a Christian commonwealth that standing believers such as the hymn writer inspired similar Christian communities farther Ntsikana and the African Presbyterian leader, down the coast in the Nigerian towns of Abeo- Tiyo Soga. Such African leaders encouraged the kuta and Badagry. “Recaptives” (slaves liberated missionary-dominated churches to engage in by the British Navy) added to the population of programs of training, including Lovedale College Freetown. Many converted to the Christian­ faith and Fort Hare University. David Livingstone’s and found an opportunity for training at Free- fame exceeded that of all other nineteenth-­ town’s Fourah Bay college, established in 1827. century missionaries despite his failure as evan- One of the most outstanding graduates of the gelist (he saw only one convert, who eventually college was a young recaptive named Samuel fell away). His achievements as an explorer, an Ajayi Crowther. Crowther was ordained in 1843, antislavery crusader, and missions promoter es- and in 1864 became Africa’s first Anglican tablished his place in history. bishop. The Church Missionary Society (CMS) Though missionary Christianity tended to em- recognized in Crowther the leader they needed to phasize an inward piety and a broadly evangeli- further the spread of Christianity in Africa. cal theology that stood in contrast with the more Under Henry Venn, an aggressive program of Af- reformed Afrikaners by the late nineteenth cen- ricanization was adopted that called for the im- tury, attempts were made to bridge the gap. Most mediate building of self-supporting, self-propa- successful was Andrew Murray Jr., moderator gating, and self-governing local churches. of the DRC and champion of both evangelical Crowther was asked to implement this strategy piety and missions. His emphasis on “Absolute in the Nigerian interior. Through the failure of Surrender” and the formation of new agencies some members of his team and through the hos- such as the South Africa General Mission (now tility of white missionaries opposed to Venn’s African Evangelical Fellowship) acted as a cor- policies, Crowther was forced to resign. Leader- rective to the Afrikaner Christianity. ship of the CMS work in West Africa fell into A third expression of South African Christian- white hands. This led to a number of African-ini- ity was that of the social gospel championed by tiated churches. In addition to Nigeria, work people like the Anglican bishop John Colenso went on in Liberia, Ghana, Cameroon, Gabon, and John Jabavu. The emphasis of this form of Senegal, and Zaire, which was the main arena Christianity was upon economic and political for Catholic missions. justice. Colenso opposed the Afrikaner and En- Southern Africa. While West Africa was evan- glish messianic nationalism, which he saw at the gelized largely by Africans returning to their root of injustice in South Africa. His clash with motherland, South Africa from the very earliest Bishop Robert Gray of Cape Town ended with days of Christianity was dominated by the white the formation of an independent Anglican com- expatriate. Despite the common denominator of munion in South Africa. Like Colenso, John Ja- white domination, there was little unity in South bavu regarded politics as an appropriate arena African Christianity, which saw three distinct for Christian involvement. A tireless campaigner and mutually hostile expressions of Christianity for African rights, he founded his own indepen- emerge in the nineteenth century. dent newspaper. This third expression of Christi- The first expression was that of Afrikaner anity would become a major force in the years Christianity and the Dutch Reformed Church. following South Africa’s Sharpville massacre of After England gained control of South Africa in 1960. 1815, conflicts between Boer farmers and En­ Despite the fragmented witness to the king- glish administrators multiplied, which led to dom of God provided by South African Christi- mass migrations of Afrikaner families to north- anity, this region entered the twentieth century eastern regions of South Africa. One small party as one of the most Christianized regions in all of of “voortrekkers” encountered an army of Zulu Africa. Yet white domination of the churches warriors. Their surprising victory at the battle of would eventually spawn a vigorous movement of Blood River in 1838 coupled with the tradition “Ethiopianism”—separatist churches that de- that the trekkers had made a special covenant manded respect from the Westerner and a with God prior to the battle fueled the belief that greater share of church leadership. 3 Africa

Eastern Africa. The nineteenth century wit- duced Catholicism in 1879. Despite the indiffer- nessed the reintroduction of Christianity into the ence of King Mutesa I and the violent hostility of former Nubia (Sudan) and in Mombasa (Kenya). his son Mwanga, Protestant and Catholic Christi- Ethiopian Christianity was also revitalized during anity eventually produced a religious revolution the century. Additionally the lands of Tanzania in Uganda that spilled beyond the borders of the and Uganda saw the initial introduction of this kingdom of Buganda into the smaller kingdoms ancient African faith among their own people. that make up the modern-day nation of Uganda. Ethiopia and Sudan. In 1830 the CMS arrived The missionary factor. The colonial era (1885– in Ethiopia. Originally working within the Coptic 1960) brought sweeping changes to African church, Protestant missionaries such as J. Ludwig Christianity. The most notable change was the Krapf clashed with Coptic church authorities, proliferation of missionaries and agencies from leading to expulsion in 1843. Under Emperor Me- the West and the corresponding growth of Afri­ nelik II, Ethiopian Christianity experi­enced a new can Christianity. In 1900 there were an estimated surge of life and entered the twentieth century 4 million Christians spread throughout the conti- carefully guarding its dearly won political and re- nent compared to 60 million Muslims. By the au- ligious independence. In Sudan, Catholic work tumn of colonialism in 1950 the number of Afri- under the leadership of the Verona Fathers was can Christians had reached 34 million. swept away by the Islamic Mahdist movement. The missionaries of the colonial era were, on Kenya. Krapf began work in Kenya in 1844 the whole, a remarkable lot. Like Rowland Bing- after his expulsion from Ethiopia. Together with ham of the Sudan Interior Mission (SIM; now his colleague Johann Rebmann, Krapf envi- Society for International Ministries), they sioned a chain of mission stations across the were a tough-minded breed who often buried continent, linking up with Freetown in West Af- their colleagues and kept going. Like George rica. His vision would guide numerous mission Grenfell of the Baptist Mission Society of agencies for the next century. Though he at- Congo, they were tireless explorers and enemies tempted to establish the eastern link of this of the slave trade. Like Albert Schweitzer of chain at Rabai Mpyia, it was the later formation Gabon they were often humanitarians. Like of Freetown in 1874 as a refuge for runaway Mary Slessor of the Calabar mission many were slaves that gave Christianity its firmest foothold single women who gave their entire lives to the in British East Africa. Outstanding Christian work. Like P. A. Bennett, acting secretary of the leaders came from the community at Freetown, CMS in Nigeria, they were sometimes incorrigi- including David Koi, Kenya’s first Protestant ble racists. But like Archdeacon Dennis, also of martyr. These missionary efforts on the coast the CMS in Nigeria, they more often opposed were soon augmented by a new thrust inland. racism with equal vigor. Like Father Shanahan James Stewart, a Presbyterian missionary at of Nigeria they aggressively founded schools. Lovedale College, was recruited by Livingstone Most important, like Carl Christian Reindorf of to establish an industrial mission in the Kenyan Ghana, they mastered the vernacular languages interior in 1891. The CMS began work among of the people and like George Pilkington of the Kikuyu of Kenya’s central highlands in 1901. Uganda, they translated the Scriptures and Peter Cameron Scott and his newly founded Af- trained indigenous evangelists. This last factor, rica Inland Mission began churches among the vernacular translations and the training of na- Kamba people in 1895. The Holy Ghost Fathers tional evangelists, accounts for the remarkable began work in Nairobi in 1899. church growth that took place during the colo- Tanzania. Catholic missionary efforts centered nial decades. around the formation of a “Christian Village” at Independent religious movements. One reaction Bagamoyo (1868), where three hundred freed to the missionary factor was the birth of the Afri- slaves found a place of refuge. Protestant work can Initiated Church Movement. The indepen- was conducted by the Universities Mission to dent churches that were founded tended to fall Central Africa (UMCA), who were vigorous in into distinct groupings. Some were primarily their opposition to the Arab slave trade that was concerned with African leadership and only sec- decimating the inland peoples of Africa’s Great ondarily concerned with changing missionary lake region, where the LMS and CMS had estab- theology or worship. A second grouping empha- lished a presence. Through the intervention of sized healing and the supernatural. Armed with Germany the Arab slave trade was broken and a Scriptures in their own languages they struck out number of German mission agencies introduced on their own, like William Wade Harris of Libe- Lutheranism. ria, whose preaching in West Africa between Uganda. More dramatic than in any other part 1913 and 1915 claimed over one hundred thou- of East Africa was the response to the gospel in sand adherents. Others like Simon Kimbangu of Uganda. Christianity was introduced by the CMS Zaire catalyzed separation from missionary in 1877 and flourished under the zealous leader- churches into new denominations. In some cases ship of Alexander Mackay. White Fathers intro- these prophet churches moved clearly outside the 4 Africa bounds of orthodoxy. Such was the case with Isa- in bridging denominational dividing lines, some iah Shembe and his Church of the Nazarites in by working with the independent churches. South Africa. After his death in 1935 his follow- Theology and culture. In Roman Catholic as ers proclaimed that he had risen from the dead well as Protestant circles great effort has gone and was in fact the true Christ for Africa. A third into the formation of a Christian theology that category covers movements of revival within es- would adequately address the modern African tablished denominations. The passion in these context. The varieties of theologies within the Af- types of movements was the discovery of a vital rican context range from theologies of identity to Christianity to replace a numbing nominalism in traditional evangelical formulations to radical the church. The outstanding example of this third liberation theology. African evangelical theology type of movement is the East Africa Revival that is still emerging, but important voices include swept much of East Africa from 1930 onwards. Tokunboh Adeyemo, Kwame Bediako, Byang Christianity in Independent Africa. In 1960, Kato, Lamin Sanneh, and Tite Tiénou. fourteen African nations achieved selfhood and African missions and church growth. In the inaugurated a new era within African Christian- 1970s Kenyan Presbyterian leader John Gatu ity. Henry Venn’s vision of an African Christian- called for a Moratorium on Western missionar- ity that was self-governing, self-propagating, and ies in order to foster “selfhood” within the self-supporting was at last realized. In denomi- church. The outcome of this debate has been a nation after denomination African leaders re- decrease in “mainline” missionaries (5,000 in placed missionaries. The new leaders faced a 1959 to 3,000 in early 1970) At the same time number of new challenges in the modern era. there has been a resurgence of missions in three Five challenges in particular have dominated Af- other groups. In 1974 a Synod of Bishops at rican Christianity in the closing decades of the Rome rejected the call for moratorium and twentieth century. pledged 100,000 new missionaries by the year Church and state. The overarching fact of mod- 2000. Evangelical missionaries from the faith ern African life since the late 1960s was wide- missions grew from 11,000 in the 1970s to over spread disillusionment with the nation-state. As 16,000 in the late 1980s. In addition dozens of the promise of the new African ruling elite new African mission agencies emerged in the turned sour, criticism began to mount. The com- 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. The most dramatic mon response of the ruling elite to the growing story of church growth in Africa, however, was chorus of criticism was tightened control, pro- the expansion of Pentecostal and charismatic motion of personality cults and messianic na- preachers, evangelists, and missionaries in the tionalism, and growing conflict with the church. closing decades of the twentieth century. The gospel of health, wealth, and wholeness ac- Kwame Nkrumah’s tragic rise and fall in Ghana counted for much of the appeal of this form of was all too typical. Zaire’s Mobutu Sese Seko, Li- Christianity. beria’s Samuel Doe, Uganda’s Idi Amin, and Ethi- Discipleship, leadership, and nominalism. The opia’s Mengistu Haile Mariam were typical of greatest challenge facing African Christian lead- leaders who saw the church as a dangerous inde- ership was the challenge not of the unreached pendent voice. Church responses have varied but of the undiscipled. If one accepts the statis- from silent partnership with the ruling elite tics that African Christianity has grown from an (Roman Catholicism in Rwanda, DRC in South estimated 4 million professing Christians in 1900 Africa) to critical protest of state injustice (Des- to some 300 million adherents today then one is mond Tutu in South Africa, NCCK in Kenya). forced to ask how these huge numbers of people Occasionally the state has lashed out violently can be discipled. Though the promise of African against the church as in the cases of the mar- Christianity is great, the church of Africa must tyred Archbishop Janani Luwum of Uganda and wrestle with the dilemma of a Christianity that the numerous imprisoned pastors of Mengistu’s may be “expanding at the periphery” even while Ethiopia. it is “collapsing at the center” (Roland Oliver). Unity and diversity. Over six thousand different Leadership development and the training of the independent churches were documented in Af- laity seem to be the crucial needs of this conti- rica by the late 1960s. Organizations like the All nent “shaped like a question mark” (Ali Mazrui). Africa Conference of Churches (AACC), the Orga- Mark Shaw nization of African Instituted Churches (OAIC), and the Association of Evangelicals in Africa Bibliography. J. Baur, 2000 Years of Christianity in (AEA) have sought to bring some unity to the Africa; J. de Gruchy, The Church Struggle in South Af- fractured body of Christ in Africa. A series of rica; R. Gray, Black Christians and White Missionaries; C. P. Groves, The Planting of the Church in Africa; Pan-African Christian Leadership Assemblies A. Hastings, The Church in Africa, 1450–1950; E. Isi- (PACLA) have sought additional harmony by chei, A History of Christianity in Africa; L. Sanneh, West bringing leaders of the AACC and AEA together. African Christianity; M. Shaw, The Kingdom of God in Parachurch agencies have also played their part Africa. 5 Ansgar

Ansgar (801–865). Early French missionary to tion and economic dynamism of Asian nations, Sweden. Known for his humility, courage, and particularly in the Asia-Pacific basin (Japan, Tai- initiative, he was born in northwestern France. wan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and China), many Displaying serious Christian commitment at an are saying that “the 21st Century will be the Age early age, his missionary zeal came most likely of Asia.” from the Corbey monastery, which found spiri- Changing Patterns of Asian Societies: Politi- tual roots in Columban and Irish monasticism cal Changes. Politically, there are three major (see Celtic Missionary Movement). Later he factors affecting Asia and the Asian church. helped found a monastery in Westphalia (New First, every nation in Asia except Japan and Corbey) for newly converted Saxons, holding the Thailand have experienced bitter foreign colonial office of preacher and first master. domination, especially from the Western nations. Ansgar’s first mission was to Denmark (c. 823), But today all nations in Asia are politically inde- accompanying recently baptized King Harald to pendent. National independence from political establish converts in Schleswig. In 829 Swedish Colonialism has brought enormous changes in officials arrived at the court of Louis the Pious the political structures of the national govern- (successor to Charlemagne) asking for missionar- ments as well as many internal conflicts and ies. Ansgar responded, leaving Denmark. He and wars among different ethnic groups in many his companions endured hardships and piracy, Asian nations. Related to independence and eventually arriving in Birka on the island of strong Nationalism is the withdrawal of Western Björkö in Lake Mälar, west of present-day Stock- powers, finalized for Britain in July of 1997 holm. when Hong Kong reverted back to China. The Among Ansgar’s first acquaintances were mass exodus of British troops from the former Christian slaves, brought to Sweden from Viking colonies in South and Southeast Asia, the French raids. These and others (including members of defeat in former French Indo-China (Vietnam, the royal court) were organized into Ansgar’s Cambodia, and Laos), and the American military first congregation. Ansgar left Sweden to assume withdrawal from South Vietnam, Taiwan, and the archbishopric of Hamburg. His return to the Philippines have created a political vacuum Sweden was delayed nearly twenty years by in many regions. pagan reactions to Christianity. Upon returning, In the past it was the foreigners who con- he reorganized the congregation, later aban- trolled the internal as well as foreign affairs of doned when commerce moved from Birka to Up- their colonies. The expatriates regulated mis- psala. Ansgar’s legacy is that of a harbinger. Al- sionary activities according to their own national though his personal efforts yielded little lasting interests. In contrast today an increasing num- fruit, Christianity would be established in Swe- ber of Asian nations have used political pres- den some 250 years later with the destruction of sures against foreign missionary activities in the pagan temple at Uppsala. their countries, especially in the communist Steven J. Pierson (China, North Korea, Vietnam, Kampuchea, and Laos) and Islamic (Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangla- Bibliography. K. S. Latourette, The Thousand Years desh, Malaysia, and Central and Middle Eastern) of Uncertainty; R. Murray, A Brief History of the Church nations. Hindu nations (India and Nepal) and of Sweden; Rimbert, Anskar, the Apostle of the North. Buddhist nations (Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Myanmar) also bring pressure against Christian Asia. Asia covers thirty independent nations in activities. In 1997 more than 83 percent of the the vast areas of land from Japan in Northeast Asian population resided in countries where the Asia, numerous other nations in Southeast Asia acquisition of a missionary visa was very limited. and South Asia, and up to Turkey in West Asia. A creative access strategy is needed in order to Asia represents three major cultural blocs (Mes- facilitate alternative ways of carrying on mis- opotamia, India, and China) and the birthplaces sionary activities (see Creative Access Coun- of the major living World Religions of Christi- tries). anity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism. The re- Second, as a result of this self-control, Asian gion’s population of approximately three billion nations are experiencing a resurgence of nation- represents 60 percent of the world’s total popula- alism and traditional values. This resurgence tion. Its five thousand years of history have made which derives from chauvinistic, patriotic pas- it a continent of rich cultural heritage. The major sion has been expressed in cultural, linguistic, wars of the past four decades have been fought and religious ways. A common motto throughout in Asia, bringing much suffering to millions of Asia is “Import Western technology, but retain Asians but also awakening them to their need for your own traditional culture.” spiritual values. Third, the rise of the communist threat was Historian Arnold Toynbee once stated, “The real throughout Asia during the Korean War changing events of Asia will decide the future of (1950–53) and the Vietnam War (1964–75). Com- the world tomorrow.” With the rapid moderniza- munist ideology still controls over two billion 6 Asia people in China, North Korea, Vietnam, Kampu- assimilation of the Chinese and Indians into the chea, and Laos. In these countries the activities Malay Islamic culture. of national churches and of foreign religious Buddhism, too, has been revived in Thailand, workers are restricted. Myanmar, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, and other Bud- Economic and Social Changes. One word dhist nations. Throughout urban cities and rural that describes Asia the best is “changes,” for Asia communities one can observe thousands of de- is rapidly changing in social and cultural pat- vout Buddhists worshiping the statues of Bud- terns as well as in economic living standards. dha and offering food and burning incense in New building construction sites for high-rise Buddhist temples. apartments, department stores, and government In India, Hinduism was also revived through offices are commonly observed in major cities of its reform movements such as Brammo Samaj, Asia. Rapid Urbanization, traffic congestion, air, Arya Samaj, and Rama Krishna Mission of the noise, and water pollution, drugs, prostitution, nineteenth century. Radical Hindu followers of and crime have marred the dreams of many the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and Asians. The lifestyle of the urban cities is getting the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) contributed more materialistic, secularistic, and Western- significantly to rejuvenate Hinduism and Hindu ized. However, rural people are still living as they nationalism in India and make minority commu- always have for hundreds of years. There is a nities of Muslims and Christians feel threatened widening gap between urban and rural and be- and insecure by insisting that a true Indian must tween rich and poor. With the increase in eco- be a Hindu. nomic power, many Christians in Asia are not In Japan, there is a renewed interest in tradi- only able to manage their churches financially tional religious traditions, including some signs but also to support their own missionaries of increasing links between the state and Shinto- within and outside their borders. ism. Nevertheless, with rapid church growth in With the rise of living standards and the rapid many nations in Asia, there has been an increas- ing confrontation between Christianity and other Modernization of Asian society, Asians are fac- ing many social and cultural changes. The influx traditional religions of Asia. Therefore, it is cru- cial for the Asian church to learn how to deal of Western cultures into Asia through mass with the traditional religions of Asia. media by introducing Hollywood movies into Asia: The Least Evangelized Continent. Asia theaters and TV, rock music, fashion shows, and is the least evangelized continent in the world, other secular and hedonistic events along with with approximately 3 percent of the three billion fast food chains have made a tremendous impact people following Christ. Johnstone provides sta- upon Asian lifestyles. Consequently, there is an tistics of seven large Asian nations which have increasing gap between the older and younger small Christian populations, including China, generations. Young people today care much less Taiwan, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Japan, and about traditional culture, have no memory of the Thailand. The vast majority of the unreached wars and the sufferings of their parents’ genera- people today reside in these countries. tion, and readily accept new ideas and practices. The AD2000 and Beyond Movement has em- Religious Resurgence. There are three large phasized the evangelization of unreached peo- non-Christian religious groups which constitute ples in the 10/40 Window. These countries cover the majority of Asia’s three billion people: one the whole continent of Asia from Japan to India, billion Muslims, 700 million Hindus, and 300 and from Central Asia to North Africa. The million Buddhists (see Islam, Hinduism, Bud- Adopt-a-People Campaign of the U.S. Center for dhism). There has been a resurgence of major re- World Mission in Pasadena reports that there are ligions in Asia and religions are used by the na- approximately two billion people in 11,000 un- tional governments to promote unity among reached people groups (out of a worldwide total different tribes, cultural groups, and languages. of 24,000). The influence of Islam, seen in the reintroduc- The vast majority of these two billion are tion of ­Shari’a and the rise of Islamic fundamen- found in four major blocs. The Islamic world talism, is growing. Malaysia exemplifies this. The contains over one billion Muslims, most of Federation of Malaysia consists of West Malay- whom reside in Asia, with over 4,000 unreached sia, Sarawak, and Sabah. It has 22.3 million peo- Muslim people groups in the world. The Hindu ple, 52.5 percent of whom are Malays, 30 percent world of India and Nepal represents more than Chinese, 8.1 percent Indians, and 8.9 percent tri- 700 million Hindus in 2,000 unreached groups. bals. The Federation is trying to unite these dif- Most of the 300 million Buddhists are found in ferent races through the unification of language Southeast and Northeast Asia, representing ap- and religion. The Malaysian government en- proximately 1,000 unreached people groups. The forced the Bahasa Malaysian program in which Chinese in China today represent by far the larg- the Malay language is used, instead of the ver- est number of unreached peoples in the world naculars. Consequently, there has been a gradual with 1.2 billion people, living in some 1,000 un- 7 Asia reached people groups. There are millions of Tamil-speaking Indians. In 1792 the Baptist Mis- other people who belong to 3,000 small individ- sionary Society in England­ commissioned Wil- ual tribes. Therefore, Asia still presents the great- liam Carey to Calcutta, India. He did missionary est challenge to Christian missions today and in work in India for forty-one years. In 1807 Rob- the next century. ert Morrison of the London Missionary Society Most nations in the 10/40 Window do not eas- came to Macao and translated the Bible into the ily grant visas for foreign missionary work. Ap- Chinese language. In 1813 Adoniram Judson proximately 20 percent of the total missionary from the United States arrived in Rangoon, force in the world works in these restricted na- Burma, and ministered to the Burmese for thir- tions in Asia. This means that the future focus of ty-seven years. Since then, thousands of other world missions in the twenty-first century must Protestant missionaries from Europe, North be on the two billion unreached peoples of Asia. America, and Australia/New Zealand have fol- With the development of modern transportation lowed these pioneers to work in different parts of and mass media through television, film, radio, Asia. telephone, fax, and e-mail service, we can now Church Growth in Asia. The amazing church know the background of these unreached peo- growth in Asia since the end of World War II has ples in Asia (see also Information Technology, been widely reported throughout the world. Sev- Media, and Mass Communication). The Global eral countries have experienced dramatic rates C o n s u ltat i o n o f Wo r l d E va n g e l i z at i o n of church growth. The Christian population in (GCOWE ’95) which met in Seoul, Korea, with South Korea has reached 12 million Protestants 4,000 participants from 186 nations in May 1995 (25% of the population) and 2.4 million Roman adopted a motto, “A church for every people and Catholics (6% of the population) among 47 mil- the gospel for every person,” and challenged all lion people since the arrival of the first Protes- participants to pray especially for the unreached tant missionaries in Korea in 1884. China, the peoples of the world within the 10/40 Window. most populous nation in the world, had never Expansion of Christianity in Asia. The his- exceeded one percent Christian population until tory of Christianity in Asia goes back to the first the Peoples’ Republic of China was established century. According to the Acts of Thomas, St. in 1949. Since the modernization of China began Thomas came to the Malabar coast of Kerela, in 1979, the Christian population has sharply in- South India, to preach the gospel to the Indians creased. Some China watchers in Hong Kong re- and became a martyr near Madras in a.d. 72. The port that there are between 50 million and 70 Christian message penetrated into the regions of million Christians and 50,000 house churches Media, Persia, Parthia, and Bactria (modern (see Chinese House Church Movement), even Iraq, Iran, and Afghanistan) by a.d. 150. Accord- ing to the Nestorian Tablet which was discovered though the Three Self Patriotic Movement in the city of Sian in central China in 1625, a (TSPM) and the Communist Party only acknowl- Nestorian missionary from the Syrian church, edge the growth of the church from one million Protestant members in 11,470 churches in 1949 Alopen, went to China in a.d. 635. During the Mongolian Empire of the twelfth to thirteenth to 7,000 state churches with 6 million Christians centuries, several Roman Catholic friars such as and 20,000 registered home meetings in 1995. John of Plano Carpini, John of Montecorvino, The Philippines, which is the only Roman and William Rubruck went to China as mission- Catholic nation in Asia, has a growing number of aries. Protestant believers. Indonesia, with the largest With the historic voyage of Vasco Da Gama to Muslim population in the world, has also experi- Capetown, South Africa, in 1498 and to Malabar, enced rapid church growth. After the communist India, two years later, the Western colonial age coup failed in Indonesia in 1966, President Su- known as “the Vasco Da Gama Age” began in harto’s government guaranteed religious free- Asia, Africa, and South America. Francis Xavier, dom to five major religions (Islam, Hinduism, a Jesuit missionary, came to Kagoshima, Japan, Buddhism, Protestantism, and Roman Catholi- in 1549 and ministered to the Japanese for more cism) according to the “Pantasila” policy in the than two years, moved to South China in 1552, Constitution. Singapore, known as the cross- and died there after four months. Since then, roads of Asia with a multiracial and multireli- thousands of other Roman Catholic missionaries gious background, has Protestant and Roman have been commissioned to Asia. Catholic populations of 8 percent and 5.7 per- The beginning of the Protestant missions in cent respectively, particularly among educated the early eighteenth century heralded another Chinese and Indians. Nepal, the only Hindu era in Asia’s mission history. In 1706 the first kingdom in Asia, was very hostile to the gospel Protestant missionaries arrived in South India until a multipolitical party system developed in from Europe. The Danish-Halle Mission sent 1991. It has experienced remarkable church Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg and Henrich growth from only a handful of believers to over Plutschau to Tranquebar to work among the 52,000 Protestant members (0.56% of the popu- 8 Asia lation) and 2,100 Roman Catholics (0.02% of the sions Congress was held in Pattaya, Thailand, in population) today. 1997 with 350 participants with the theme, “Into Slower growth has been seen in countries the 21st Century: Asian Churches in Missions.” such as Japan, Taiwan, Thailand, and India. In 1997 approximately 30,000 Asian missionaries Minimal growth has been experienced in na- from India, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, tions where there are tremendous struggles and Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, resulting pressures from unsympathetic govern- and others joined their hands with Western mis- mental and religious leaders, such as Pakistan, sionaries for world evangelization. Two nations Bangladesh, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, and the Mid- in Asia which sent out the largest number of dle Eastern nations. cross-cultural missionaries were India and South Seven Basic Issues of an Asian Church. Korea with 20,000 and 5,500 cross-cultural mis- Many Asian church leaders and theologians have sionaries respectively. discussed various issues of the Asian church Challenge of Asia to Christian Missions through different consultations. With the rapid Today. As Paul had his missionary concern for growth of the church in different parts of Asia, the Jews and Gentiles in Palestine, Asia Minor, the Asian churches are facing seven important Macedonia, Achaia, and Rome in the first cen- issues: (1) grassroots evangelism must be em- tury, so Asian Christians today must have their phasized in order to reach the vast number of deep prayerful concern to reach their own peo- non-Christians in Asia; (2) leadership training ple with the gospel of Christ on the grassroots for both full-time Christian workers and lay lead- level. How Paul evangelized the largest city of ers is needed since there is a tremendous short- Ephesus in Asia Minor in the first century pro- age of trained leaders at the local church level; vides a very significant missiological lesson to (3) since lay Christians play a very important the Asian church today. There are a number of role in church growth, there has been an increas- similarities between the Ephesus of Paul’s time ing demand for lay training programs; (4) na- and urban cities in Asia today and between the tional Christians must seriously evaluate their Ephesian church then and the Asian church in own contextual situation in order to find the our time. If Paul were to come to Asia today and most effective indigenous ways to communicate walk on the streets of Bombay, Singapore, Ja- the gospel of Jesus Christ (see Contextualiza- karta, Bangkok, Hong Kong, Shanghai, Taipei, tion); (5) theological issues emerging from vari- Seoul, and Tokyo, what kind of ministry would ous kinds of Asian theologies, religious Dia- he launch to bring the good news of the gospel of logue, Religious Pluralism, and Human Rights Jesus Christ to Asians? have created theological confusion in the Asian The city of Ephesus of the first century and theological arena; (6) Christian social responsi- Asian cities today have three main similarities. bility with its holistic approach must be empha- First, Ephesus, which was the largest city in Asia sized to help the poor and to alleviate the suffer- Minor with a population of 500,000, had a great ing from social injustice and discrimination; and harbor, emporium, library, commerce, educa- (7) spiritual renewal within the church is desper- tion, and culture. Likewise, Asian cities are ately needed to bring spiritual revival among the crowded with the masses of people and many members of the church. There must be a discern- high-rise buildings developed in modern sur- ible difference between the lifestyles of Chris- roundings. Second, as Ephesus was the religious tians and their non-Christian neighbors. city with the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:23–41), The Asian Missionary Movement. It is en- so is Asia today filled with spirits, idols, and su- couraging to observe that many Asian churches perstitious beliefs of traditional religions of Hin- particularly since 1970 have been sending their duism, Buddhism, Taoism, Shintoism, and own cross-cultural missionaries. Many Asian Islam. Third, Ephesus was a sinful city, as Paul church leaders who attended the international described it as “having lost all sensitivity, they missions congresses were deeply challenged for have given themselves over to sensuality so as to the task of world evangelization, and as a result indulge in every kind of impurity, with a contin- organized their own national and regional evan- ual lust for more” (Eph. 4:19). Likewise, Asian gelism congresses and missions consultations cities are filled with sin, crime, drugs, sexual im- (see Asian Mission Boards and Societies). morality, bribery, and injustice. Consequently, the Asia Missions Association When Paul faced the great task of evangelizing (AMA) was organized in 1973 to coordinate mis- Ephesus and many other cities in Asia Minor sions agencies throughout Asia. In 1990 the First and Europe in his time, he concentrated on the Asian Missions Congress was held in Seoul, leadership training of the Ephesian church by Korea, sponsored by the Missions Commission emphasizing the spiritual gifts: “It was he who of the Evangelical Fellowship of Asia (EFA) with gave some to be apostles, some to be prophets, 1,200 participants from different parts of Asia. and some to be evangelists, and some to be pas- The theme of the congress was “World Missions: tors and teachers, to prepare God’s people for The Asian Challenge.” The Second Asian Mis- works of service, so that the body of Christ may 9 Augustine of Canterbury be built up” (Eph. 4:11–12). There is a Chinese 596 to convert the pagan English and “refound” proverb that teaches a similar lesson, “Give a the church in England. He was a reluctant mis- man a fish and he will eat for a day. Teach a man sionary, but one of duty who led a band of thirty to fish and he will have food for a lifetime.” It monks to England. He was well received by was imperative, therefore, for Paul to train the Ethelbert, king of Kent, whose wife was already leaders of the Ephesian church in order that they a Christian before their marriage. Within one would be able to train others to bring the gospel year of his arrival, Augustine had converted the to 500,000 people in the city of Ephesus. Like- king and many of his people. In 597 Augustine wise, the training of national church leaders in traveled to Arlis, France, to be consecrated arch- the Asian church today is also imperative in bishop of Canterbury. Gregory then made him order to reach three billion Asians with the gos- metropolitan bishop of England and established pel. These spiritual leaders will be able to mobi- England’s independence from the French see. lize the laity of the church at the grassroots level Augustine failed to regain the allegiance of the in order to penetrate into the non-Christian ancient Celtic church and was insensitive to local Asian society with the gospel of Christ. customs. He did, however, lay a firm foundation Therefore, three important proposals need to for the church in England through the establish- be stressed for the evangelization of Asia. First, ment of the see at Canterbury and building of the burden of communicating the gospel and the monastery of Saints Peter and Paul in that making disciples in Asia today must rest primar- city. Augustine’s evangelistic effort was limited ily with the national Christians. Therefore, the primarily to Kent and the surrounding region, national church must implement the concept of but led eventually to the conversion of all En- “Christianization of the nation” among the na- gland. tional Christians. Second, effective church Kenneth D. Gill growth in Asia depends on the creative and spir- it-filled leadership of pastors and lay leaders. Bibliography. Bede, Ecclesiastical History; M. Dean- Third, and finally, the top priority of the Asian esly, Augustine of Canterbury; V. L. Walter, EDT, p. 105. church in the twenty-first century must be the training of national church leaders in order that Augustine of Hippo (354–430). Seminal African they would be able to mobilize the laity of the theologian and apologist. Aurelius Augustine, church. bishop of Hippo Regius in North Africa, is the God has always worked through his chosen most important Latin theologian of the Roman people in the history of redemption. Peter says in Catholic Church and the spiritual father of all 1 Peter 2:9–10, “But you are a chosen people, a the major Reformers. In many of his voluminous royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people belong- writings Augustine discusses problems of signifi- ing to God, that you may declare the praises of cance to missions, as he was actively involved in him who called you out of darkness into his reaching African people as well as Roman citi- wonderful light. Once you were not a people, but zens. Augustine held both a strong belief in God’s now you are the people of God; once you had not predestination of people and a strong conviction received mercy, but now you have received that it is the will of God to preach the gospel ev- mercy.” In centuries past God has used the erywhere. He denied that the Great Commission churches in Europe and North America to bring was already achieved by the apostles on the basis the gospel to Asia, Africa, and South America. of his personal awareness of barbarian tribes in Asia, known spiritually as the darkest continent Africa to whom the gospel had not yet been in the world with the least Christian population preached. He recognized that God had not prom- of any continent, is experiencing God’s spiritual ised that Abraham would be a blessing to the Ro- awakening among its peoples. God has chosen mans alone, but to all the nations. Augustine Asia and the Asian church in the twenty-first held that the majority of the nations and people century to proclaim his wonderful light to mil- would become Christians before the return of lions of Asians and around the world. Christ, a postmillennial element in his otherwise Bong Rin Ro amillennial eschatology. Thomas Schirrmacher Bibliography. S. Athyal, ed., Church in Asia Today; D. E. Hoke, ed., The Church in Asia; S. H. Moffett, A Bibliography. Augustine, Confessions; P. Brown, Au- History of Christianity in Asia; M. Mohamad and gustine of Hippo; H. Chadwick, Augustine; M. Marshall, S. Ishihara, The Voice of Asia; B. R. Ro, ed., Christian The Restless Heart: The Life and Influence of St. Augus- Suffering in Asia; P. T. Welty, The Asians. tine; J. J. O’Donnell, Augustine.

Augustine of Canterbury (d. c. 604). Church- Boniface (Winfrith) (680–754). English mis- man and missionary to England. Augustine was sionary to Germany. Born in Devonshire, En­ prior of St. Andrews monastery in Rome when gland, in 680 and given the name Winfrith, he he was commissioned by Gregory the Great in became the most famous of all missionaries of 10 Church and State the Dark Ages and one of the greatest of all Streams of dedicated men poured from them to times. go on pilgrimages for Christ wherever they might Ordained at the age of thirty, Boniface felt a feel led. In 563 Columba landed at Iona in Scot- strong compulsion to spread the gospel on the land with twelve companions and established European Continent. Leaving England in 715, he monasteries from which missionaries went to arrived in Frisia in Holland, where he made little barbarian tribes, north into Scotland and south progress. After a temporary return to England, into England.­ They were more effective in evan- the missionary call led him back to Europe in gelizing England than were the missionaries 718. After laboring in Holland and Germany, from Rome, led by Augustine of Canterbury. Boniface traveled to Rome in 723, where Pope Beginning in 590 Columbanus established Gregory II consecrated him a missionary bishop monasteries that evangelized barbarian tribes in to Germany. In 732, Boniface was made an arch- Burgundy while bringing a measure of renewal bishop. to the Frankish church. Expelled by the corrupt Boniface’s style was vigorous and aggressive. court, he established other houses in Switzer- He attacked paganism head-on. His chopping land and northern Italy. down of the sacred oak tree of the Thundergod The Celtic movement differed from the Roman at Geismar typified his approach. Wherever he church on several issues: the dating of Easter, went, Boniface tore down pagan shrines, estab- the tonsure of the monks, and, most important, lished monasteries, organized bishoprics, and submission to the authority of Rome. But at the laid the groundwork for training local clergy. Synod of Whitby in 664 the movement began to Toward the close of his ministry Boniface come under the authority of Rome. Two of the longed to return to Frisia, where his mission had greatest Celtic missionaries were consecrated as started and which was still largely pagan. Having missionary bishops by Rome. Willibrord (658– relinquished his administrative duties in Ger- 739) evangelized the Frisians, and Boniface be- many, he returned to Frisia in 753. There he and came the apostle to central Germany. He was his companions were attacked and killed in 754 martyred in 753. by pagan Frisians, bringing to an end his bril- The Celtic missionaries were characterized by liant missionary career. spontaneity, a lack of traditionalism, and rugged Roger S. Greenway individualism. They went where others would not Bibliography. E. S. Duckett, Anglo-Saxon Saints and go, without credentials or material support, Scholars; D. Keep, St. Boniface and His World: A Book- self-reliant, trusting in God, and accomplished let to Commemorate the Thirteen Hundredth Anniver- much more than their numbers would warrant. sary of His Birth a Crediton in Devon; T. Reuter, ed., The Theirs was a type of monasticism that was ar- Greatest Englishman: Essays on St. Boniface and the dently missionary; thus the monastery was not a Church at Crediton; J. C. Sladden, Boniface of Devon: place of retreat from the world but a place of Apostle of Germany; R. A. Tucker, FJIJ. preparation for mission. Women played an im- portant role in the Irish church, and Boniface Celtic Missionary Movement. Ardently mis- used communities of women in mission, perhaps sionary, with a strong focus on Scripture and for the first time. Many of the Celtic institutions personal piety, the Celtic movement had a major and much of the movement were destroyed by impact on the evangelization of the British Isles, the Viking invasions in the eighth and ninth cen- western Europe, and northern Europe in the turies. Yet the vigor of the tradition continued in fifth through tenth centuries. The founder was England to some degree. Missionaries from En- Patrick, born about 389 in a Christian family in gland coming from Celtic roots were used to Britain, who was kidnapped as a teenager and bring the Scandinavians into the Christian faith taken to Ireland, where he was a slave for six in the tenth century. years. After his escape he studied, was ordained Paul E. Pierson a priest, and in 432, in response to a vision, re- turned to Ireland as a missionary bishop, where Bibliography. R. P. C. Hanson, The Life and Writings he remained until his death (c. 461). His minis- of the Historical Saint Patrick; L. Hardinge, The Celtic try led to the conversion of thousands, the ordi- Church in Britain; J. T. McNeill, The Celtic Churches, a nation of priests, and the establishment of mon- History, a.d. 200–1200. asteries, which became centers of evangelization, learning, and civilization. Church and State. The expression “church and Patrick’s theology was evangelical; he quoted state” refers to the relationship between two sets the Bible frequently, especially Romans. A man of authority structures that have shaped human of deep spirituality and prayer, his greatest de- existence. The concern of the state is temporal sire was to spread the gospel. The Irish monas- life whereas the church’s concern is spiritual life. teries became known as seminaries for the study The question as to what is the most desirable re- of Scripture and for strict discipline, drawing lationship between the two has been a persistent students from the Continent and England. theme throughout history. The following discus- 11 Church and State sion will present an overview of these historic ders eventually became centers of power and lost tensions and their influence on the expansion of sight of their original vision. Alongside the West- Christianity. ern monastics were the Celtic missionaries. Per- In Matthew 22:21 Jesus taught that the two sons like Patrick, Columba, Columbanus, Willi- structures are separate. The statement “render brord, and Boniface evangelized Ireland, Great therefore to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s Britain, and much of northwestern Europe and and to God the things that are God’s” distin- established important centers of biblical learn- guishes the responsibilities between church ing. These two great missionary movements and state, but does not detail the obligations. were largely independent of both the institu- Paul followed with instructions to Christians to tional church and government. “be subject to the governing authorities” (Rom. After the sixth century the popes increased 13:1) unless the submission contradicted the their power in both the spiritual and temporal Scriptures (Acts 5:29). The Pax Romana of the spheres. Then in 800 Pope Leo III crowned Char- Roman Empire with its peace and ease of travel lemagne as emperor and the event revived the together with Alexander’s legacy of the Koine centuries-old debate between church and state. Greek language allowed the gospel to spread Did the emperors receive their crowns from the quickly over large areas. Formal missionary papacy, or was it the emperors who approved the bands spontaneously spread the faith into Asia election of the popes? Minor, Mesopotamia, India, Armenia, Rome, By the eleventh century the confrontation be- Gaul, Britain, and North Africa. These ad- tween the two structures reached a zenith. In vances were met by local and sporadic persecu- 1075 Pope Gregory VII decreed that he had the tion by Decian (249–251), Valerian (257), and divine power to depose Emperor Henry, thus de- Diocletian (303), who saw the church as politi- claring that secular authorities had no jurisdic- cally subversive. tion to appoint ecclesiastical positions. Although It was not until Christianity became a state re- a compromise came in 1122, the issue faded only ligion in the fourth century that scholars began with the gradual dominance of the papacy. By to grapple with a clearer definition of the rela- the end of the reign of Pope Innocent III (1198– tionship between church and state. In 313 Chris- 1216) the issue had arrived at a solution—royal tianity became an officially recognized religion power was under submission to the authority of and Emperor Constantine became responsible the church. The thirteenth century saw papal for directing the church. The temptation for the power in supreme control over the state, but this church was to lose evangelistic fervor and con- was to change soon as the European monarchs form to culture rather than continuing to pene- strengthened their national supremacy. trate culture. In 330 with the division of the em- The Reformation brought fresh challenge to pire into East and West came also two different the authority of the papacy both spiritually and approaches to church–state relations. In the Byz- politically, and further diminished the church’s antine Empire the secular ruler held absolute au- control. Martin Luther did not consider ecclesi- thority over both the church and the state astical administration important, so many of the whereas in the Western Empire the church had Lutheran states had rulers that controlled the more freedom to direct its own affairs. By the church. John Calvin clearly differentiated be- fifth century the Roman popes took responsibil- tween church and state by declaring that govern- ity for civil justice and military matters. ments were to protect the church and manage During the Dark Ages the idea of a society with society by following biblical principles. On the two realms of responsibility, one over spiritual other hand, the Anabaptists believed that Scrip- and the other over temporal matters, became ture indicated the need for a complete separa- clearer. God ordained the state to strengthen and tion of church and state, and subsequently suf- propagate the faith, and to protect the church fered intense persecution. They believed that against heretics. However, the tension over su- secular government had no authority over the premacy was always a struggle. It was during religious beliefs of people and therefore the this time that monasticism responded to the in- church had no right to claim financial assistance creasing institutionalization and nominalism of from the state. Their political views influenced the church. By secluding themselves for prayer other related movements in the seventeenth and and devotion lay people sought life consistent eighteenth centuries, such as the Baptists and with the gospel. Committed communities formed Quakers. and unintentionally produced the majority of During the Enlightenment of the eighteenth missionaries for the next thousand years (see century John Locke and others propagated the Monastic Movement). Monks like Benedict of concept that secular government was a matter Nursia preserved ancient learning and raised the for society rather than God. Thus the institu- level of civilization and Christian understanding tional church gradually became dominated by in Western Europe. Beginning as peripheral re- rising national powers and lost much of its voice newal movements many of these monastic or- in political affairs. In the United States the 12 Columbanus founding government separated church and state he was ordained a deacon and later a priest. Be- to protect Religious Freedom from state inter- tween 545 and 562 Columba founded numerous vention and to protect the state from the domi- churches and monastic societies, the chief cen- nance of the church. Religion was a private mat- ters of education. Legends and traditions sur- ter between an individual and God, yet religion round much of Columba’s life, including his de- remained a part of national life. This strict sepa- parture from his homeland at the age of ration of the two institutions was the commonly forty-two. Whatever the actual precipitating cir- held view among Western nations of the nine- cumstances, he, with twelve Irish monks, settled teenth century. on the small island of Iona, where he established From the beginning of this century Western his headquarters for the missionary work to countries have experienced increased social which he devoted his remaining years. There he pressure to exclude anything religious from na- founded a monastic community, an Order not tional life. They have secularized governments for solitaries but one that provided training for that want to severely restrict the influence of re- evangelists sent to preach the gospel, build ligion on political affairs. The influx of diverse churches, and establish other monasteries. Se- ethnic and religious groups together with the curing good relations with King Brude enabled erosion of Judeo-Christian values has amplified the Ionian community to work among pagans in this call for a secularized society. On the other the western highlands of Scotland. hand, most of the non-Western nations have not Of equal concern to the Ionian Christians was had to struggle with the theory of separation of the copying of Scripture. Columba himself is church and state. For instance, Islam, Hinduism, said to have written out over three hundred cop- and other religions dominate many nations ies of the Vulgate and the Psalter. Only a few which desire to protect their faith from secular hours before his death, at the age of seventy-six, contamination. he was engaged in copying the Psalter. For modern missions the answer as to what is The influence of the founding abbot of Iona the most desirable relationship between church and his community spread beyond Scotland to and state may be glimpsed in church history. The many parts of the British Isles, Europe, and Ice- institutional church has always had struggles be- land. Columba, known as “the Apostle of the tween itself and the state. Nonetheless, there is Western Isles,” has also been called “the Moses the government of God and then that of the state of Iona” because, like Moses, he refused to take and the church. How that triad of tension plays his place among royalty and chose rather the call out in life is sometimes difficult to determine of service to a higher King. One biographer and will vary depending on the historical and claims that one cannot truly understand the his- cultural context. However, the growth of the tory of the Scots without knowing something of Kingdom of God over the ages has largely been the man Columba. Life of Columba, written by achieved through a remnant of believers on the Adamnan, his eighth successor in the abbacy of periphery of power regardless of their political Iona, is considered more of a hagiography than a or ecclesiastical status. It is in this position of biography. faithfulness and obedience to the Lord of the Florence R. Scott church that future missionary endeavors will continue to see the expansion of Christianity. Bibliography. R. B. Hale, The Magnificent Gael; F. MacManus, Saint Columban; L. Menzies, St. Robert Gallagher Columba of Iona. Bibliography. S. Escobar and J. Driver, Christian Mission and Social Justice; E. L. Frizen and W. T. Cog- Columbanus (c. 543–615). Irish monastic mis- gins, Christ and Caesar in Christian Missions; K. S. La- sionary to Europe. Though little is known of his tourette, A History of the Expansion of Christianity, 7 early life, Columbanus was purportedly a strong, vols.; S. Neill, Colonialism and Christian Missions; good-looking man who may have entered mo- P. Niles, Resisting the Threats to Life; L. Pfeffer, Church, State and Freedom; L. Pfeffer, God, Caesar and the Con- nastic life in part to escape the temptations of stitution; A. P. Stokes, Church and State in the United the flesh. He actually called himself Columba, States, 3 vols.; D. Tutu, Crying in the Wilderness; J. E. but historians often refer to him by the Latin Wood, Religion and the State; A. J. Van der Bent, Be- spelling to avoid confusing him with the earlier tween Christ and Caesar; M. A. C. Warren, The Func- Irish missionary by the same name. He was one tions of a National Church. of the most important missionaries in the Celtic Missionary Movement. His efforts, coming after Columba of Iona (521–597). Irish missionary to Ireland and Scotland had been reached and the Scotland. Columba was born in Ireland of royal Anglo-Saxon work was well established, focused lineage through both parents. In accordance on the areas that were to become France, Swit- with his royal status, he benefited from the care zerland, and Italy. They had been reached for of a priest and was brought up in the Christian Christ once before, but had reverted to pagan- faith. As a young man he entered a monastery; ism. Though foundations of Christian influence 13 Contextualization still survived, those foundations were in desper- mission enterprise needed new symbols to mark ate need of shoring up. a needed separation from the colonialistic, West- Columbanus is perhaps best remembered for ern-dominated past (see Colonialism). founding influential monasteries and developing There is no single or broadly accepted defini- a strict set of monastic rules that affected mon- tion of contextualization. The goal of contextual- asteries throughout France for centuries. The ization perhaps best defines what it is. That goal first monastery he founded was in Luxeuil in the is to enable, insofar as it is humanly possible, an northeast part of the country. He lived there understanding of what it means that Jesus from the time of its founding (c. 590) until 610, Christ, the Word, is authentically experienced in when he was expelled by political leaders whose each and every human situation. Contextualiza- goal was to deport Columbanus and his twelve tion means that the Word must dwell among all Irish companions back to Ireland. The boat that families of humankind today as truly as Jesus was to take them to Ireland, however, ran lived among his own kin. The gospel is Good aground before they were picked up. Departing News when it provides answers for a particular from Luxeuil, the company traveled through people living in a particular place at a particular northern France, then along the Rhine River, time. This means the Worldview of that people down through western Switzerland (where Gall provides a framework for communication, the parted from the company because of illness and questions and needs of that people are a guide to later founded his own significant monastery), the emphasis of the message, and the cultural and finally into northern Italy, where Columba- gifts of that people become the medium of ex- nus established another monastery at Bobbio pression. that in the Middle Ages became a center of schol- Contextualization in mission is the effort made arship. by a particular church to experience the gospel A. Scott Moreau for its own life in light of the Word of God. In the process of contextualization the church, through Bibliography. W. H. Marnell, Light from the West: the Holy Spirit, continually challenges, incorpo- The Irish Mission and the Emergence of Modern Europe. rates, and transforms elements of the culture in order to bring them under the lordship of Christ. Contextualization. The term “contextualiza- As believers in a particular place reflect upon the tion” first appeared in 1972 in a publication of Word through their own thoughts, employing the Theological Education Fund entitled Minis- their own cultural gifts, they are better able to try in Context. This document laid out the princi- understand the gospel as incarnation. ples which would govern the distribution of The term “contextualization” is most com- funds for the Third Mandate of the TEF. The monly associated with theology, yet given the scholarships were awarded for the graduate edu- above definition, it is proper to speak of contex- cation of scholars in the international church. tualization in a variety of ways encompassing all Contextualization was described as “the capacity the dimensions of religious life. For example, to respond meaningfully to the gospel within the church architecture, worship, preaching, sys- framework of one’s own situation.” A precedent tems of church governance, symbols, and rituals for the new term, “contextual theology,” resulted are all areas where the contextualization princi- from a consultation held in Bossey, Switzerland, ple applies. Context, on which the term is based, in August 1971. The Ecumenical Institute of the is not narrowly understood as the artifacts and World Council of Churches had sponsored that customs of culture only, but embraces the differ- earlier discussion under the theme “Dogmatic or ences of human realities and experience. These Contextual Theology.” differences are related to cultural histories, soci- The lament behind the Third Mandate of the etal situations, economics, politics, and ideolo- TEF was that “both the approach and content of gies. In this sense contextualization applies as theological reflection tend to move within the much to the church “at home,” with all its varia- framework of Western questions and cultural tions, as it does to the church “overseas.” presuppositions, failing to vigorously address the In mission practice the more visible aspects of gospel of Jesus Christ to the particular situa- contextualization were closely related to older tion.” Further, it was declared that “Contextual- terms such as Accommodation, Adaption, Incul- ization is not simply a fad or catch-word but a turation, and Indigenization. Issues such as theological necessity demanded by the incarna- forms of communication, language, music, styles tional nature of the Word.” of dress, and so on had long been associated While the document had a limited purpose, with the so-called three-self missionary philoso- the implications coming from it resulted in a phy which was built around the principle of in- movement which has had an impact on the the- digenization. Indigeneity often was understood ory and practice of mission. The contextualiza- as “nativization,” in that the visible cultural tion concept was a timely innovation. New na- forms of a given people would be used in ex- tions were struggling for their own life. The pressing Christianity. In going beyond these 14 Contextualization more superficial expressions, the new term “con- ture and the way in which it connects to the bib- textualization” tended to raise the fear of Syn- lical record. cretism. This would mean the “old religion” Throughout the 1970s the writing and discus- would become mixed in with the new biblical sion on contextualization began to clarify direc- faith and that culture would have more authority tions that evangelicals should take. A Laus- than revelation. Some felt, therefore, that the anne-sponsored gathering at Willowbank older concept of indigenization should not be (Bermuda) in 1978 adopted the theme “Gospel changed but, rather, broadened to cover more and Culture.” The conference took seriously the adequately the field of theology. role of the cultural context of the believer as In addition to giving greater attention to the well as the biblical text in defining evangeliza- deeper levels of culture, the new term “contextu- tion and church development. The late 1970s alization” became distinguished from indigeni- also saw the rise (and demise) of the quarterly, zation in other ways. Indigenization always im- The Gospel in Context. The journal’s brief life plied a comparison with the West, whereas demonstrated how creative and stimulating contextualization focuses on the resources avail- worldwide contextualization could be. able from within the context itself. Indigeniza- The decade of the 1970s also brought remark- tion was static while contextualization is dy- able progress in finding ways to carry out con- namic, as a still photograph might be compared textualization. Each of the ways, or “models,” as to a motion picture. The older indigenization they are called, carries certain epistemological was more isolated while contextualization, assumptions, as well as philosophical ideas though locally constructed, interacts with global about truth. While the models each have their realities. differences, they also have several features that The fact that the early documents about con- they share in common. Some are more centered textualization were formulated in offices related on human experience while others show a to the World Council of Churches also made the greater dependence on widely accepted teach- concept difficult to accept in the nonconciliar ings of the church and the Bible. Thus, the as- circles. The heavy emphasis on justice and social sumptions undergirding some of these models development left little, it seemed, for evangelism make them less acceptable to evangelicals. Varia- and conversion. Scholars in Latin America were tions exist within a given model and certain fea- among the earliest to write about what they saw tures of more than one model may be combined. as an appropriate theology for their context. The A brief review of the models will show how di- direction this new theology took alarmed many verse the approaches to contextualization are. evangelicals. Adaptation model: One of the earliest ap- Liberation Theology became almost as a proaches was to make historical-theological con- household word in the 1970s and 1980s. Evan- cepts fit into each cultural situation. Traditional gelicals felt it demonstrated an inadequate use of Western ideas are the norm. These are brought the Bible and relied too heavily on a Marxist ori- to the local culture. What is irrelevant may be set entation. This was difficult for North American aside and what must be modified can be conservatives to accept. Even before his book, changed. The faulty assumption here is that Ministry in Context, Gustavo Gutiérrez had al- there is one philosophical framework within ready written his Theology of Liberation (1971). which all cultures can communicate, assuming Soon afterward J. Miguez Bonino followed with that other forms of knowledge are not legitimate. Doing Theology in a Revolutionary Situation Anthropological model: The beginning point (1978). These major innovations opened up fur- is to study the people concerned. The key to ther thinking on contextualization. They fol- communication and pathways to the human lowed closely the volatile 1960s in the United heart and spirit lies in the culture. The assump- States. Ideas about contextualization in the tion is that people know best their own culture; United States first became associated with the worldview themes, symbols, myths are reposito- controversial issues raised by the Vietnam War ries of truth for all people. While this is true, un- and American racism. “Black Power,” as advo- less discernment about a culture is brought to cated by James Cone (1969), had become a pop- the Word for affirmation or judgment the con- ular application of what contextualization is. textualization exercise can become distorted and Because of this ferment Hermeneutics quickly misleading. became the central point of contention among Critical model: The critical aspect of this ap- evangelicals. The question was asked whether proach centers on how features of traditional truth is derived primarily from human experi- culture—rituals, songs, stories, customs, music— ence or from Revelation. At first there was little are brought under the scrutiny of biblical teach- consensus among evangelicals about the role of ing. Here the culture and the Scriptures are eval- Culture and social issues, especially in theology. uated concurrently in the search for new ways to The contextualization debate made serious new express belief and practice. One must ask who thinking possible, especially with regard to cul- will carry out the process, and how accurate are 15 Crusades, The the meanings derived from both customs and the God works out God’s purposes. Some indications Scripture. of the gospel’s presence in the soil may be evi- Semiotic model: Semiotics is the science of dent, but Scripture is something that is outside “reading a culture” through “signs” (see Symbol, and must be brought into the cultural setting to Symbolism). This comprehensive view of culture more fully understand what God is doing in cul- interprets symbols, myths, and the like that re- ture, and to find parallels between the culture veal the past as well as studying “signs” that indi- and the Bible. cate how the culture is changing. These realities The strength of contextualization is that if are compared with church tradition in a process properly carried out, it brings ordinary Christian of “opening up” both the local culture and Chris- believers into what is often called the theological tian practice. To master the complicated method process. Contextualization is not primarily the would tend to separate an indigenous researcher work of professionals, though they are needed. It from the people and the context. is making the gospel real to the untrained lay Synthetic model: Synthesis involves bringing person and the rank-and-file believer. They are together four components: the gospel, Christian the people who know what biblical faith must do tradition, culture, and social change. These ele- if it is to meet everyday problems. The term “in- ments are discussed together using insights of- carnational theology” is another way of speaking fered by the local people. Also there must be a about contextualization (see Incarnational Mis- recognition of sharing insights with “outsiders.” sion). This means that Christian truth is to be Each contributes to the other, while each main- understood by Christians in the pews and on the tains its own distinctives. The openness and le- streets. The objective of contextualization is to gitimacy given to all views would tend toward bring data from the whole of life to real people ambiguity and a kind of universalism. and to search the Scriptures for a meaningful ap- Transcendental model: This model does not plication of the Word which “dwelt among us” concentrate on the impersonal aspect of theol- (John 1:14). The missiological significance for ogy, that is, to prove something “out there,” but contextualization is that all nations must under- is primarily concerned with what any truth stand the Word as clearly and as accurately as means to the subject and to members of the sub- did Jesus’ own people in his day. ject’s community. Likewise revelation is under- Dean Gilliland stood as the active perception or encounter with Bibliography. S. B. Bevans, Models of Contextual God’s truth. Much criticism can be raised. How Theology; D. S. Gilliland, The Word Among Us: Contex- can one be an authentic believer without objec- tualizing Theology for Mission Today; D. J. Hesselgrave tive context and why is such Western sophistica- and E. Rommen, Contextualization: Meaning and tion necessary? Methods; W. A. Dyrness, Learning About Theology from Translation model: Based on translation sci- the Third World; R. J. Schreiter, Constructing Local ence, the nearest possible meanings of the origi- Theologies. nal text are sought out in the receiving culture. Exact forms may not be possible, but expres- Crusades, The. Military expeditions against sions and forms that are equivalent are intro- various enemies of the medieval church, espe- duced. Attempts were made to identify the “ker- cially the campaigns that tried to free the Holy nel” or core of the gospel which then would Land from the Muslims. Christians had gone on apply to all cultures. The problem of subjectivity pilgrimages to the Holy Land during much of the in selecting forms is a risk, as is separating the medieval period, but with the arrival of the Sel- Word from what is culturally negotiable. juk Turks their travels were hampered. These in- In contextualization, evangelicals have a valu- vaders also pressured the Eastern Empire to able tool with which to work out the meanings of such an extent that the emperor contacted the Scripture in the varieties of mission contexts and pope and other leaders of Western Europe to in conversations with the churches of the Two- send mercenaries to help defend the Byzantine Thirds World. A built-in risk of contextualization Empire. Pope Urban II responded to this appeal is that the human situation and the culture of by proclaiming the First Crusade in a sermon at peoples so dominate the inquiry that God’s reve- Clermont (1095). The primary reason for the lation through the Bible will be diminished. To Crusades was religious, for they constituted a be aware of this danger is a necessary step in holy war, and following Urban’s appeal there was avoiding it. Contextualization cannot take place an outpouring of religious enthusiasm. In addi- unless Scripture is read and obeyed by believers. tion, the pope saw in the Crusades an outlet for This means that believers will study the Scrip- the energies of the warring nobles of Europe. tures carefully and respond to their cultural con- The First Crusade, consisting of about five thou- cerns in light of what is in the biblical text. Cul- sand fighting men, moved overland to Constanti- ture is subject to the God of culture. Culture is nople and proceeded to conquer territory in Asia important to God and for all its good and bad Minor and the Levant. The conquest of Jerusa- factors, culture is the framework within which lem was accompanied by a frightful slaughter of 16 Diaspora(s) the inhabitants. The Crusaders did not drive the with little lasting success. The Slavic ruler, Ras- Turks from the Middle East, but they established tislav, asked the patriarch of Constantinople for several states that resulted in a balance of power Greek priests in 862. Constantine and Methodius among them, the Byzantines, and the Muslims. were selected. In preparation, the brothers trans- When the Crusader states were endangered, Ber- lated the Gospels and prepared a liturgy. In 863 nard of Clairvaux organized the Second Crusade they traveled to Rastislav’s court and began (1147), which was defeated. A Third Crusade preaching and started a seminary for Slavic (1189–92) resulted in a three-year truce and the priests. Opposition developed from the Frankish granting of free access to Jerusalem for Christian missionaries, and in 868, they went to Rome to pilgrims. This arrangement collapsed and fur- defend their work. Pope Hadrian II approved ther Crusades were necessary. The few knights their liturgy and had Methodius and three of the who answered Innocent III’s call to the Fourth Slavic priests ordained. The pope also intended Crusade (1202–4) were unable to pay the passage to consecrate Constantine as archbishop of charges demanded by the Venetians. This led the Moravia. However, Constantine died in Rome on two groups to strike a bargain and agree to at- February 14, 869, after becoming a monk and tack Constantinople. After conquering and sack- taking the name of Cyril. The ministry of Cyril ing the city, the Crusaders set up the Latin Em- and Methodius is traditionally regarded as the pire of Constantinople and forgot about major means by which the gospel was brought to recovering the Holy Land. During the thirteenth the Slavic people. century there were more Crusades such as the Robert Shuster Children’s Crusade, the Sixth Crusade led by the excommunicated Frederick II, and the Seventh Bibliography. F. Dvornik, Byzantine Missions Among Crusade of Louis IX. Each of these failed in its the Slavs: SS. Constantine-Cyril and Methodius. efforts to shore up the Latin crusading kingdoms and in 1291 Acre, the last stronghold of the Diaspora(s). The role of the Jewish diaspora is Christians in the Holy Land, fell to the Muslims. seen clearly in the Acts of the Apostles. Stephen, Despite the loss of the Middle Eastern territories Philip, Barnabas, and Paul were all Jews of the the Crusades did not end. Along the Baltic the diaspora who were at home in both Jewish and Teutonic knights conquered the Prussians and Greek culture. And it is clear that the first to the Balts and fought the Poles and the Russians. preach the gospel to Gentiles were such bicul- The military orders of the Mediterranean fought tural Jewish followers of Christ. The first specific several crusades as did the rulers of the Balkans mission to the Gentiles was called out from the during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Antioch church which included both Gentile and The Crusades, although credited with reviving diaspora Jewish believers. Acts tells us that the Europe economically and commercially, were ac- nucleus of the churches planted in the Roman tually a failure. They poisoned relations between Empire came from diaspora Jews and “God fear- the Eastern Orthodox and Western church and ers.” The Syriac-speaking church in the East increased Islamic hatred of Christianity. The which took the gospel to India and, through the faith had been perverted by vicious knights and Nestorians, to China probably had its beginning greedy merchants who inflicted terrible suffering in synagogues of the diaspora in Mesopotamia. on thousands of Muslims, Jews, and Christians. Through the centuries Christians have been Robert G. Clouse scattered in other diasporas because of religious or political persecution or to seek economic op- Bibliography. E. Christiansen, The Northern Cru- sades: The Baltic and the Catholic Frontier; N. Housley, portunities and political freedom. The Walden- The Later Crusades, 1274–1580; B. Z. Kedar, Crusade sian movement arose in Lyon, France, in the and Mission: European Approaches Toward the Mus- twelfth century and spread across southern and lims; S. Runciman, A History of the Crusades; K. M. central Europe, only to suffer Persecution and Setton, A History of the Crusades. Martyrdom. Some Waldensians joined remnants of the Hussite movement which arose in Bohe- Cyril (826 or 827–869). Greek missionary to the mia and Moravia in the fifteenth century to form Slavic people. Christened Constantine, he was the Unitas Fratrum. It was a few members of that born in Thessalonica (Saloniki), the youngest group who became the nucleus of the Moravian child of a Byzantine official. When he was four- movement which became a major catalyst of the teen Constantine went to Constantinople to modern Protestant missionary movement (see study. He excelled and soon was teaching philos- Moravian Missions). ophy at the university. After 855, he retired to The Mennonites are the primary heirs of the live and study at the Mount Olympus monastery sixteenth-century Anabaptist movement. They (where his brother Methodius was a monk). Be- have been scattered through a number of Euro- cause of his fame as a teacher, he and his brother pean countries as well as North and South Amer- were made part of delegation sent in 860 to pre­ ica at first because of persecution by the state sent Christianity to the Khazar people. They met churches and also in an attempt to preserve their 17 Europe sense of community and their pacifism (see Paci- sect it became the state religion of the Roman fist Theology). While in some cases their com- Empire. This process was not all gain, for with it, munities have turned inward, in others they have as Eusebius (c. 260–340), the church’s first histo- reached out in mission (see Mennonite Mis- rian, observed, there came social advantage in sions). Part of the evangelical movement in Rus- adopting the Christian faith, whose adherents sia has its roots in the Mennonites. came to represent a range of motivations from The Puritans came to North America in dias- continued faithfulness to more pragmatic rea- pora and it was a latter-day Puritan, Jonathan Ed- sons (“the hypocrisy of people who crept into wards, who played a key role in the first Great church” with an eye upon securing imperial Awakening which laid the foundation of the favor). American missionary movement. Swedish Bap- With the Christianization of the Roman world, tists and other free churches persecuted by state the expansion of the empire itself came to have churches in Europe came to the United States mission implications. Some have suggested that seeking religious freedom and economic opportu- the expansion of Christianity among the Teu- nity. Such groups have made a contribution to tonic peoples pressing on the borders of the em- missions far beyond the proportion of their num- pire was in the first place a product of Christians bers. For example, the Covenant Church, of Swed- who had been taken prisoner by, for example, ish origin, was originally the Mission Covenant the marauding Goths. Franks and Celts were to Church. follow in accepting the Christian faith and In the twentieth century the Chinese have es- among them some remarkable early missionar- tablished churches in at least thirty-three coun- ies responded to the missionary call to evange- tries, probably more. Koreans began to flee from lize the continent: receiving cultures soon be- their homeland after 1910 and established came also sending cultures, seen, for example, in churches in Siberia and China. It is estimated the lives of Columbanus (c. 543–615) and Boni- that there are two million Koreans in China, and face (680–764) (see also Celtic Missions). Later that at least 12 percent are Christians. The more the missionary endeavors in the East of two recent Korean diaspora has taken them to 170 Greek brothers, Cyril (826–869) and Methodius countries, and they have established churches in (c. 815–885), saw the gospel taken in 862 to at least 150 nations. In some cases they are Moravia, where Cyril’s educational activities led reaching out to non-Koreans. That has no doubt to the invention of the Cyrillic alphabet, which it been a factor in the growing Korean missionary is claimed became the foundation of all Slavonic movement. Now many of the second-generation, languages. The Eastern Church’s use of the ver- bicultural youth are showing interest in mis- nacular in early missionary activities was in sions. Like the first cross-cultural Christian mis- marked distinction to the Western Church’s con- sionaries who were Hellenistic Jews at home in centration on Latin. two languages and cultures, bicultural Christians In the fifteenth century the missionary endeav- today, Koreans, and others, have great potential ors of a reinvigorated Catholic Church were for missions. more obvious than the outreach of Protestant- ism, which remained confined to Europe. In the Paul E. Pierson West the sending of priests alongside the con- Bibliography. R. DeRidder, Discipling the Nations; quistadores to colonize the new world that Co- F. Gibson, ed., You Are My Witnesses, The Waldensians lumbus had “discovered” was seen as simply a across 800 Years; W. Shenk, ed., Anabaptists and Mis- continuation of the Christianization of the Ibe- sion. rian peninsula, or Reconquista, the driving of the Moors out of Spain. Columbus’s famous journey Europe. Mission in Europe, as also in Africa and and the fall of Granada both occurred in 1492. At Asia, must start with the biblical record: thus the the same time militant Islam, in the form of the importance for Europeans of the Syrophonecian Ottoman Turks, was pressing the Christian East woman in Mark’s Gospel who used Jesus’ sense of with great ferocity until 1683, when Vienna in humor to secure the healing of her daughter, and the center of Christian Europe came under siege the Greeks in John’s Gospel “who would see by these alien forces. The most remarkable mis- Jesus.” Building on this the record indicates Eu- sionary story of the sixteenth century was that of ropean participation in the Pentecostal experi- the Jesuit, Francis Xavier (1506–52), who in the ence: Peter’s direction by vision to accept Corne- last decade of his life undertook a formidable lius as a fellow follower of the Way, and the program of evangelization starting in Goa. From Macedonian appeal to Paul to render help to the there he traveled to Sri Lanka and the islands of youthful churches of Europe. Thus bound up Indonesia, going as far east as Japan and found- with the early history of Europe is the growth of ing a church there before continuing his mission the early Christian community, the story of how work in China. In the process he was surprised it came to define its core beliefs in relation to in- to find a Christian presence already in India in cipient heresy, and how from being a persecuted the form of the Malabar Christians whom he 18 Europe thought most dreadfully ignorant. Matteo Ricci nances in both home and foreign missions, has (1552–1610), born in the year of Xavier’s death been a century of Secularization. Fundamen- and also a Jesuit, won the trust of the Chinese tally, it was the fruits of Enlightenment thinking court through his demonstrated mastery of sci- as well as scientific advances which, for many of ence and technology and exploited this for mis- Europe’s citizens, in a century of troubled politi- sionary purposes. cal and economic development, pushed matters In the Protestant world it was not until the era of faith to the margins of life and concern. In the of Pietism had succeeded that of the Reforma- East the legacy of the years of Marxist constraint tion that the churches began to look to wider and persecution is still painfully present. Regret- missionary horizons. In England the Society for tably the relationships between evangelical mi- the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts norities and state orthodoxy have all too often was founded in 1701. Although much of its work deteriorated since the end of the Cold War, while was among European ex-patriots it did provide a in the former Yugoslavia, as in the island of Cy- mechanism to evangelize non-Christian popula- prus, ethnic tensions and conflict have all too tions, a theme that in continental Europe came often set Christians against their Islamic neigh- to be championed by Count von Zinzendorf bors. (1700–1760) and the Moravians. By the end of In the West, folk or national churches still the eighteenth century, Protestants, under the in- claim large baptismal memberships and main- fluence of Calvinism modified by the experience tain an excellent range of worship buildings and of the Evangelical Revival inaugurated what La- ancillary facilities, even though regular worship- tourette has called ‘The Great Century’ of mis- ers form only a small percentage of secular Eu- sionary endeavor. The Baptist Missionary Soci- rope’s population. Europe hardly needed the re- ety was formed in 1792, with the London minder of the Mexico City Conference on Missionary Society following in 1795 and the World Mission in 1963 that witness was to take Church Missionary Society in 1799. In Europe, place in all six continents. Those who had been where Bremen led the way with the founding of sending nations now desperately needed to re- a new missionary society in 1819, Hamburg fol- ceive something of the buoyancy and hope of the lowed in 1822; the Basel Mission was estab- churches of the south. Many North American lished in 1815, the Rhineland Society in 1828, missionary societies increasingly saw Europe as and the Berlin Society in 1824, two years after a mission field needing urgent attention. French Protestants had formed the Paris Evan- In its turn this has led to a new relationship be- gelical Missionary Society. tween mission agencies and the churches which Missiology in such a context was born out of had been born out of the labors of their mission- shared experiences and soon implanted within aries. First, within the Ecumenical Movement the university curriculum with the establishment younger mission-founded churches sought recog- of the Halle chair of mission studies in 1896. nition as churches in their own right, not to be Missiological scholars networked with one an- represented by proxy through mission boards. other and with practitioners through the activi- Second, questions were raised about missionary ties of the International Missionary Council, it- structures and some of the old societies chose to self a child of the historic World Missionary reconstruct themselves more into mission part- Conference meeting in Edinburgh in 1910, nership organizations. Perhaps the classic trans- which played such a crucial part in bringing the formation was the way in which the London Mis- Ecumenical Movement to maturity. Consent be- sionary Society became first the Congregational tween Christians on the style and content of Council for World Mission in 1966. This body was Christian mission was not easily obtained and in turn fully internationalized as the Council for was not resolved by the integration of the IMC World Mission in 1977. The new council, it was into the work of the World Council of Churches hoped, recognizing a diversity of leadership in 1961. through equality of presence around a single part- Already, by the second half of the nineteenth nership table, would combine a commitment to century, denominational endeavors were supple- unity with a commitment to mission. In Europe, mented by interdenominational initiatives in the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society went which a new kind of missionary society was through a similar change in 1971 when it became born, of which Hudson Taylor’s China Inland the Communaute Evangelique d’Action Apos- Mission of 1865 was archetypal. The new Faith tolique (CEVAA). Other societies were reluctant Missions did not overtly solicit funds from sup- both to unite home and foreign mission and to porters, who no longer controlled policy, for de- replace the societal model by one of world Part- cision making was now invested in the hands of nership. missionaries to identify with those to whom they Europe has seen the uniting of some churches, ministered in dress and culture. especially within the Methodist and Reformed The century which followed that of Europe’s traditions, the continuation of large national unstinted investment of human resources and fi- churches though with serious loss of member- 19 Francis of Assisi ship, and the revival of orthodoxy in the context Frumentius (c. 300–380). Pioneer missionary to of political freedom but economic constraint. Ethiopia. Greek and Roman historians recount The Roman Catholic Church at the end of the how the youthful Frumentius and his brother century recognizes other Christians in a way that Edesius on a voyage from Tyre about 330 were would have seemed impossible at its beginning. shipwrecked on the Ethiopian coast and cap- In some countries it has joined national ecumen- tured. They subsequently impressed the royal ical bodies as an equal partner, and there are court at Axum so much that they were allowed to good relationships between the Conference of preach the gospel—a work continued by Fru- European Churches and the Conference of Euro- mentius after Edesius had returned to Tyre. pean Bishops, so that they are able to have joint About 339 Frumentius went to Alexandria, continent-wide celebrations. Moreover, the influ- where Bishop Athanasius consecrated him as ence of the Charismatic Movement among bishop and arranged for missionaries to join Roman Catholic laity and clergy has opened up Frumentius in Ethiopia whose future church new and fruitful lines of communication, but a heads were known as “Abuna” (“Our Father”). reluctance to go further still emanates from the J. D. Douglas Vatican on such issues as the recognition of non-Roman orders and the possibilities of Gregory the Illuminator (c. 240–332). Founder shared communion. Undoubtedly, a major as- of the Armenian Church. Born in Armenia, he pect of the century has been both the growth of fled to Cappadocia when Persian rulers tempo- Pentecostalism alongside historic Protestantism rarily took control of Armenia. In Cappadocia he and the wide impact of the Charismatic move- received Christian instruction. Returning home ment both within the mainstream churches and once Armenian king Tiridates gained power, he the new house and community churches. To- faced persecution after refusing to participate in gether, these have contributed to growth in a pagan ritual. Eventually, however, Tiridates Christian witness in Europe. came to Christ and declared Christianity the offi- John H. Y. Briggs cial religion. Neill relates that this is the first clear historical example of a whole country won Francis of Assisi (c. 1182–1226). Italian founder to Christ through the conversion of the king, and of the Franciscan Order. Francis worked in his Gregory is consequently remembered as the father’s textile trade until a serious illness “Apostle to Armenia.” Throughout the rest of his brought him to a deep internal struggle. This life, Gregory continued the work of evangelizing conflict and a vision in 1205 led him to dedicate Armenia and the surrounding regions, baptizing himself to a life of prayer and ministry among four other kings in the process. the poor. After a pilgrimage, during which he A. Scott Moreau traded clothes with a beggar and personally ex- Bibliography. F. X. Murphy, NCE, 6:790–91; S. Neill, perienced poverty, he broke from his father and HCM; ODCC. turned to work with beggars and lepers. In 1209, responding to another visionary call, History of Missions. The Apostolic Age. The he discarded the last of his worldly possessions story of how the followers of a first-century itin- and began evangelizing. A small band gathered erant Jewish preacher spread his message of around him, and he drew up a simple set of rules God’s kingdom to the entire world is amazing. for living. They traveled throughout France and The initial conquest of the Roman Empire and Spain evangelizing, though his hope to reach Af- the subsequent planting of the Christian church rica went unfulfilled due to illness. Papal permis- around the earth were the result of the witness of sion to establish the Order of Friars Minor was countless believers. A great number of these mis- granted in 1209. In 1212, during the Fifth Cru- sionaries are known, but there is an even greater sade, Francis and some followers traveled to number whose names are unknown to subse- eastern Europe and Egypt. In his absence, lead- quent generations. This lack of a complete his- ership of the Order passed to others and he never tory forces us to recognize that God empowered sought to regain it. The rest of his life was spent ordinary believers to carry out the missionary preaching, writing circular letters to and admon- task. While Jesus limited his ministry to the ishing members of his Order, and taking re- areas of Judea and Galilee, with occasional for- peated breaks for solitary retreats. ays into non-Jewish territory, he gave his disci- A. Scott Moreau ples specific instructions to be his witnesses in “Jerusalem, Judea, Samaria and even to the re- Bibliography. D. W. H. Arnold, Francis: A Call to Conversion; M. Bishop, Saint Francis of Assisi; G. K. motest parts of the earth” (Acts 1:8). The Acts of Chesterton, St. Francis of Assisi; M. A. Habig, ed., St. the Apostles is organized along that plan, with Francis of Assisi: Writings and Early Biographies: En- the gospel emanating in an ever-increasing cir- glish Omnibus of the Sources for the Life of St. Francis; cle. With the coming of the Holy Spirit on the L. Hardick, NCE, 6:28–31; ODCC. day of Pentecost, the gospel was preached in Je- 20 History of Missions rusalem to Jews and proselytes “from every na- century were the mystery religions; elements of tion under heaven” (Acts 2:5). these religions addressed similar questions an- The first persecution that dispersed the church swered in the Christian gospel. There was a spir- after the stoning of Stephen (Acts 7) resulted in itual hunger that the gospel could meet. How- the scattering of the believers throughout Judea, ever, the pagan religions did not give in easily, Samaria (Acts 8:1), Phoenicia, Cyprus, and An- necessitating Power Encounters such as those tioch (Acts 11:19–20). It is noteworthy that the in Acts (e.g. 6:8; 8:9ff.; 13:6ff.; 16:16ff.) movement commanded by Jesus to disciple the The First 500 Years. As we do not know the nations only commenced with Persecution. This identity of the disciples who first preached to the theme of God’s using what seemed like tragic Gentiles in Antioch, so we do not know who first events to propagate the gospel is repeated preached the gospel in Rome. But Paul found be- throughout history. The bringing of the gospel to lievers there to welcome him. The earliest con- the Samaritans bridged two major hurdles, reli- verts were most likely from the lower classes. gion and culture. The first recorded preaching to However, during the persecution under the em- Gentiles is Peter’s interaction with Cornelius peror Domitian (c. a.d. 96), a cousin of the em- (Acts 10). Some of those who were scattered be- peror was put to death and his wife banished be- cause of persecution went to Antioch, where they cause of “sacrilege,” the usual charge against shared the message with Gentiles (Acts 11:20). Christians. Some take this as an indication of the Since these Gentile converts were not proselytes, penetration of the gospel to the highest reaches it is not strange that the disciples were first of society. At the end of the first century and called Christians in Antioch to distinguish them throughout the second century, severe persecu- from a sect of Judaism (Acts 11:26). The mis- tions arose against Christians because of their sionary journeys of Paul originated from this refusal to pay homage to the Roman gods. Their church, the Holy Spirit directing the sending of loyalty to Christ alone as God earned them the Paul and Barnabas (Acts 13:2ff.), indicating name atheists since they would not acknowledge where Paul and his team were forbidden to the Roman pantheon of deities. Justin Martyr preach the gospel (Acts 16:6–10). At the end of (c. 100–165) was one of the early apologists who Acts Paul is in Rome preaching Christ unhin- sought to defend the Christian faith against mis- dered while awaiting the disposition of the representation. By the year 251, there is an esti- charges against him. mate of the Christian population in Rome num- The early expansion of the church is a para- bering thirty thousand. The persecution did not digm for understanding how the gospel traveled eliminate the church, as the clear testimony of around the world in the succeeding two millen- the martyrs often bore eloquent witness to the re- nia. Under the Pax Romana the gospel spread ality of the Christian faith. Because of their cou- rapidly in the major centers of commerce and rageous witness, Tertullian (c. 160/70–c. 215/20) government. Even during Jesus’ ministry, the could write that the blood of the martyrs is the gospel had penetrated government circles (cf. seed of the church (see also Martyrdom). Luke 8:3, where Joanna, the wife of Chuza, The gospel entered Egypt at an early date, Herod’s steward, is numbered among the circle though again the original missionaries are not that traveled with Jesus). Paul can write from known. Alexandria became a major Christian Rome that the reason for his imprisonment is center with teachers like Clement (c. 150–215) well known in the palace (Phil. 1:13). This inter- and Origen (c. 185–254) holding firmly to the est in Christianity by the ruling authorities is in- biblical revelation but also recognizing Greek dicative of the interaction that the gospel would philosophy as a preparation for the gospel. This have throughout history. Up through the twenti- is the first example of discerning the seeds of a eth century, the conversion of a ruler often pre-gospel understanding in a people’s culture as meant gaining at least the nominal adherence of a forerunner to evangelization. The results of that ruler’s subjects to Christianity. The close both the Alexandrian model and applications of connection between the ruler’s religion and the the same principle throughout the history of the subjects’ adherence is particularly pronounced church have been debated. The danger of Syn- through to the sixteenth century in Europe, and cretism is ever present in such formulations. it is always common in close knit societies. Christianity spread quickly across Roman The interaction of the gospel with commerce is North Africa among the educated colonial something that is seen in Acts and has been re- classes. These were the first Latin-speaking peated in various periods of missionary work. At churches in the world. There was some use of times the gospel was bad for business (Acts the Punic language, brought by the Phoenicians 16:19; 19:23ff.). The commercial motive drove who had colonized Carthage, but it is not clear the sponsors of both Catholic and Protestant that the church ever penetrated to the Berber missions. Another theme that is repeated is the vernacular of the villages and nomads. By not interaction of the gospel with other religions. using the heart language of the peasant popula- The main rivals of the Christian faith in the first tion, it was assured that these groups would turn 21 History of Missions to Islam in the seventh century. The major lesson he died, Ireland was largely Christian.­ Later learned from the experience in North Africa is Celtic monks would be responsible for evangeliz- that the church needs to penetrate the common ing large parts of Europe (see Celtic Missionary language of the people. While the church in this Movement). area produced outstanding theologians, includ- One of the turning points in Europe was the ing the key figure in Western theology, Augustine baptism of Clovis, king of the Franks. He had of Hippo, the theological formulations did not married (in 493) a Christian princess, Clotilda of stop the rapid spread of Islam. Burgundy, who did her best to convert him. Clo- The Donatist controversy, which revolved vis vowed if the Christian God would help him around what was to be the church’s stand toward defeat his enemies, the Alemanni, he would con- those who deny the faith during times of perse- vert. On Christmas day 496 he was baptized cution, further weakened the church of North along with three thousand of his soldiers. Other Africa. Nevertheless, from a missiological per- rulers had converted, but Clovis was the first to spective it is sobering to note the absence of accept, to the extent he understood, the Catholic Christianity today in what had been an influen- faith instead of Arianism. tial center. The Dark Ages, 500–1000. The classical world The earliest Christian kingdom was Edessa, was passing. The barbarians pouring out of the which was one of the sources for the spread of Central European plain overran western Europe. the gospel in Armenia, the second Christian The Vikings raided as far as Constantinople and kingdom. Tradition tells of the visit of the apostle terrorized Britain and northern Europe. Centers Thomas to India. Such a voyage would have of learning were special targets because they been possible; Roman coins found in India indi- were wealthy, yet even the horrors of these en- cate a trading pattern. The Mar Thoma (St. counters presented an opportunity for the gos- Thomas) Christians regard their origin in the pel. These five hundred years were the time ministry of the apostle. The church certainly was when the church attempted to tame the barbar- in India in the first centuries of the Christian era. ians and make their conversion more than nom- The conversion of the emperor Constantine inal. The three key factors in this period were dramatically changed the picture for the develop- royal patronage, martyrdom, and monasticism ing church. From a persecuted minority, the (see also Monastic Movement). church became legal and then socially accept- Another challenge to Christendom came from able. The peace of the church from external per- Arabia, where Muhammad gathered his follow- secution provided the opportunity to solve its ers and provided them with a sense of unity and theological disputes, a process in which the em- mission. They swept over Christian lands and perors from Constantine on took part. The trini- within a hundred years of Muhammad’s death, tarian and christological disputes gave rise to all of North Africa and most of Spain, as well as what are sometimes called the Oriental Eastern Palestine and Syria were under Muslim control. churches, which adopted a doctrinal stance dif- Checked for the first time by Charles Martel at ferent from the Chalcedonian formulas. These Tours in 732, Muslims still sacked Rome in 846. churches were missionary centers, with the Sicily was a Muslim country by 902. Finally in Nestorian Mission movement reaching into 1453, Constantinople itself fell to the Muslims, China. ending over a thousand years of primacy in Even before Christianity became recognized as Christendom. the official religion of the Roman Empire (a.d. Yet in spite of perilous times, the church con- 333), the gospel had penetrated the western and tinued to be found in new places. Irish mission- northern provinces of the empire. Irenaeus aries established monasteries on the rugged (c. 130–c. 200), bishop of Lyons, writes of using Scottish coast and evangelized Britain. At the Celtic as well as Latin in the church, which signi- same time a mission was sent by Pope Gregory fies the presence of the church among the less the Great to the Anglo-Saxons who had sup- educated population. When Christianity became planted the native Britons. In 596 Augustine and the religion of the empire, more direct assaults a party of monks made their way to Kent, where could be made against paganism. However, the Ethelbert (c. 560–616) was king. He had married gain in legitimacy was at the expense of an in- Bertha, a Christian princess from Gaul and by creasing nominalism. Monasticism was in part a the end of the year, Ethelbert and ten thousand reaction to the lower standard of Christianity. Saxons were baptized. The Celtic missionaries Patrick (c. 389–461) was captured by Irish had slightly different customs which had been raiders from his home in England as a youth. preserved in their more isolated settings. While After six years, he escaped and entered a monas- these differences seem insignificant to modern tery in France. Persistent visions led him to re- readers, it raised the question that reappears in turn to Ireland at the age of forty-three, where he other ages: Who has the right to resolve differ- labored until his death. When he began his work, ences? In the end Rome prevailed, which set a Ireland was nearly entirely pagan but by the time pattern that endured until the Reformation. 22 History of Missions

The advance of the church was not without of the ancient churches existed in Muslim-con- compromise, exemplified by Pope Gregory, who trolled territory, the church had a foothold in advised his missionaries to reconsecrate the India and Ethiopia, but the Nestorian work in pagan temples, destroying only the idols in them. China had been suppressed. The Scandinavian Likewise, pagan festivals were remade into peoples were initially resistant to the gospel, but Christian holy days and traditional religious by the late twelfth century, the church had been customs baptized as Christian symbols. The ori- planted in the Nordic lands. The paganism that gins of the Christmas tree, the Yule log, and had been the religion was hard to suppress and even the traditional date of Christmas are exam- still carries on in Nordic folklore. ples of this A­ ccommodation. The Crusades are perhaps the least likely vehi- There were Power Encounters between the cle for missionary expansion in the history of the missionaries and the indigenous people. Boni- church. Conceived as an attempt to wrest control face, apostle to the Germans, felled the sacred of the Holy Land from the Muslims, the military oak of Thor in Hesse. The gospel made a slow, adventures spanned two hundred years and re- steady advance through Europe, though it is sulted in thousands of lives lost. The attempt to doubtful that the pagan influences were ever use force to convert unbelievers, while it had a fully rooted out, surfacing again in folk stories of seven-hundred-year tradition in the church, was trolls and fairies, with syncretism affecting a failure, in part because the Crusaders found it church life. Some peoples were more resistant to easier to kill the infidels than reason with them. the gospel and many monks were martyred. The attempts to witness to Muslims by the hum- The schism between the church in the eastern ble Francis of Assisi (1181–1226) and the schol- and western halves of the Roman Empire was arly Raymond Lull (c. 1235–1315) are bright not official until the bull of excommunication of spots on an otherwise bleak landscape. Lull was 1054 and even then it was only the hierarchies martyred in North Africa. Francis managed to that were excommunicated. However, the drift preach before the Sultan of Egypt, who is re- can be detected earlier in the different theologi- ported to have said, “If I meet any more Chris- cal foci that were developing. The importance tians like you I will become one myself.” The for missions is that the eastern church did not lasting legacy of the Crusades is enmity between insist on the same linguistic unity that the west- Muslims and Christians that exists to this day. ern church did. It is significant that Ulfilas The rumored existence of a Christian kingdom (c. 311–383), the missionary bishop who trans- to the east of the Muslim-dominated lands lated the Bible for the Goths, was consecrated at prompted speculation. Several expeditions were Constantinople, though his Arianism keeps him undertaken to the Mongols, with varying degrees from being claimed by the Eastern Orthodox. In of success. The Christian kingdom was not the eighth century when Cyril and Methodius found. However, the Mongols who ruled Central undertook missionary work among the Slav- Asia threatened the Muslim Empire, capturing ic-speaking Moravians, they were opposed by and destroying Baghdad in 1258 and reaching missionaries connected with the pope because of Damascus two years later. The Nestorian church their translation work. The three principles that enjoyed a favorable position under the Mongols these two brothers from Thessalonica put for- it had not known before. But in the end the Mon- ward were the use of the vernacular in worship, gols came under the Muslim culture and the op- the employment of indigenous clergy, and the portunity was lost to bring them into the realm eventual selfhood of the church. They traveled to of the church. Rome, where they were able to celebrate the Sla- The traveler Marco Polo brought back tales of vonic liturgy in the pope’s presence. However, the Chinese Empire and a request from the when Methodius returned to Moravia as a Kublai Khan for one hundred scholars to debate bishop, he faced opposition and eventual expul- the virtues of the Christian faith. John of Monte- sion. Their disciples spread throughout the corvino (c. 1247–1328), a Franciscan, undertook Slavic lands, giving rise to the circumstances the journey, reaching Beijing in 1294. By the that led to the conversion of Vladimir in 988. time of his death (1328), he had been joined by Prince Vladimir, who was descended from Vi- three other Franciscans and had been appointed kings, used his authority to force his followers archbishop by the pope. John had baptized sev- into the fold of the church, thereby setting one of eral thousand people; however, after his death, the patterns for successive rulers of Russia. In the church in China declined because more mis- spite of its beginnings, the church in Russia has sionaries were not sent. endured for more than a thousand years, at The Age of Discovery, 1500–1600. The Cru- times under repressive rulers who tried to con- sades fueled a desire to reach the East by cir- trol it. cumventing the lands under Muslim control. The Medieval World, 1000–1500. As the Voyages of exploration were undertaken to reach Christian church entered its second millennium, the East Indies to secure a trade route for the it was a mainly European phenomenon. Vestiges spices of the East and to attempt to find allies in 23 History of Missions the continuing crusade against Islam. Prince the number of converts of high rank, he was suc- Henry the Navigator (1394–1460) had sent crews cessful. The question of accommodation, how- down the coast of Africa. Christopher Columbus ever easy to enunciate, is extremely difficult to tried to reach the East by sailing west and de- practice without compromising the gospel. sired to bring the benefits of Christianity as well Roman Catholic Missions, 1600 to 1800. The as securing lands and riches for his patron, Isa- advantages of the Padroado, which divided the belle, queen of Spain. In 1493, to settle a dispute world between Spain and Portugal, meant that between two Catholic sovereigns, the pope di- the missionaries could count on support, if not vided the world between the nations of Spain overly generous, from the colonial authorities. and Portugal with the commission to bring the But it broke down because Portugal, whose pop- true faith to the lands that they conquered. All ulation at the time was around one million, the lands west of the line were to belong to could not fulfill the missionary mandate. Thus in Spain, those to the east to Portugal. When the 1622 Pope Gregory XV established the Sacred line was moved to the west a year later, Brazil Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith to came under Portugal. The conquest of the New assume the missionary task. Francesco Ingoli, World was accomplished with considerable vio- the first head of the Propaganda, was a remark- lence by the conquistadors. Some of the mission- able missionary statesman. Ingoli pushed for the aries to Spanish America became vocal champi- rapid development of indigenous clergy and the ons of the Indians. The best known was freeing of Christian work from colonial attach- Bartholomew de Las Casas (1474–1566), who ments. In 1659 the Propaganda issued instruc- petitioned the Spanish throne for fair treatment tions to the vicars apostolic (heads of missionary of the Indians. Pedro Claver (1581–1654), a Je- regions) not to attempt to change customs of in- suit, devoted his life to ministering to the African digenous peoples unless these practices were dis- slaves brought to work the plantations. It is said tinctly non-Christian. “What could be more ab- he baptized over three hundred thousand slaves. surd than to transport France, Spain, Italy or When in 1534 Ignatius of Loyola gathered some other European country to China.” with his six friends to form the Jesuits, a potent In India Robert de Nobili (1577–1656) fol- missionary force was launched. This new order lowed the methods of Ricci by adapting his was subject to the pope and devoted to the re- method of presentation to Brahman customs. conversion of heretics and the conversion of pa- While he gained some success with the upper gans to the Catholic faith. By 1640 Jesuit mis- castes, he faced opposition from other European sionaries had been in most of the then known missionaries who accused him of theological world. One of the original six, Francis Xavier, compromise. It was only when the lower castes was not only to become a famous Catholic mis- were the target of missionary work that what sionary, but arguably one of the greatest mis- might be termed a Mass Movement occurred. sionaries of all time. Xavier first worked among With the decline of Spain and Portugal, France the illiterate fisherfolk in India, but news of the became the great Roman Catholic missionary potential for evangelism in Japan led him there. source. French expeditions had priests with One of Xavier’ s lasting contributions to mission- them who journeyed with the explorers into the ary thinking arose out his experience in Japan. interior of North America, establishing missions His previous ministry among low-caste people among the indigenous populations. In France a did not prepare him for the advanced culture nun of the Ursuline order, Mary of the Incarna- and traditions of the Japanese. Rather than tear tion, had a vision of missionary work in Canada. down everything in the culture, Xavier sought to Arriving in Montreal in 1639, the first six mem- refine and re-create elements of tradition. In bers of the order were the forerunners of the some ways, this is an extension of the policy car- considerable involvement of nuns in missionary ried out during the evangelization of Europe work. In Paraguay Jesuits established self-suffi- when pagan customs were incorporated into the cient villages or reductiones in which they gath- faith. It was to have great consequences and ered their Indian converts. These were places of some controversy in the missionaries who fol- safety to protect the converts from hostile tribes lowed Xavier. and the colonial slave traders. While the church Another great innovative Catholic missionary was the center of the community life, from the was Matteo Ricci (1552–1610), who labored in standpoint of expansion of the church, the work China. An expert clockmaker, he presented among the Guaraní was a failure because while clocks as gifts to the Chinese and when the the Jesuits conducted their mission for more clocks needed to be wound he used the opportu- than a century, they brought no candidate for the nity to preach. He dressed as a Confucian priesthood forward from the Indians. scholar and allowed his converts to observe the The second half of the eighteenth century saw rites that honored Confucius and the family. Ric- the eclipse of Roman Catholic missions. Among ci’s principle was to make the gospel as accept- the reasons for this change was the evolving po- able as possible to the Chinese and, judging by litical situation with Protestant nations becom- 24 History of Missions ing world powers. In some countries a reaction missionary effort was to come after their pri- against Christianity set in and many missionar- mary task of meeting the needs of the colonists. ies were martyred. The final blow was the sup- The discovery of America prompted a new in- pression of the Jesuits by Pope Clement XIV in terest in reaching the Native American popula- 1773. The loss of their missionaries and influ- tion. The charter of the colony of Massachusetts ence was at that time irreplaceable. included the statement that the principal pur- Eastern Orthodox Missions. After the Great pose of the plantation was to convert the natives Schism (1054), the histories of the Western and to Christianity. The first successful attempt was Eastern branches of Christianity drifted even far- by John Eliot (1604–90), who learned the lan- ther apart. The Tartar invasion was the crucible guage of the Pequots and organized his converts that forged the Russian nation but it also hin- into “Praying Towns” so they could live Christian dered evangelism. However, there were notable lives. He is remembered for his Bible translation missionary heroes of the Orthodox Church, all of into the Indian language. David Brainerd (1718– whom shared the same concern for the Bible and 47), a close friend of Jonathan Edwards, also la- liturgy to be in the language of the people. Ste- bored among the Indians. When he died, ex- phen of Perm (1340–96) evangelized the Zyrians, hausted by his labors, he left behind a diary that reducing their language to writing. Makarius influenced both William Carey and Henry Mar- Gloukarev (1792–1847) worked in the Altai tyn. Mountains, incorporating education and health The European missionary enterprise had its care into his missionary work and being one of start in the movement known as Pietism. Pia De- the first to see the ministry of women. Nicholas sideria written by Philip Jakob Spener outlined Illiminiski (1821–91) was a linguist who became a the necessity for personal conversion, holiness, brilliant missionary strategist. While he was never fellowship, and witness. As the movement grew a missionary in the traditional sense, he discov- in the churches, King Frederick IV of Denmark ered that the use of Arabic script was reinforcing decided that he should send missionaries to his the Tartars’ allegiance to Islam rather than in- tiny colony of Tranquebar. He turned to the cen- structing them in Christianity. Illiminiski reduced ter of pietism in Halle in Germany for recruits. August Hermann Francke (1663–1727) selected the Tartar language to writing using Russian two men, Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg and Henry script and promoted the use of vernacular lan- Plüschau, who arrived on the field in 1706, the guages to teach Christian truth. Innocent Venia- first non-Roman Catholic missionaries in India. minov (1797–1878) answered the missionary call Ziegenbalg (1683–1719), with no precedence to to Russian Alaska, planting the church among the guide him, unerringly made the right choices Aleuts. He also adopted the use of the vernacular and the best of missionary work followed the and was proficient in navigating his kayak around principles he laid down for Bible translation, an his island parish. After his wife died, he became a accurate understanding of local culture, definite monk, taking the name Innocent, and was made a and personal conversion, and development of in- missionary bishop for the vast territory of Siberia. digenous clergy as quickly as possible. He saw He ended his service to the Church by occupying the potential of using education to spread the the highest office, metropolitan of Moscow. One gospel because Christians must be able to read of the missionaries that he influenced was Nico- the Word of God. las Kasatkin (1836–1912), who pioneered the Or- Another missionary leader influenced by pi- thodox Church in Japan. Kasatkin’s method of etism was Count Nicolaus Ludwig von Zinzen- making each believer responsible to teach another dorf, who had welcomed the Brethren of the person mobilized the Japanese. Common Life who had been exiled from Mora- The common elements in these examples were via to settle on his estate at Herrnhut. Hearing the use of the vernacular and the creation of an that the Danish mission to Greenland would indigenous clergy. likely be abandoned, he proposed that the Mora- The Beginnings of Protestant Missions. At vians undertake the mission. August 21, 1732, is the time of the Protestant Reformation, the celebrated by the Moravian churches as the be- countries that embraced the Reformation were ginning of their missionary work. In addition to not the world’s dominant powers. Furthermore, the work in Greenland, the Moravians sent mis- internal squabbles as well as pressure from the sionaries to the West Indies and Surinam (see Catholic Church made missions impossible. The also Moravian Missions). response of the Reformers was to teach that the The Great Century of Missions. The explosion obligation for missionary work had ceased with in Protestant missions coincided with the Euro- the apostles (see also Reformation and Mission). pean mastery of speed in the form of the steam- There were notable exceptions, such as Justinian ship and power in the form of the steam engine. von Welz (1621–68), who advocated missionary As the European powers scrambled to carve out work. When Holland became a world power, colonies in the rest of the world, so missionary chaplains were sent to its colonies. However, any interest in the spiritual welfare of these peoples 25 History of Missions increased. The voyages of Captain Cook stirred viction that only as Africa became Christian and William Carey, whose An Enquiry into the Obli- developed economically could the horrors of the gations of Christians to use Means for the Conver- slave trade be stopped. sion of Heathens (1792) was a stirring call to mis- Christianity’s entrance into China was with the sions. Carey challenged the generally accepted accompaniment of commercial interests. The theological notions that the missionary mandate first Protestant missionary in China was Robert had ceased. Carey (1761–1834) was a shoemaker Morrison (1782–1834). He arrived when it was and schoolteacher. A self-taught man, he is illegal for missionaries to preach the gospel and sometimes referred to as “the father of modern was compelled to live in hiding. However, his flu- missions.” This is not accurate, as Carey knew ency in Chinese was so great that he became a about the work of previous missionaries. How- translator for the East India Company. The trade ever, Carey’s importance was as a forerunner in in tea was causing an imbalance of payments for the English-speaking world which has produced the British as the Chinese demanded silver for in the time since Carey the overwhelming major- their tea. The answer for the British, who con- ity of Protestant missionaries. Landing in India trolled the areas that produced opium, was to in 1793, he worked as a plantation manager for force China to allow trade in the narcotic. Two five years. With the arrival of more Baptist mis- opium wars opened China to trade and allowed sionaries in 1799, the missionary work pro- the residence of foreigners in China and trans- gressed. ferred Hong Kong to Britain. Karl F. A. Güt- Carey was persuaded to join Joshua Marshman zlaff (1803–51) envisioned a grand strategy for (1768–1837), a schoolteacher, and William Ward evangelizing the interior of China by employing (1769–1823), a printer, in establishing a station native agents as colporteurs (see Colportage) at the Danish enclave of Serampore, sixteen and evangelists. Unfortunately, his agents were miles from Calcutta. They established a Baptist not always trustworthy and did not carry out the church and engaged in preaching tours. Their missionary work for which they were paid. How- great work was in translation. In thirty years, six ever, Gütz­laff’s work was not in vain as he made whole Bibles, twenty-three complete New Testa- the outside world aware of the provinces. An- ments, as well as Bible portions in ten additional other result of the opium trade and the entrance languages were printed. They were students of of missionaries was the T’ai P’ing rebellion. Indian culture, with Ward publishing a book on Hung Hsiu-Ch’uan (1814–64) had received Chris- Hindu culture in 1811. tian literature from Liang Fah (1789–1855), the While the Serampore Trio had education as first ordained Chinese Protestant pastor. one of their goals, it was Alexander Duff (1806– Through a series of dreams he conceived of his 78) who opened the first English-speaking insti- destiny to reform China through Christian prin- tution of higher education in India. Duff’s aims ciples as he understood them. The extent of his were both educational and evangelistic and sect’s orthodoxy is debated, but he used the while he only saw thirty-three converts in eigh- Lord’s Prayer and the Ten Commandments, with teen years, these were solid conversions. Duff’s the fifth enhanced to include filial piety and the methods were widely copied in other areas. seventh to prohibit opium use. This peaceful Adoniram Judson (1788–1850) was the pioneer movement was transformed between 1848 and in Burma (Myanmar). Ann Hazeltine Judson 1853 into a revolutionary army that had its goal (1789–1826) was one of the first missionary her- of overthrowing the Manchu dynasty. Nanking oines, literally keeping her husband alive during was captured by the rebels in 1853 and for eleven his captivity in the Anglo-Burmese war. Judson’s years was the capital of Hung’s dynasty. The im- work lived on in his translation of the Bible into perial forces assisted by the Western powers Burmese. But a greater legacy was to be found in crushed the revolt. Ironically Charles Gordon, one of his converts, Ko Tha Byu, who brought the British Army officer who commanded the the gospel to his own Karen people. The Karens imperial troops, was as much a Bible reader as had a tradition of a Creator God whom they had Hung, whose printers had been distributing displeased because of their sin. The gospel told Morrison’s translation at a great rate. them of a Savior who paid the price of their sin. The great visionary for China was James Hud- A mass movement occurred among the Karens. son Taylor, who founded the China Inland Mis- By no means the first missionary to Africa, sion to place missionaries in the interior of David Livingstone (1813–73) is known for his ex- China. His workers wore Chinese dress and plorations and opposition to the slavery. Son-in- adapted as much as possible to the Chinese way law to Robert Moffat (1795–1883), who served of life. Taylor accepted missionaries who had lit- for forty-eight years among the Tswana people of tle formal education, which was a change from Southern Africa, Livingstone was not content to the societies that were growing more profes- stay in one place. Beckoned on by “the smoke of sional. In most cases his recruits were fine mis- a thousand villages” that had never heard the sionaries and many became superior linguists. gospel, he explored the interior. It was his con- He also had the mission headquarters in China 26 John of Montecorvino so that the work could be directed by those who ness History of Christianity in Latin America; C. P. knew the local situation. Groves, The Planting of Christianity in Africa; M. Jar- The gospel had some success in China so that rett-Kerr, Patterns of Christian Acceptance: Individual by the end of the nineteenth century there were Response to the Missionary Impact 1550–1950; S. Neill, Colonialism and Christian Missions; idem, A History of about half a million adherents, but it also Christian Missions; K. S. Latourette, A History of the spawned fear and resistance. China was still in Expansion of Christianity; idem, Christianity in a Revo- turmoil, with foreign nations making more de- lutionary Age: The 19th and 20th Centuries; S. H. Mof- mands and in some cases occupying territory. fett, A History of Christianity in Asia; D. Roberts, Amer- Opposition to foreigners and Christians exploded ican Women in Mission; E. Smirnoff, A Short Account in 1900 with the formation of Righteous Harmo- of The Historical Development And Present Position of nious Fists (Boxers), supported by the empress Russian Orthodox Missions; B. Stanley, The Bible And dowager. The Boxers killed Chinese Christians The Flag: Protestant Missions and British Imperialism in and missionaries and destroyed mission prop- the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries; R. A. Tucker, FJIJ; idem, GGC; A. F. Walls, The Missionary Movement erty. It was the greatest loss of missionaries’ lives in Christian History; M. Warren, The Missionary Move- to that time. A military force from the Western ment from Britain in Modem History. powers finally suppressed the rebellion. Missionary work in the twentieth century ex- Ignatius of Loyola (c. 1491–1556). Spanish panded dramatically. The Bible was translated founder of the Jesuits. Born in the Basque region into more languages. As the Bible was made of Spain, until 1521 he pursued a military career available in Africa, the phenomenon of separatist but during convalescence from a wound he was churches erupted. The result of a vision of their converted to Christ through reading devotional founder, such as the Church of Simon Kimbangu, books. His resolve to change his life led him to these groups which are variously called Zionist write the Spiritual Exercises, a program designed or Ethiopian are conveniently referred to as Afri- to produce mastery of the will. A pilgrimage to can Independent Churches to indicate their non- the Holy Land in 1523 was intended to become a missionary origin. Their doctrines are typically a permanent mission to the Muslims of the Middle mixture of traditional African cultures and the East and North Africa, but Christians in the area biblical revelation. These indigenized forms of deterred him. He returned to study at the univer- Christianity engaged the concerns of the people sities of Barcelona, Alcala, Salamanca, and Paris, and provided an answer to a population transi- at each place introducing students to the Spiri- tioning to the pressures of the modern world (see tual Exercises. In 1540 he and six companions re- African Initiated Church Movement). ceived papal permission to found The Society of The twentieth century was also marked by a Jesus. Ignatius trained his Jesuits for social ser- worldwide charismatic phenomenon, that grew vice and missionary work, with special emphasis out of the Holiness movement. This renewal, given to the establishment of educational institu- which resulted in the formation of Pentecostal tions. denominations, provided a fresh impetus for From 1547 until his death, he oversaw the ex- missionary work. The outbreak of charismatic pansion of the order throughout Europe, Asia, activity in the older traditional denominations and the Americas. His Constitutions of the Soci- has prompted a new interest in spreading a gos- ety of Jesus outlined the educational philosophy pel of power encounters with the forces of evil of the order; it is still used in its original form (see also Pentecostal Missions). today. The combination of spiritual devotion, ac- In this survey of expansion of the church, sev- ademic rigor, and missionary fervor that came to eral themes have reappeared. The Bible, in the characterize the Jesuits has been inspirational to vernacular of the people, is a powerful force for Catholics and Protestants alike. transformation of societies. Empowerment of Larry Poston converts, either by recognizing them as leaders through ordination or through separatist move- Bibliography. C. De Dalmases, Ignatius of Loyola, ments, is the way the church grows in a culture. Founder of the Jesuits; G. E. Ganss, Ignatius of Loyola: The contagious sharing of what has been experi- Spiritual Exercises and Selected Works. enced in Christ empowered by the Holy Spirit, either by missionaries or converts, is the key to John of Montecorvino (c. 1247–1330). Italian church growth. Franciscan missionary to Persia and China. Born James J. Stamoolis in Montecorvino in southern Italy, John was a Franciscan missionary to Persia prior to his path- Bibliography. J. Beeching, An Open Path: Christian breaking missionary work in China. In 1270, Missionaries 1515–1914; S. Bolshakoff, The Foreign Missions of The Russian Orthodox Church; A. J. Broom- after the opening of China to trade with the West, hall, Hudson Taylor and China’s Open Century; the Mongol emperor, Kublai Khan, asked the J. Du Plessis, A History of Christian Missions in South pope to send a hundred missionaries. Although Africa; F. Dvornik, Byzantine Missions Among The conflict within the papacy delayed the response Slavs; H. M. Goodpasture, Cross and Sword: An Eyewit- to this remarkable request, in 1289 John of Mon- 27 Lull, Ramon tecorvino started his journey to Peking with a let- Martyrdom. The role of martyrdom in the ex- ter from the pope to Kublai Khan. During his pansion of the church is the common thread that journey, John preached for a year in India before links the church of all ages with its suffering Sav- traveling up the coast of China and arriving in ior. Tertullian, third-century leader in the church Peking in 1294. By 1300 he had learned the Chi- of North Africa, wrote to his Roman governors in nese language and had established a thriving his Apology, “As often as you mow us down, the church. A 1305 letter describing his work caused more numerous we become. The blood of the widespread excitement in the West. In 1307, Pope Christians is seed.” But martyrdom is not unique Clement V named John the archbishop of China to Christianity. People have sacrificed their lives throughout the ages for a variety of reasons. To and dispatched several bishops to join him. define the distinctive meaning of Christian mar- During his successful thirty-five years of ser- tyrdom requires investigation of the Bible and vice in China, John translated the New Testa- church history. ment and Psalms into the Mandarin language Definition. The word martyr is an English and gained thousands of converts. His ministry word transliterated from its Greek equivalent also involved repeated conflicts with the Chinese (martyrus). It is closely associated with the word Nestorian Christians, whose church he did not witness as used in the Scriptures. The Old Testa- recognize (see Nestorian Missions). In view of ment Hebrew equivalent is moed, which is used the arduous journey from Europe to China, few in reference to the place where God establishes European missionaries were able to join him, his covenant with his people. and the churches he established were destroyed In the New Testament, the ideas of truth and after the emergence of the Ming Dynasty in 1368. Scripture are integrated into the verb form mar- Alan Seaman tureom. Jesus uses it to establish his witness as truth (Matt. 26:65; Mark 14:63; Luke 22:71). Bibliography. J. Zubal, The Catholic Missions in John the Baptist links Jesus, truth, and Scrip- China during the Middle Ages. ture. Luke speaks of witness to the whole world (Acts 1:8). Lull, Ramon (c. 1235–1315). Missionary to The word martyr also extends its meaning to North Africa. Ramon Lull was born on the island include Christ-like values, such as faithfulness, of Majorca. A dissolute early life was followed by truth, witness, and lifestyle. Eventually, even marriage to Blanca Picany, who bore him two “death-style” is subsumed. The first Christian-era children, but not until the age of thirty did he martyr known is Stephen (Acts 7) who, interest- give his life to Christ after seeing visions of the ingly, was put to death by “witnesses” for his wit- crucifixion. ness. In Revelation 3:14, the last word is given The conversion of infidels became his passion. concerning Jesus Christ who is “the faithful and He spent nine years at the University of Palma true witness.” The word does away with any dis- studying Arabic, disputing with Jews and Mus- tinction of what a true believer might live and lims, and producing the earliest works of his pro- die for. Death does not stop the witness given. It lific career. He believed that opponents of Chris- merely adds an exclamation point of truth, faith- fulness, and love for the glory of God. It is the tianity must eventually succumb to the supreme witnessing act. Neither personal gain arguments he painstakingly developed. nor personal opinion provides the motive for Another passion was the establishment of mis- such a death. sionary training colleges, the first being founded Church Growth and Martyrdom. Tertullian on Majorca in 1276. After teaching for several also wrote, “For who, when he sees our obsti- years at the University of Paris, he made his first nacy is not stirred up to find its cause? Who, missionary journey to Tunis in 1292. He was al- when he has inquired, does not then join our most immediately arrested and expelled, but in Faith? And who, when he has joined us, does not 1307 he returned to North Africa, only to be im- desire to suffer, that he may gain the whole grace prisoned for six months in Bugia. His third tour of God?” Current estimates are that roughly was in 1314–15, again to Bugia, but after pro- 150,000 Christians are martyred each year, down ducing at least five influential converts he was from a peak of 330,000 prior to the demise of stoned to death by an angry crowd. communist world powers. Some project that the Besides his literary output of apologetical and numbers will increase to 600,000 by a.d. 2025, devotional works—estimated at more than 250— given current trends in human rights abuses and Lull is notable for being among the first to advo- growth of militant religious systems. cate the conversion of Muslims as opposed to Those inflicting contemporary Christian mar- military crusades against them. tyrdom include political regimes with count- er-Christian agendas (e.g., official atheistic pow- Larry Poston ers, such as China and the former Soviet Union); Bibliography. E. A. Peers, Ramon Lull: A Biography. sociopolitical regimes enforcing religious restric- 28 Middle East tions (e.g., Egypt, Sudan); ethnic tribal regimes translation of the Bible he and Cyril had begun. bent on eliminating minorities (e.g., Sudan, He died in Moravia on April 6, 885. After his Rwanda, and Burundi) and religious regimes death, his followers were forced out of Moravia, (e.g., Muslim countries in which Sharia is the of- with the result that they began evangelistic work ficial legal system). among the Poles, Bulgars, Bohemians, and other Conclusion. Martyrdom will continue to be as- Slavic peoples. The ministry of Cyril and Metho- sociated with the progress of gospel proclama- dius is traditionally regarded as the major means tion until the Kingdom of God is established. by which the gospel was brought to the Slavic Jesus said, “Do not suppose that I have come to people. bring peace to the earth. I did not come to bring Robert Shuster peace, but a sword” (Matt. 10:34). The sword was Bibliography. F. Dvornik, Byzantine Missions Among not to be used by his disciples against others, but the Slavs: SS. Constantine-Cyril and Methodius. could be expected to be used against them. Paul said, “All this is evidence that God’s judgment is Middle East. Since World War II, the lands from right, and as a result you will be counted worthy the eastern Mediterranean Sea to the Persian of the kingdom of God, for which you are suffer- Gulf have been called the Middle East. Other ing” (2 Thess. 1:5). Finally, as Augustine wrote in designations include the Levant and Near East. City of God: “Despite the fiercest opposition, the Though the geographic perimeters vary, the Mid- terror of the greatest persecutions, Christians dle East consists of the states or territories of the have held with unswerving faith to the belief that Arabian Peninsula, Cyprus, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Christ has risen, that all men will rise in the age Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, and Turkey. At to come, and that the body will live forever. And the core, religiously, it is a largely Islamic world. this belief, proclaimed without fear, has yielded a However, more than 8 million Christians live in harvest throughout the world, and all the more the region. Despite the fact that massive emigra- when the martyr’s blood was the seed they tion of Christians has eroded the strength of sowed.” Christianity in some areas, notably Palestine, J. Ray Tallman overall the Christian population is growing. Bibliography. R. Daniel, This Holy Seed; S. Berg- Christian presence in the region goes back to man, Martyrs: Contemporary Writers on Modern Lives of establishment of the first church in Jerusalem on Faith; J. Hefley and M. Hefley, By Their Blood: Christian Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit came upon the Martyrs of the Twentieth Century; WCE. disciples of Jesus (Acts 1–2). From that epicenter the gospel was to spread to Judea, Samaria, and Methodius (c. 815–885). Greek missionary to the ends of the world (Acts 1:8). Earliest Christi- the Slavic people. Born in Thessalonika (Salon- anity in the Middle East thus had a missionary iki) in the Byzantine Empire, he took the name dynamic. Within the lifetime of Jesus’ first fol- of Methodius upon becoming a monk at the lowers, Christianity spread to Africa, where nota- Mount Olympus monastery, where his younger ble Christian populations have continued to brother Constantine (later to take the name of thrive in Egypt and Ethiopia despite the rise of Cyril) joined him after 855. The work for which Islam in the seventh century; to Europe; and they are known began in 682 when Rastislav of eastward. Christians were first so-named at An- Moravia requested Greek priests to teach the tioch (Acts 11:26). Although surviving docu- Slavic people in their own language. They trav- ments provide too slender a base to support eled to Rastislav’s court and began training some claims made about the expansion of Chris- Slavic priests. They ran into increasing opposi- tianity in Asia during the lifetimes of Jesus’ apos- tion from the Bavarian Catholic missionaries tles, an early tradition is that Thomas carried the there. They traveled to Rome in 868 to confer gospel to India and established seven congrega- with the pope, who approved the work of the tions along the Malabar coast. brothers and the Slavic liturgy they created. Christianity spread through the Hellenistic Methodius was ordained, and eventually conse- world, largely tending to follow trade lines and crated as archbishop of Pannonia and Moravia, attracting converts in the great urban centers of which was removed from the authority of the the Roman Empire such as Antioch, Ephesus, Franks (Germans). This produced a violent reac- Corinth, and Rome. Although conversion to the tion among Frankish secular and religious lead- new faith was uneven, by the end of the third ers and in 870 King Louis the German impris- century Armenia had became the first Christian- oned Methodius in Swabia. Pope John VIII ized kingdom followed, early in the fourth cen- secured Methodius’s restoration in 873, although tury, by the Roman Empire. Within two hundred apparently only after a promise that use of the years after the death of Christ, Syrian Christians Slavic liturgy would be curtailed. The conflicts, were carrying the faith into the Persian Empire however, continued. Methodius returned briefly and across the steppes of Central Asia. In addi- to Constantinople (881–882) to complete the tion to the tradition that St. Thomas visited 29 Middle East

South India, there is another account, dating to cue the Holy Land from the Turks. This led to the third century, of his visit to northwest India creation of a Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, which (what is now Pakistan). Earliest evidence of lasted in various forms from 1099 until the fall of Nestorian missionary activity in the ancient Chi- Jerusalem in 1187. Properly speaking, the story nese capital Chang’an dates to 635. of the succession of Crusades to restore Chris- Missionary dynamism did not endure. Con- tian control of the Holy Land belongs to the his- tributing to this decline was the internal political tory of the Western church. However, they did and theological splintering of Christianity. How- leave their mark on the churches of the Middle ever, in terms of the transformation it brought to East. Negatively, they heightened the breach be- the religious geography of the Middle East, the tween Eastern and Western Christianity, and major factor was the rise of Islam. During the tended to unite Eastern Christians, Jews, and period from the hijrah, or emigration of the Muslims in their disenchantment with arrogant Prophet and his family from Mecca to Medina in Western Christians. Positively, they contributed 622 to his death in 632, Muhammad created a to the renaissance of European life, in part religious community held together by his per- through the introduction of new architectural sonal presence and authority. Though it lasted forms and learning to Europe. They also contrib- only ten years, Muhammad’s public mission had uted to the emergence of two new Catholic mis- an impact similar to that of Jesus. After his sionary orders, the Dominicans and Franciscans. death, his family and closest relatives by mar- The Castillian Dominic (1170–1221) sent riage transformed this community into a politi- preaching friars to the Middle East with a sense cal and military empire. Within thirty years, the of mission shared by the Franciscans, to strive to rule of the patriarchal caliphate stretched west heal the divisions of Christianity and to reach through the richest provinces of North Africa out in faithful evangelistic witness to Muslims. halfway to the Atlantic Ocean, east into Asia, and Among the early Dominican missionaries, Ray- north to the eastern shores of the Black Sea. Ex- mond Martin (1230–84) became a notable cept for Asia Minor, Muslims ruled all of the an- scholar of Islam. Francis of Assisi (1182–1226), cient Christian Roman Empire in Asia. never reached the Middle East. However, his per- Nonetheless, there remained a significant sonal mission to Egypt impressed Muslims. His Christian minority population throughout the model of sincere Christian witness inspired Is- Middle East. Especially where large Arab Chris- lamic rulers to allow Franciscans to remain in tian populations were involved, notably in what is the region, often as custodians of the Holy Sites. now Egypt, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, and Between the fourteenth and eighteenth centu- Yemen, Muhammad’s successors granted immu- ries, Christian missionary activity in the Middle nity from forcible conversion. For non-Arabs, in East was limited. Early in this period, the best- what is now Iran or Turkey, Christianity remained known missionary was the Spanish layman, Ray- as a tolerated minority, often in a sort of religious mond Lull (c. 1235), who sought to convince the ghetto and subject to special taxes. Western church of the vital need for peaceful Gradually over the next three centuries Chris- missionary work among Muslims. During his tianity in Asia went into decline. Under the Uma- preaching journeys to Tunis and Algeria in North yyad Caliphate (661–750) and ‘Abbasids (750– Africa, and to Cyprus, he was attacked, arrested, 1258), a numerically large body of Christians and expelled many times. He met a martyr’s persisted faithfully, but its missionary possibili- death by stoning in Tunis. ties were curtailed and its long-term survival was The Reformation period of the sixteenth cen- in doubt. The world of Islam also experienced tury, which witnessed the creation of new Roman splintering, and ancient centers of civilization Catholic missionary orders and some initial Prot- came under the sway of new Islamic political estant outreach, quickened the pulse of Christian empires. These forced conversion to Islam all evangelistic activity and awakened interest in across Asia with the exception of the Middle work among Jews and Muslims. However, virtu- East. The Nestorians in China disappeared, and ally no effort to evangelize in the Middle East fol- the Thomas Christians of southern India were lowed from this. It remained for the evangelical isolated as a minority-caste community. awakening of the late eighteenth century to gen- Still Christianity survived under medieval Is- erate missionary activity in the region. lamic rule. From the perspective of Asian history In the nineteenth century, Protestants under- as a whole, the most distinguishing feature of the took several initiatives. Animated by Paul’s ex- period was the fall of the Arabs and triumph of ample of preaching first to the Jew (Rom. 1:16), the Turks. There are, of course, other perspec- the London Society for Promoting Christianity tives, most notably that of European history among the Jews (Church Mission to Jews, or which tends to highlight the brief, failed inter- Church’s Ministry among the Jews), founded in vention known as the Crusades. The first cru- 1808 as an offshoot of the London Missionary sade began in 1095 with a call by Pope Urban II Society, was the first of some twenty-three such to the Christian rulers of western Europe to res- societies in Britain alone. Many of these con- 30 Middle East tinue to the present. The London Society sent the served from 1842 to 1845. His successor, Samuel Reverend Joseph Wolff (1796–1862), a converted Gobat, a French-speaking Swiss Protestant who Jew, to undertake various exploratory journeys, had served the Church Missionary Society in leading to the start of a medical ministry in Jeru- Ethiopia, was bishop for thirty-three years, from salem in 1824. 1846 to 1879. His tenure proved controversial in Elsewhere, in 1818, the Church Missionary So- such areas as liturgy, missionary strategy, and re- ciety (CMS) sent a party of five missionaries to lations with local political and religious authori- Egypt. The American Board of Commissioners ties. When his successor, Joseph Barclay, died for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) established work suddenly after less than two years in office, the in Beirut in 1823. Notable work was done in the joint undertaking collapsed, and the British Arch- area of translation of the Bible into modern Ara- bishop of Canterbury appointed a successor on a bic and establishment of the Syrian Protestant purely Anglican basis. The demise of the Jerusa- College, which became the American University lem episcopacy in 1886, due to conflict in Jerusa- of Beirut in 1920. The American Board also began lem and imperial politics in Europe, contributed work in Turkey in 1831. The Reverend William to the continued breach between the Anglican and Gordell settled in Constantinople. The educa- Lutheran churches and the splintering of the tional work gradually extended to other centers in Christian community in the Holy Land. Prosely- Asia Minor and Armenia. In terms of conversions, tizing activities among Eastern Christians and however, numerical growth came from adherents failure to establish any viable Jewish Christian of the ancient Eastern churches as, perhaps re- community among the local inhabitants further gretfully or unwisely, the mission formed a new weakened Christian witness in the Holy Land. Protestant denomination. In Iran, Henry Martyn, This initiative contributed in some measure to the en route to England from service in Calcutta, continued failure on the part of Western Chris- India, between 1806 until 1811, worked on a Per- tians to rethink attitudes toward Eastern Chris- sian version of the New Testament until his death tians and the people of Israel. at age thirty-one, having baptized one convert. The religious awakening of interest in the Mid- Missionaries with the ABCFM who opened a sta- dle East coincided with the decline of the Otto- tion at Urmia in 1835 concentrated on adherents man Empire and an awakening of European im- of Eastern Christianity, with the same results as perial ambitions in the region. At times, noted in Turkey. By contrast, Swiss missionaries ecclesiastical and political rivalries often contrib- of the Basel Mission, who settled in Tabriz in uted directly to conflict, starting with Napoleon 1813, concentrated on contact with Muslims. Bonaparte’s invasion of Egypt in 1798. In 1847, Among its missionaries, Karl Pfander completed the Roman Catholic Church revived the Latin in 1829 the Mizan-al-Haqq (Balance of Truth), a Patriarchate under French auspices. This in turn book which helped pioneer a more tolerant ap- attracted Russian interest, allegedly in support of proach to Muslims, with an inner understanding Orthodox authorities, and contributed in some of Islam not characteristic of earlier missionaries. measure to the outbreak of the Crimean War in This approach began to bear fruit under the min- 1854. Struggle among European imperial powers istry of an Irish Anglican Robert Bruce, who spent for control of the region intensified in the after- ten years in the Punjab and, like Martyn, obtained math of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire permission to spend a year in Iran on his way after World War I. back from furlough in Britain to improve his The lands of the Bible have extraordinary sig- knowledge of Persian and of Islam. His year’s stay nificance for Christians, Jews, Muslims, and the extended to two, and in 1871, as he prepared to tiny community of Samaritans as well as for leave for India, nine Muslims with whom he had other religious communities such as the Baha’i studied Islam in Isfahan asked for baptism. He re- and Druze. Interest in and care for the Holy mained in Iran and was joined by another CMS Land have long characterized major streams of missionary with a background in India, Edward Christian spirituality. Pilgrimage has been a Craig Stuart. Their ministry bore fruit when the major manifestation. Another has been Christian first Persian, Hassan Barnabas Dehquni-Tafti, Zionism, a phenomenon first expressed during was consecrated Anglican bishop on April 25, the sixteenth century. Especially within the An- 1961. glican and Calvinist traditions, some Protestants One additional nineteenth-century initiative is began to read the Bible in such a way that they worthy of note. Even as Christianity arose in Jeru- expected, as a prelude to Christ’s second coming, salem under the unitive ministry of the Holy that Jews would return to their ancient home- Spirit, Jerusalem was the setting of an ecumenical land. By the nineteenth century, many Chris- initiative between 1841 and 1886. In 1841 the tians, influenced by a dispensational hermeneu- Church of England and Prussian Evangelical tic (see Dispensationalism), expressed an Union jointly established the Protestant bishopric accepting attitude toward the desire of many di- in Jerusalem. The first bishop, Michael Solomon aspora Jews to return to the Holy Land and initi- Alexander, was a converted Jewish rabbi. He ated political activity promoting restoration of 31 Miracles in Mission

Jews to the Holy Land. In effect, Christian Zion- Bibliography. Y. Ben-Arieh, The Rediscovery of the ism preceded the emergence of political Jewish Holy Land in the Nineteenth Century; R. B. Betts, Chris- Zionism, an ideological instrument for mobiliz- tians in the Arab East. A Political Study; S. P. Colbi, A ing international patronage for a Jewish home- History of the Christian Presence in the Holy Land; J. S. Conway, Holocaust and Genocide Studies 1 (1986): 127– land in the Holy Land. In Britain, Canada, and 46; K. Cragg, The Arab Christian. A History in the Mid- the United States, Christian Zionists have exhib- dle East; R. T. Handy, ed., The Holy Land in American ited considerable activity and influence, antici- Protestant Life 1800–1948. A Documentary History; pating Christ’s second coming by the end of the N. A. Horner, A Guide to Christian Churches in the Mid- second millennium of the common era. Chris- dle East; S. M. Jack, Journal of Religious History 19 tian Zionists welcomed the Balfour Declaration, (December 1995): 181–203; S. H. Moffett, A History of which, on November 2, 1917, promised the Jews Christianity in Asia. a national home in Palestine; capture of Jerusa- lem a few weeks later; establishment of the Brit- Miracles in Mission. Contemporary mission en- ish mandate of Palestine after World War I; ap- deavor cannot and should not seek to avoid the pointment of a Jew, Herbert Samuel, as the first subject of supernatural power and the miracu- High Commissioner; Jewish emigration to the lous. Neither, on the other hand, should missions Holy Land; organization of Jewish para-military today become obsessed with or distressed over forces; creation of the State of Israel in 1948; re- the power and activity of evil beings under Sa- unification of Jerusalem under Israeli control in tan’s control, nor over those who teach about 1967; and the response of the world community them. The Bible teaches Christ’s victory over all to Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990. Christian the Powers (authorities), Principalities (rulers), Zionists still engender fervent support for the dominions, and demons (1 Cor. 2:6; 15:24; Eph. State of Israel. The intimate linkage between 1:15–23; Col. 1:15–20, 2:15; 2 Thess. 2:8; Heb. Christian Zionism and political decision-making 2:14). Mission today needs to rest assured that remains a political factor in Western diplomacy God still can and does work miracles. related to the Israeli-Arab and Israeli-Palestinian Areas of Interface between the Miraculous conflicts. and Mission. Missions interface with the mirac- As the era of Western influence in the region ulous in evangelism, healing, deliverance, and other areas. waned after mid-nineteenth century, involve- The Miraculous and Evangelism. All evange- ment by indigenous Christians in the wider so- lism is miraculous but in missions today individ- cial and religious life of Middle East has in- uals and groups are opened to the gospel in ways creased. Despite the great diversity of the region, that can only be miraculous. The history of it is possible to make a few generalizations. On Christianity is replete with accounts of people the whole, the social influence of Christians is movements that obviously were instigated and disproportionate to their numbers throughout promoted by the Holy Spirit. the region. Generally, they are better educated Some contemporary missionaries consider than the Muslim majority. They are prominent warfare prayer and the “binding” of territorial in commerce, education, and the professions. spirits as a major method in evangelistic activi- Christians fare relatively well economically and ties. C. Peter Wagner defines Territorial Spir- are less likely to number among the poorest of its as members of the hierarchy of evil spirits the poor. Where Islamic law prevails, and in the who, delegated by Satan, control regions, cities, State of Israel, Christians are generally tolerated tribes, people groups, neighborhoods, and other provided there is no missionary activity from social networks and inhibit evangelistic break- outside. In countries where so-called Islamic through. John Duncan and Edgardo Silvoso re- fundamentalism is particularly strong, or reli- count how, in Argentina, after prayer, fasting, gious nationalism particularly strident, as in confession, and confronting territorial spirits, Iran since 1979, Christians have suffered perse- the Lord granted a marvelous gospel break- cution. Christians exercise considerable political through. John Wimber, who believes in “power power of Cyprus, which remains partitioned, evangelism” and miracles in evangelism, does and in Lebanon, where they once formed a ma- not hold miracles necessary for evangelism. He jority of the population. Religiously, the Chris­ sees proclamation of the gospel as the “heart and tian churches remain fragmented, notwithstand- soul” of evangelism. ing the longings of ordinary Christians to live as The Miraculous and Healing. God has used one body, including gestures to promote unity, healing to reveal the truth of his message such as the pilgrimage of the Roman Catholic throughout history. The Lord has healed through Pope Paul VI in January 1964, and the encoun- the prophets (2 Kings 5:1–16), Jesus (Mark 1:40– ters he had with Benedictos I, Greek Orthodox 41; John 4:46–54), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), Patriarch of Jerusalem, and Athenagoras I, Ecu- New Testament believers (Acts 14:3), and Chris- menical Patriarch of Constantinople. tian missionaries today. God continues to per- Paul R. Dekar form miracles of healing, both to meet the phys- 32 Monastic Movement ical needs of suffering people and to reveal the humans. When miracles are used to bring fame truth of his message. and notoriety to humans, these “signs” are not of Belief in divine healing in no way prohibits God. Christians may be seen doing miracles but using modern medicine and using modern medi- never be doing miracles to be seen. cine does not indicate a lack of faith in God’s Finally, missionaries should remember that power to heal. Missions today should allow God miraculous events are not always of God. Pha­ to speak both through modern medicine and raoh’s magicians did signs (Exod. 7:10–22) as did God’s direct healing action. Satan (2 Thess. 2:9). Jesus declared that false The Miraculous and Deliverance. Demons (evil prophets would perform miracle (Matt. 24:24). spirits, powers) exist and harm, but do not pos- Missionaries must beware of counterfeit mira- sess in the sense of owning, human beings, cles. Missionaries must remember that signs and whether believers or unbelievers. Jesus and New wonders function to convey truth, especially di- Testament Christians expelled demons from per- vine compassion. The purpose of signs is that sons (Matt. 8:28–34; Mark 5:1–20; Acts 5:16; people apprehend the message the signs bring 16:16–18). Contemporary missionaries face ex- rather than dwell on the signs themselves. panding needs and opportunities to oppose evil Ebbie C. Smith spirits who demonize persons. Deliverance from evil spirits has become a growing phenomenon Bibliography. C. E. Arnold, Ephesians: Power and Magic; idem, Powers of Darkness; D. Bridge, Signs and among evangelical missionaries. Demons who Wonders Today; J. Dawson, Taking Our Cities for God; attack people can be expelled and rendered pow- N. Geisler, Signs and Wonders; P. G. Hiebert, Anthropo- erless through God’s power (see also Demons, De- logical Reflections on Missiological Issues; D. Powlison, monization; Exorcism; and Spiritual Warfare). Power Encounters; E. Rommen, ed., Spiritual Power The Miraculous and Other Manifestations. and Missions; T. M. Warner, Spiritual Warfare; C. P. Miracles today are evidenced in tongues, knowl- Wagner, Engaging the Enemy; C. P. Wagner, and F. D. edge, visions, and other areas (1 Cor. 12–14). Pennoyer, eds., Wrestling with Dark Angels. These manifestations, questioned by some, indi- cate to others the direct action of God. Mission- Monastic Movement. Most missionaries from aries must deal honestly and directly with these the fourth to the eighteenth centuries were manifestations. monks, even though mission was not part of the Principles Relating to Missions and the Mi- original purpose of monasticism. The movement raculous. Several principles relate to miracles developed in the late third century, drawing men and missionary work. First, missionaries should and women into celibate communities of work welcome the aid of miracles and other manifes- and worship. Their primary focus was the tations of Signs and Wonders in missionary achievement of personal salvation through prayer ministry. In regard to supernatural power and and ascetic practices. But some penetrated new the miraculous, missionaries must be careful areas, winning pagan peoples to the faith, reduc- never to be materialists, disbelieving in supernat- ing languages to writing, and translating the ural powers, nor magicians, thinking supernatu- Scriptures. ral powers can be controlled by ritual (see In the West, Celtic monasticism, beginning in Magic). the fifth century, was intentionally missionary Second, missionaries must affirm that mira- and played a great role in evangelizing the Brit- cles, signs, and wonders are not necessary for ish Isles and parts of the Continent. In the thir- evangelism or other missionary work. The Holy teenth century the Franciscans initiated missions Spirit continues to grant evangelistic fruit where to Muslims and with the Dominicans established there are no outward signs of miracles. Signs and a chain of mission stations across Central Asia wonders can, however, be instrumental in help- all the way to China. The Jesuits in the sixteenth ing people become more willing to hear the gos- century joined them as the primary missionary pel. agencies of the Roman Catholic Church, espe- Third, missionaries must accept that healing is cially in Latin America, India, and Japan. not always God’s plan for every person. God In the East the Nestorians were ardently mis- speaks through suffering as well as through heal- sionary, even though considered heretical. They ing. Missionaries should not, therefore, promise moved across Central Asia, introduced literacy healing as God remains sovereign in granting among illiterate tribes, and reached China in healing. 635. Most of their work did not survive. Sent by Fourth, missionaries must also remember that Constantinope, Cyril and Methodius went to the power resides in the gospel itself, not in miracles Slavic peoples in the ninth century, devised an (Rom. 1:16; 1 Cor. 1:18). Missionaries must be alphabet that became the basis of modern Slavic certain never to make miracles seem imperative languages, translated the Scriptures, and estab- for missionary effectiveness. They must remem- lished the church. In the tenth century monks ber that miracles, like all other Christian deeds, took Christianity to Kiev, then to Moscow. They must glorify God rather than calling attention to also did heroic work among Aleuts in Alaska be- 33 Nestorian Mission ginning in the eighteenth century. The monks By the thirteenth century the Keraits were con- from the East emphasized the use of vernacular sidered Christian. Nestorians often coexisted languages in liturgy and Scripture, while the with Islam and served its leaders as physicians Western church insisted on Latin. and scholars, even translating a number of Greek Even though evangelicals would not agree philosophical works into Arabic. However, the with all of their theology, this movement pro- Christian faith in Asia was eventually extermi- duced thousands of men and women of prayer nated by a combination of Islamic pressure and and devotion, who were the most important am- the massacres of Tamerlane in the fourteenth bassadors of the gospel for fourteen centuries. century. Scattered Nestorian communities, often Paul E. Pierson calling themselves Assyrian Christians, still exist in some areas of the Middle East and the United Bibliography. D. Bosch, Transforming Mission: Para- States. digm Shifts in Theology of Mission; S. Neill, HCM. Paul E. Pierson Nestorian Mission. The Nestorian movement Bibliography. S. H. Moffett, A History of Christian- took the name of Nestorius, who was appointed ity in Asia, vol. 1; J. Stewart, The Nestorian Missionary patriarch of Constantinople in 428 but deposed Enterprise. three years later at the Council of Ephesus over the issue of the relationship of the human and Pantaenus (d. c. 194). Possible pioneer mission- the divine in Christ. His Christology was proba- ary to India. He was born in either Athens or Sic- bly orthodox, although perhaps not stated ade- ily; almost nothing is known of Pantaenus’s child- quately. Ecclesiastical politics were also involved. hood. He was head of a school in Alexandria The controversy was a factor in the breach be- from roughly 180 until his death, and was suc- tween the East and the West, and the church in ceeded by Clement. While few details are known, Persia became Nestorian. Eusebius relates that Pantaenus responded to a For several centuries the Syriac-speaking call sent through the bishop of Alexandria and Nestorians were one of the most passionately traveled to India. Jerome adds that his work was missionary branches of the church. A school was among the Brahmins. There he apparently met established in Nisibis with a strong focus on Christians who were familiar with Matthew’s spiritual discipline, Bible study, and mission. In Gospel in Hebrew. The India mentioned by Euse- the sixth century it had over a thousand stu- bius may refer to South Arabia, and Pantaenus’s dents. Nestorians spread their faith through mer- work appears to have been little more than a chants, accountants, bankers, and physicians, as visit. well as missionary monks and priests and in A. Scott Moreau some cases women who married chiefs of central Bibliography. ODCC; G. Smith, The Conversion of Asian tribes. In the sixth century Nestorians ar- India; M. Whittaker, NCE, 10:947. rived in India, while a mission to the Huns in central Asia evangelized, reduced the language to Patrick (c. 389–461). Early British missionary; writing, and taught agriculture. “Apostle of Ireland.” Born in Roman Britain, he The best-known mission was to China. A mon- was captured at the age of sixteen by Irish raid- ument discovered in 1623 described the arrival ers and carried into slavery in Ireland. After six of Alopen, the first missionary, in 635. Churches years, he escaped and was eventually reunited and monasteries were established, Christian lit- with his family in Britain. Called in a dream to erature was produced, and the movement had evangelize Ireland, he is said to have returned the favor of the emperor. It even reached the bor- there as a bishop in 432, and from his base in der of Korea. It died out in the tenth century but Armagh carried out what he called his “laborious experienced a resurgence from the eleventh to episcopate.” He claims to have been the first to thirteenth centuries, when it disappeared again. take the gospel to more remote regions of the is- The reasons for its demise in China appear to land. Numerous legends have grown up around have been threefold: overcontextualization to the Patrick’s life; he is said, for example, to have point of religious syncretism, with inadequate been trained in Gaul and to have had a close re- focus on the cross and resurrection; foreign lead- lationship with Martin of Tours (calling for a ership of the church; and strong dependence on fourth-century Patrick). the imperial house. The movement disappeared Reliable data come only from his two short first when the T’ang dynasty fell in the tenth cen- writings: The Confession, a spiritual autobiogra- tury, and again in the fourteenth century because phy; and a work denouncing the tyranny of a of government persecution. British chieftain who persecuted Christians. Pat- Nestorian Christianity reached several central rick aimed first to convert the princes who Asian tribes, notably the Uighurs, whose lan- would then give him safe conduct through their guage was reduced to writing in the eighth cen- territories and access to the common people. He tury. From there it was passed to the Mongols. supported monasticism, refused all presents, 34 Persecution broke the power of heathenism in Ireland, and part of the Christian experience until the Edict of typified the enthusiasm of the Celtic Church. He Milan (a.d. 313) officially legalized Christianity in was known for remarkably clear statements of the empire. Though two relatively brief periods of faith (he continually quoted Paul), and for a mis- persecution followed (under Licinius in 322–23 sionary heart that played a major part in sending and Julian in 361–63), official toleration of Chris- monks to evangelize Europe during the follow- tianity across the Roman Empire was assured. ing two centuries. Contemporary Situation. While it is true that J. D. Douglas Christians have over the course of history perse- cuted others (e.g., Muslims during the Crusades; Bibliography. L. Bieler, The Life and Legend of St. Patrick; R. P. C. Hanson, The Life and Writings of the Jews during the Middle Ages and the modern Historical Saint Patrick. era), including other Christians (e.g., the Do- natists, Anabaptists, Puritans, and Huguenots), Persecution. Suffering experienced by those by and large it is accurate to say that Christians whose opinion or belief is being attacked by an- have been the recipients of hostility. Far from other group. For the first Christians who came being only a thing of the past, persecution today continues to be a reality faced by many Chris- from a Jewish heritage, Suffering and persecu- tion were both part of their lot. Jews living under tians, particularly those in militant religious Roman rule could expect to be persecuted if they states. It is estimated that more Christians have chose to follow Jesus (e.g., Matt. 5:10–12; 10:23; lost their lives through persecution in this cen- Luke 21:12; John 15:20). tury than all other centuries combined, though The Jews as a people had been persecuted for generally there has been little publicity of this in centuries prior to Christ’s birth. Christians who the secular press of free countries. David Barrett came out of Judaism still faced hostility from estimates that some 160,000 Christians were Rome. In addition, at least until a.d. 70, they martyred in 1996 simply because they were faced persecution from the Jewish leaders. Such Christians. Contemporary researchers have persecutions often had the opposite of the in- begun to speak out on behalf of the persecuted tended effect. The persecution of the church (e.g., Shea and Marshall), noting that the West- after Stephen’s Martyrdom did not stop Christi- ern church and Western governments have been anity but spread the gospel beyond the confines largely silent in the face of an increasingly of Jerusalem (Acts 8:1). Paul’s conversion re- well-documented reality. sulted from the Damascus road encounter with A number of mission organizations have also Jesus while he was traveling under Jewish au- been founded to investigate, publicize, and ad- thority to persecute the church in Damascus vocate on behalf of those at risk, including (Acts 9:1–31). In testimony and correspondence Brother’s Keeper, Christian Solidarity Interna- Paul frequently referred to his persecuting work tional, International Christian Concern, and (Acts 22:4; 26:11; 1 Cor. 15:9; Gal. 1:13; Phil. 3:6; Voice of the Martyrs. Additionally, existing 1 Tim. 1:13). James was martyred by Herod, and agencies are incorporating departments which when the populace approved he had Peter ar- emphasize the persecuted church, including rested for the same purpose (Acts 12:1–11). Christian Life Commission of the Southern Through God’s intervention, the tables were Baptist Convention, Open Doors, and World turned and Herod lost his life, while Peter es- Evangelical Fellowship Religious Liberty Com- caped and was able to continue sharing his faith. mission. The National Association of Evangeli- Jewish persecution of Paul for his evangelistic cals (U.S.) published a statement of conscience work led to his arrest and eventual transport to in 1996 reflecting “deep concern for the reli- Rome under guard. In this, however, the Jews gious freedom of fellow believers, as well as living in Rome as well as Paul’s escorts and his people of every faith” and many agencies and guard detail all had the chance to hear the gospel churches have joined the WEF-sponsored Inter- (Acts 28:17–30; Phil. 1:12–14). Persecution, national Day of Prayer for the Persecuted though violent and intended to shut down the Church. church, often had the opposite effect. Missionary Implications. With the recent in- The Roman rulers initially tolerated Christians crease in interest in reaching the unreached, per- as a subsect within Judaism, but Nero’s scape- secution of missionaries will likely grow rather goating of them after the a.d. 64 fire in Rome than shrink in the coming decades, simply be- started a pattern of persecution which continued cause so many of the unreached live under reli- for almost 250 years. With varying intensity, gious or political ideologies that suppress the Christians were perceived as a threat to the state. spread of the Christian message. Additionally, Though not consistently applied throughout the Christians are often perceived as part of the West Roman Empire, and with periods of hostility fol- in general, and the official anti-Western tenor in lowed by temporary reprieves, the reality of these countries will exacerbate the potential Christianity’s illegality as a religion remained problems. 35 Power Encounter

Almost no missiological training in the West The value and validity of an approach to evan- offered today will help future missionaries train- gelism that involves power confrontations is ing face persecution, though it appears that widely accepted today in missiological thinking house seminaries in China prepare their future and practice, since it is recognized that most of pastors for interrogation. Missionaries, espe- the peoples of the world are power-oriented. Cur- cially those going into at-risk situations, would rent theorists, however, have expanded Tippett’s benefit from realistic preparation for the possi- original concept to include healing and deliver- bilities they may face. In addition, having been ance from demons as power encounters. They trained, they may also be more able to offer both see Jesus’ ministry as including numerous such preparation and aid to indigenous Christians power encounters. These encounters are usually who suffer because of a choice to follow Christ less spectacular than those Tippett described but, in a hostile environment. it is argued, qualify as genuine power encounters A. Scott Moreau since they involve the pitting of the power of God to bring freedom against the power of Satan to Bibliography. G. W. Bromiley, ISBE Revised, 3:771– keep people in bondage. Furthermore, such 74; W. H. C. Frend, ER 11:247–56; P. Marshall, IBMR “signs and wonders” frequently result in the con- 22:1 (January 1998): 1–8; idem, Their Blood Cries Out; version of families and even larger groups who E. M. B. Green, NBD, pp. 913–14; H. Schlossberg, A accept the healing or deliverance as demonstrat- Fragrance of Oppression; N. Shea, In the Lion’s Den. ing the presence and power of God. There is, however, some difference of opinion over Power Encounter. The term “power encounter” whether such encounters should be planned or was coined by Fuller missiologist Alan Tippett to simply taken advantage of when they occur. label an event commonly experienced by the peo- It is important to note that conversion through ples of the South Pacific as they converted to power encounter does not assure that the move- Christianity. Tippett noted that people usually ment will be stable and enduring. Throughout had come to Christ in large groupings (“People the Scriptures we see that people can observe Movements”) soon after a major confrontation God’s mightiest demonstrations of power but that tested the power of their ancestral gods soon go right back to the gods who were de- against that of the Christian God, resulting in an feated. Thus it was both after Moses defeated obvious victory for the latter. These encounters Pharaoh and Elijah defeated the prophets of were reminiscent of the scriptural encounters be- Baal. So it has been in many of the power events tween Moses and Pharaoh (Exod. 7–12) and be- in the South Pacific and elsewhere. As always, tween Elijah and the prophets of Baal (1 Kings the crucial dimension in conversion is what hap- 18). pens after the turning, whether people feed and South Pacific peoples were (and are) keenly grow in their new relationship with Jesus Christ aware of the presence, activity, and power of spir- or neglect it and let it die. its. Their leaders were openly committed to the Charles H. Kraft gods of their islands. They credited these gods Bibliography. C. H. Kraft, Christianity With Power; with providing protection, food, fertility, and all M. G. Kraft, Understanding Spiritual Power; A. R. Tip- other necessities of life for them. But they also pett, People Movements in Southern Polynesia; C. P. lived in great fear of their anger and vengeance. Wagner, Confronting the Powers. To challenge the ancestral gods was unthinkable for most South Pacific peoples. Nevertheless, in Roman Catholic Missions. Roman Catholic turning to Christ, often after years of weighing the Missions and Mission Theology Before Vatican consequences, it was chiefs and priests, those who II. It was only in the context of the Counter-­ knew the gods and their power best, who chose to Reformation in the sixteenth century that the challenge them. In doing so, they wagered that term “ missions” came to be used to designate the Christian God had greater power than their the Catholic Church’s activity of preaching the gods and cast themselves completely on him for gospel. The early Jesuits used the term to de- protection from the revenge of their gods. scribe efforts (1) to revive and nurture faith A typical power encounter would involve a among Catholics, (2) to win back Christians who priest or chief, speaking on behalf of his people, had become Protestant, and (3) to convert to publicly denouncing their allegiance to their Christianity those who had not yet been bap- god(s) in the name of Jesus and challenging the tized. During this period the political expansion god(s) to do something about it. When the god(s) of Europe to Asia and Latin America by the could not respond, the victory belonged to Jesus Roman Catholic kingdoms of Portugal and Spain and large numbers of the people usually con- was intimately linked to missions in the third verted. As Tippett noted, power-oriented people sense of the term. require power proof, not simply reasoning, if Augustinians, Dominicans, and Franciscans they are to be convinced. accompanied the explorers of the Philippines 36 Roman Catholic Missions early in the sixteenth century, and relatively forward for priesthood, nor one order of women quickly and with little opposition the majority of religious founded. the population was baptized. Missionaries saw In the sixteenth century, missions were di- little of value in Filipino culture, however, and rected by the Portuguese and Spanish monarchs imposed European doctrinal formulations and and the missionary orders. While this had a religious practices. Such a tabula rasa approach number of advantages (royal protection, ready to evangelization was taken also in India, both means of travel, financial assistance), the grave with the “Thomas Christians” found there, and disadvantages of mixing political interests and with new converts as well. The Jesuit Francis trade with mission work, rivalry between the or- Xavier also shared this attitude, although, unlike ders, and a limited pool of missionaries other European missionaries, he stressed the im- prompted Rome, as it was centralizing all of Ca- portance of preaching and instruction in the tholicism in the wake of the Council of Trent, to local language. When Xavier traveled to Japan, place all missionary activity under a new curial however, he was so impressed by the level of civ- body—the Congregation for the Propagation of ilization and natural goodness of the Japanese the Faith. Established in 1622, its aims were to that he abandoned this tabula rasa approach in free missionary work from the stranglehold of favor of one of Accommodation, wherever possi- Spain and Portugal, to create dioceses and pro- ble, to local customs. This more “inculturating” mote local clergy, and to recruit diocesan clergy approach was also championed by Alessandro to balance personnel from the religious orders. Valignano, who first came to Asia as a Jesuit vis- In a famous set of instructions in 1659, the Con- itator in 1579. Valignano strongly supported the gregation urged that missionaries should not de- work of Matteo Ricci in China, who advocated stroy what is good in a culture: “What could be the development of a Chinese Christianity, com- more absurd than to transport France, Spain, plete with the possibility of venerating ancestors. Italy, or some other European country to China? As missionaries from other orders began to work Do not bring these, but the faith.” in China, however, such broad-minded accep- It was in this spirit that Robert de Nobili min- tance of Chinese culture was opposed, and in istered in India in the first half of the seven- teenth century. Influenced by the methods of 1742 any kind of adaptation was condemned at Ricci, he determined to immerse himself in In- the conclusion of the famous “Rites Contro- dian culture. He avoided eating meat and wear- versy.” ing leather shoes, wore the robe of the Indian By the mid-sixteenth century the conquest of holy man, mastered classical Tamil, and at- Latin America was complete, and with conquest tempted to recast traditional Christian teaching came Franciscan and Dominican—and eventu- with illustrations from the Indian classics. Any- ally Jesuit—missionaries. While the missionaries one converting to Christianity need not abandon were for the most part sincere, and made efforts the many Indian cultural practices that de Nobili to learn local languages and provide basic educa- deemed inessential to Christian life. Although tion, the success of their work was greatly ham- blessed with considerable success, de Nobili was pered by the cruelty with which the indigenous not without his critics, and in 1703 all his meth- peoples were treated by the conquerors. But the ods were condemned by the Roman legate native people did have their champions in men Charles Tournon. like Antonio de Montesinos and especially Bar- In what is now Vietnam, Alexander de Rhodes tolomew de Las Casas, who worked for fifty made two significant contributions to mission- years to convince the Spanish of the indigenous ary work. First, he formed a company of cate- people’s humanity and their need for basic chists, laymen whom he trained to give both reli- human rights. Evanglization was also hampered gious instruction and medical assistance. In lieu by missionary attitudes that demeaned the local of an indigenous Vietnamese clergy, such action cultures and insisted that converts adopt a Euro- assured that Christianity would be taught skill- pean lifestyle. In an effort both to protect the in- fully and accurately. Second, Rhodes developed a digenous population from exploitation by the way to write Vietnamese using the Roman alpha- colonists and to form them in Christian living, bet, and set Christian doctrine in the ordinary villages or “reductions” were developed in which language of the people. By 1658 it was estimated people could live in Christian community. These that there were 300,000 Christians in Vietnam. communities were developed especially by the Between 1645 and 1700 the Capuchins bap- Jesuits, who founded some twenty-three settle- tized 600,000 people in the region of the Congo ments in Paraguay in the seventeenth century. and Angola, and from 1700 on the average an- While life was peaceful in such communities, nual number of baptisms was 12,000. The reason their weakness lay in failure to develop a sense for this, it seems, was a rather lax policy of bap- of initiative and independence among the peo- tism. Elsewhere in Africa, by 1624 the Jesuits ple. Until the system met its nemesis in the eigh- had some twenty missionaries working in the teenth century, not one candidate was brought Zambezi region, and the Dominicans and Augus- 37 Roman Catholic Missions tinians had stations on Africa’s east coast, but prayers, disseminated information, and collected the involvement of the missionaries in various funds for missionary support. tribal wars slowed progress considerably and As the nations of Europe entered a new age of strengthened the impression that to become Colonialism, they welcomed, for the most part, Christian was to accept the sovereignty of Portu- missionaries of all sorts to help in education and gal. Despite heroic efforts, no real commitment health care. While Catholics and Protestants was made to learn local languages or cultures, often pioneered in their own missionary areas, and there was little attempt to follow easy bap- they occasionally competed, shamefully, against tism with extended catechesis. one another. Missionary efforts in Africa flour- In the seventeenth century, France began to ished, despite the hardships of the climate. Both exert its influence beyond Europe, particularly in China and Japan opened up once more for mis- North America. The first group of Jesuit mission- sionaries under the pressures of the colonial aries was sent to Canada in 1632, and in 1639 powers. Korean Catholicism struggled to grow, Ursuline Marie de l’Incarnation and several com- but was severely hampered by persecution at panions were the first women missionaries to mid-century. Such legendary figures as Peter Canada. Work was slow and hard; the indige- Chanel and Father Damien participated in the nous people treated each other and the mission- evangelization of the South Pacific. aries with terrible cruelty, and many missionar- In this great missionary era, however, there ies lost their lives, among whom were Jesuits was little creative thinking. Nineteenth-century Isaac Jogues and Jean Brebeuf and the layman Catholic theology, with few exceptions, was in- Jean de la Lande. The Jesuit missionary Pierre spired by the false universalism of Neo-Thomism. Marquette is especially known for his explora- Loyalty to the papacy did indeed revitalize the tions of the Upper Midwest. church, but also made it Eurocentric and, like The great effort of Roman Catholic mission the colonial powers, derogatory of local culture. work beyond Europe faltered gravely in the eigh- Any kind of adaptation was seldom considered, teenth century. The influence of Portugal and and local vocations to priesthood and religious Spain began to diminish as Holland’s and Brit- life were, in the main, rarely encouraged. A sign of renewal in Roman Catholic mission ain’s grew; the Roman decisions regarding Chi- theology was the publication of five major mis- nese ancestral rites precipitated a persecution in sion encyclicals in the twentieth century, in- China; the suppression of the Jesuits in 1773 ef- spired no doubt by the emergence of the Social fected the withdrawal of several thousand mis- Sciences and the pioneering missiological work sionaries from Asia and Latin America; the of Josef Schmidlin, André Seumois, and Pierre French Revolution and its persecution of the Charles. Maximum illud (Benedict XV, 1919) church virtually dried up the sources for French taught the need to be sensitive to local cultures missionaries. and called for the training of local clergy; Rerum It is rather astonishing, therefore, that the ecclesiae (Pius XI, 1926), while likewise calling nineteenth century was to see an amazing revival for a local clergy, also affirmed the pope’s role in in the Catholic Church in general, and in its mis- global evangelization and enlisted bishops as pri- sionary efforts in particular. Napoleon’s humilia- mary agents in the task. In Evangelii praecones tion of the pope at the end of the eighteenth cen- (1951) and Fidei donum (1957), Pius XII stressed tury ultimately created a movement of papal the supranationality of the church, and called for support and religious renewal throughout the the development in Africa. John XXIII’s 1959 whole church. In 1814 the Jesuits were reestab- Princeps pastorum laid the groundwork for Vati- lished, and other orders discovered new life. In can II. addition, the nineteenth and early twentieth cen- From Vatican II to the Present. The Second turies saw the foundation of more new orders of Vatican Council (1962–65), the most important men and women dedicated to missionary work event of the Catholic Church in the twentieth than had any previous era. These included the century, thoroughly rethought the theology and Sisters of Saint Joseph of Cluny (1805), the Ob- practice of mission. The “Dogmatic Constitution lates of Mary Immaculate (1816), the Marists on the Church” (Lumen gentium, 1964) defines (1817), the Congregation of Mary Immaculate and describes the council’s teaching on the (1862), the Mill Hill Fathers (1866), the Comboni church’s identity, its organization, and its author- Missionaries (men, 1867; women, 1872), the So- ity. In highlighting the universality of Christ, the ciety of the Divine Word (1875), Sisters of the Catholic Church is also defining itself as “the Precious Blood (1885), and the Catholic Foreign universal sacrament (sign) of salvation.” It Mission Society of America (Maryknoll, 1911). senses a “special urgency” in the task of “pro- The beginnings of large-scale lay participation in claiming the gospel of Christ to every creature.” missionary work can be traced back to Pauline The “Dogmatic Constitution” is noteworthy for Jaricot, who in 1817 founded the Society for the two particular reasons, the first being the ways Propagation of the Faith. The society solicited in which the Catholic Church continues to define 38 Roman Catholic Missions itself in terms of a hierarchical structure (chap. lated themes. The first theme is that of procla- 3) in spite of using the terms “mystery” (chap. 1) mation, which holds the permanent priority in and “the People of God” (chap. 2) as controlling mission. Proclamation is rooted in the witness of images of the contemporary church. The second Christian action and authentic Christian living, is the way in which the Catholic Church identi- and blossoms into communication of the word fies itself in relation to other religious and nonre- (by a variety of media) only after discerning the ligious realities. It is not clear whether the “Dog- presence of and listening to the Spirit in a partic- matic Constitution” intends to identify the ular context. people of God with the Catholic Church exclu- The second theme, interreligious Dialogue, is sively, but it is clear that the traditional rubric recognized today as an integral element of mis- “outside the church there is no salvation” is cited sion that finds its deepest justification in the dia- in a rather nuanced way. It is certainly ironic, at logue with which God effects salvation. While least from an evangelical point of view, that the proclamation is concerned with presenting groundwork is then laid for articulation of vari- Christ, dialogue seeks to discover him in other ous ways in which members of non-Christian re- faiths, ideologies, and secular situations, and ligions and even atheists can have a relationship calls for mutual conversion and transformation. with the church, even unconsciously (chaps. 14– Dialogue is like proclamation, however, in that it 16). It is encouraging to note, nevertheless, many entails both nonverbal and verbal witness to the statements of the Great Commission and of the reality of Christ. obligation of all disciples of Christ to use their Inculturation, the third theme, finds its theo- individual abilities in the urgent task of global logical roots in the doctrines of the incarnation, evangelization. sacramentality, catholicity, and revelation. Like The biblical principles of a theology of mission interreligious dialogue, inculturation looks for are outlined in the council’s “Decree on the Mis- the presence of God in human life and culture— sionary Activity of the Church” (Ad gentes, 1965), and so goes beyond the former models of adapta- the foundation of which is that “the pilgrim tion; like proclamation, on the other hand, it church is missionary by its very nature.” The calls for renewal and refinement of the human in first paragraphs of the decree include a thor- the gospel’s light—and so is always somewhat oughly biblical reflection on the trinitarian basis countercultural in intent. In theological articula- for mission, showing that the activity of preach- tion, liturgical expression, and questions of ing the gospel needs to be approached—even in church order, not only the classical sources of Western culture—with different strategies. The Scripture and tradition need to be taken into ac- evangelical will be uncomfortable with the juxta- count, but also those elements (culture, location, position of a particularist understanding of sal- social changes) that make up present human ex- vation and the assertion that “all people have a perience. Pope John Paul II has characterized ‘mysterious’ relationship with the church inculturation as the center, means, and aim of (which) enlightens them in a way which is ac- the new effort of evangelization. commodated to their spiritual and material situ- In the last several decades the theme of libera- ation.” tion has emerged as central in theological reflec- Some months after the publication of Redemp- tion on the church’s mission. While mission has toris Missio, two Vatican congregations issued almost always been involved in some kind of “Dialogue and Proclamation,” a document which charitable or developmental work, current think- attempts to explain more fully the church’s views ing would push beyond to ways of changing the of non-Christian religions and its efforts to inter- underlying unjust and oppressive structures that act with adherents of those faiths. The complexi- keep people poor. Working for justice and inte- ties of religious Pluralism are to be explored by gral liberation has been called constitutive of means of dialogue, a Christian message is not to gospel proclamation, and inculturation is re- be imposed in this situation, for sincere persons garded as impossible without immersion in the are “saved in Jesus Christ and thus already share reality of the poor and treating their religion— in some way in the reality which is signified by popular Christianity or non-Christian faith— the kingdom.” Proclamation, on the other hand, with utmost seriousness and respect. is based on solid biblical material; here the integ- Finally, the church’s mission is more and more rity of the gospel demands avoidance of Syncre- recognized in contemporary theological reflec- tism. Dialogue and proclamation must eventually tion as trinitarian in both origin and aim. Mis- come together. The gospel message needs to be sion is rooted in the God who is radically with included at some point in the practice of dia- and for humanity, and who calls humanity to be- logue so as to provide the belief and faith called come partners in the divine work of reconciling for in all Christians. all of creation. God does this in the warp and Contemporary Roman Catholic Mission The- woof of history (Spirit) and in the concreteness ology. Contemporary Roman Catholic mission of history (Jesus); humanity does this most con- theology revolves, then, around several interre- sciously by aligning with God’s activity in the 39 Stephen of Perm missional community of the church. The entire Toward The 3rd Millennium: Essays in Celebration of church is called to mission, and so laity as well Twenty-Five Years of SEDOS; R. Latourelle, Vatican II: as clergy and religious are to minister actively in Assessment and Perspectives 25 Years After (1962–1987), the world. 3 vols.; B. Meeking and J. Stott, eds., The Evangeli- Contemporary Roman Catholic mission theol- cal-Roman Catholic Dialogue on Mission, (1977–1984); K. Muller, Mission Theology: An Introduction; J. A. ogy is greatly influenced by contacts with other Scherer and S. B. Bevans, eds., New Directions in Mis- Christian churches, Orthodox, conciliar, and sion and Evangelization I: Basic Statements (1974– evangelical. “Christian Witness—Common Wit- 1991). ness” (1980), a joint agreement between the Vat- ican and the World Council of Churches, ex- Stephen of Perm (1340–96). Russian orthodox plores ideas for ecumenical cooperation in missionary to Siberia. Stephen of Perm was one global evangelization and witness. A contribu- of the founding fathers of Russian Orthodox tion to the ongoing discussions between concil- missions. Born in 1340, he was part of a small iar Protestants and Roman Catholics, this docu- Muscovite settlement in northwest Siberia sur- ment affirms certain perspectives on the church, rounded by the pagan Zyrians of Perm. In 1365, defines the characteristics and results of effective on the day Stephen took monastic vows, he witness, and even proposes various situations in voiced to the bishop his desire to one day return which common witness can take place. to Perm and proclaim the gospel among the Zyr- The Evangelical-Roman Catholic Dialogue on ian people. Mission (ERCDOM) took place over eight years He spent his early years in the monastery culti- (1977–84). The discussions demonstrated that vating a deep spiritual life of prayer, fasting, and evangelicals and Roman Catholics can talk to- continual study. He also began translating the gether about issues of great importance without Bible and liturgical services into Zyrian, even engaging in the usual polemics. The record of having to create a Zyrian alphabet. these meetings shows both integrity and candor In 1378, Stephen settled among the Zyrians regarding issues that have long divided the two and began to preach against their rampant idola- groups. While there was considerable agreement try and to show the impotence of their gods by on some of the basic points, there remains much destroying their idols and shrines. Eventually he that separates. “Evangelicals and Catholics To- challenged their main magician to a divine trial gether” (1994) represents a more recent attempt in which both were to walk through a burning in North America to identify areas of common hut and throw themselves into an opening in the concern to evangelicals and Roman Catholics ice of the Vichedga river. When the magician re- and proposes strategies for future cooperation. fused, the people turned against him and de- The document demonstrates that there is much manded his death. Stephen, however, preached in common between the two groups, particularly God’s mercy and called the magician to repent or when it comes to “cobelligerence,” that is, a com- be exiled. Stephen became the first bishop of mon commitment against, for example, Relativ- Perm in 1383. His final words before his death ism, anti-intellectualism, nihilism, and social were, “Live godly lives, read the Scriptures, and abuse. Although areas of disagreement are ac- obey the Church.” knowledged, there is little theological reflection, Luke A. Veronis with the unfortunate result of some oversimplifi- cation and confusion. In the main, three issues Bibliography. J. J. Stamoolis, Eastern Orthodox Mis- need further investigation and discussion: the sion Theology Today; L. A. Veronis, Missionaries, Monks significance of the Protestant Reformation, the and Martyrs: Making Disciples of All Nations. criteria for membership in the body of Christ, and the scope of the Great Commission as a man- Tekla-Haymanot (c. 1215–c. 1313). Ethiopian date that engages all believers in Christ in all evangelist and monastic innovator. Tekla-Hay- parts of the globe. It is certainly good and right manot is a legendary figure in evangelistic re- that such discussions have taken place; in the fu- newal of the Ethiopian church. He was born into ture, however, provision should be made for the a Christian family and came to know Christ at an inclusion of those who can contribute signifi- early age. After joining a monastery and studying cantly from the theological and biblical disci- for ten years, he moved to Tegré as part of an at- plines. tempted pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The attempt Steven B. Bevans and John Nyquist never came to fruition, but Haymanot remained in Tegré another twelve years before returning to Bibliography. W. M. Abbott, ed., The Documents of his home area, which was predominately Vatican II; W. R. Burrows, Redemption and Dialogue: Reading “Redemptoris Missio” and “Dialogue and Proc- non-Christian at the time. He began to preach lamation”; C. Carlen, ed., The Papal Encyclicals, 1939– the gospel, and disciples gathered around him. 1958; C. Colson and R. J. Neuhaus, eds., Evangelicals He founded a small community, which became a and Catholics Together: Towards a Common Mission; W. significant learning center and from which most Jenkinson and H. O’Sullivan, eds., Trends in Mission. of the monastic communities in Ethiopia derive 40 Willibrord their origin. Unconfirmed stories abound con- whom he took as one of his hundreds of wives. cerning Haymanot’s exploits, including reports He also maintained hundreds of concubines. of many miracles that greatly assisted his evan- After listening to the testimonies of Muslims, gelistic efforts. Roman Catholics, Jews, and Greek Orthodox A. Scott Moreau Christians in 986, Vladimir sent his nobles to see how each of these religions worshiped. The leg- Bibliography. E. A. Budge, The Life and Miracles of Tekla Haymanot; T. Tamrat, Church and State in Ethio- endary report from St. Sophia’s Cathedral in pia 1270–1527. Constantinople: “We knew not whether we were in heaven or on earth for there is not a similar sight upon earth, nor is there such beauty,” con- Ulfilas (c. 311–82). Early missionary to Ger- vinced Vladimir to be baptized into the Greek many; “Apostle to the Goths.” A Cappadocian Orthodox Church. captured by the Germanic tribe that posed a con- In 988 Vladimir was baptized as well as the stant threat to the Roman Empire, he had been nation at his command. Though the details of brought up by them beyond the Danube. There Vladimir’s conversion from paganism to Christi- was evidently a sizable Christian community anity are subjectively recorded and his motives among the barbarians, and Ulfilas was conse- less then pure, on Vladimir’s decision God has crated bishop by Eusebius of Nicomedia, whose built his church in Russia. Arian views he had espoused. He worked initially Jamie Flowers among the Goths of what is now Romania, many of whom turned to Christianity. Others resisted, Bibliography. F. Butler, Images of Missionaries and seeing in the Christian missionary a device to Innovative Rulers in East Slavic Literature from Early bring them under Roman domination. After Times Through the Reign of Peter the Great; P. L. Gar- seven years Ulfilas in 348 obtained permission lick, Pioneers of the Kingdom: Biographical Sketches for himself and his converts to settle south of the From New Testament Days to Modern Times. Danube, and there he continued his work until his death. Willibrord (658–739). English pioneer mission- His great monument, after creating an alpha- ary in Frisia. Willibrord was a pupil of Wilfrid at bet, is his Gothic translation of the Bible, the the monastic center Wilfrid established at Ripon, oldest written work in a Germanic language. It is and later became one of a number of outstand- said he omitted the books of Samuel and Kings ing Northumbrian missionaries to the Continent, to prevent the Goths’ military appetite being fur- specifically following up work Wilfrid had begun ther whetted by bloodthirsty narratives. More in Frisia, and laying important groundwork for likely his translation was incomplete when he Boniface, an Anglo-Saxon scholar-missionary. died, and that he had postponed parts of Scrip- Beyond Boniface, then, we have Willibald, and ture he regarded as least important for inculcat- Alcuin, other Northumbrians, and through them ing Christian behavior in his flock. His Arianism eventually a large contribution to bringing was later modified in a more orthodox direction, Northern Europe into the sway of the Latin-Ro- probably due to the influence of Emperor Theo- man Christian tradition. dosius the Great. Earlier missionaries like Columban had been Many of his translations of the Gospels sur- ethnically Celtic, and stood for a crusading em- vive with the Pauline epistles and fragments of phasis on morality and spirituality. They were ­Nehemiah. ethnically and linguistically more remote than J. D. Douglas this later Anglo-Saxon group which combined both Celtic and Roman (Gregorian) missionary Bibliography. G. Friedrichsen, The Gothic Version of zeal, and, most of all, had impeccably Roman the Gospel; C. A. A. Scott, Ulfilas, Apostle of the Goths. credentials to influence the people at the top, not just antagonizing them with a kind of John the Vladimir (956–1015). Russian prince responsi- Baptist preaching. ble for the founding of Russian Orthodox Chris- Thus, this series of sturdy Anglo-Saxon mis- tianity. Vladimir came to be known as the Con- sionaries, reached their distant cousins, spread stantine of Russia for his Christianization of Celtic zeal and Roman order, championed the Russia. The details of Vladimir’s conversion are Benedictine rather than the more austere Irish shrouded in legend. Some accounts paint the monastic model, and furnished a crucial biblical prince as a saint who led his nation into righ- and spiritual foundation for the later role of teousness while other accounts tell of Vladimir’s Charlemagne in the expanding Frankish king- sordid past and his own need for conversion be- dom and the entire Carolingian Renaissance. fore he could lead his people out of darkness into Ralph D. Winter light. Before his conversion, he killed his brother, Ja- ropolk, and then had a son by Jaropolk’s widow,

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