DOCSLIB.ORG

A Deeper Look at Language Change Laȝamon's Brut

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
A Deeper Look at Language Change Laȝamon's Brut Middle English II A Deeper Look At Language Change Laȝamon's Brut Written toward the end of the 12th century, this is a chronicle history of Britain We know that Laȝamon wrote it because he IDs himself .... other than that he is lost to history He quotes three earlier histories as his sources "Brut" is based upon a legend that an ancient Greek warrior "Brutus" came to uninhabited Britain with a small company of Trojans and founded what became London - and hence was the first king of England - � Laȝamon's Brut Illustrated in text (p. 110) Innovative orthographic features, including: Round "s" (s) used word-finally, shaft "s" (ſ) in most other environments, i.e. "ſtaþe" Yogh (ȝ) used for [j], but "g" for [g] Wynn (ƿ) gives way to "w" Orthographic Factoid The convention of using round-s in word final position and shaft-s in most other positions continues well into the modern era Brut Text Incipit hyſtoria Brutonum. An proeſt wes on leoden: Laȝamon wes ihoten he wes leouenaðes ſone: liðe him beo drihten. he wonede at Ernleȝe: at æðelen are chirechen vppen ſeuarne ſtaþe: sel þar him þuhte. on feſt Radeſtone: þer he bok radde. hit com him on mode: & on his mern þonke. þet he wolde of engle þa æðelæn tellen. wat heo ihoten weoren wonene heo comen. þa englene londe: æreſt ahten. æfter þan flode: þe from drihtene com. þe al her a quelde: quic þat he funde. buten noe & sem: japhet & cham & heore four wiues: þe mid heom weren on archen Brut Text Incipit hyſtoria Brutonum. Here begins the history of Britain An proeſt wes on leoden: Laȝamon wes ihoten (There) was a priest in (the) land, Lagamon was called he wes leouenaðes ſone: liðe him beo drihten. he was Leovenath’s son, gracious to him be the lord he wonede at Ernleȝe: at æðelen are chirechen he dwelt at Arely, at a noble church vppen ſeuarne ſtaþe: sel þar him þuhte. upon Severn’s bank - good there to him thought on feſt Radeſtone: þer he bok radde. near Radestone, where he books read hit com him on mode: & on his mern þonke. it came to him in mind and in his chief thought þet he wolde of engle þa æðelæn tellen. that we would of the Engles the noble deeds tell wat heo ihoten weoren wonene heo comen. what they named were and whence they came þa englene londe: æreſt ahten. who English land first possessed æfter þan flode: þe from drihtene com. after the flood that from the lord came þe al her a quelde: quic þat he funde. that all here destroyed alive that he found buten noe & sem: japhet & cham except Noah & Shem, Japhet and Ham & heore four wiues: þe mid heom weren on archen and their four wives who with them were in the ark Notable Developments Destressing of word-final vowels (with subsequent reduction to [ə] is afoot: þa, þas, þe, þene, þeos, þet quite possibly are all more or less becoming [θə] Loss of prefixes & suffixes: OE perfective [jə] "ȝe" - reduced to [i] in ihoten (ȝehaten) "called", iber (ȝebær/ȝeberan) "bore" or ø in leide (ȝeleȝd/ lecȝan) "laid" Notable Developments Regularization of plural suffixes: OE MnE cyning/cyningas king/kings scip/scipu ship/ships cild/cildru child/children land/land land/lands andswaru/andswara answer/answers nama/naman name/names gos/ges goose/geese Notable Developments Regularization of English plurals in this period shows a tendency to generalize either -(e)s or -en: ...& heore four *wiues: þe mid heom weren on archen ... *feþeren he nom mid *fingren: fide on boc-felle. *OE - wifa, feþra, fingras French Influence French spelling conventions: "ch" replaces OE "c" for [ʧ], and "k/ck" for [k] OE Brut MnE cyrican (dat.) chirechen church frencisc frenchis French leoflice leofliche lovingly macode makede made boc bock book Notable Develpments "gg" replaces "cȝ" for [ʤ]: OE secȝan > ME segge (say) "qu" replaces "cw": cwene > quene (queen), cwic > quic (alive) "ou" replaces "u": broȝhte > brouhte (brought) Note: In early ME, "u" could be [u:], [ʊ], [ü], [v] (until the 17th century) or [w] "uu". Also, the ME convention of doubling vowels to mark length would mean that "uu" could be either [u:] or [w]. Hence, adopting "ou" or it's alternate form "ow" had practical application. Latin Influence Since Latin was the original language of scholarship & religion in England, many Latin spelling conventions made their way into English spelling ... for ideosyncratic reasons. "o" for [ʊ] - OE cuman, sum, nunc, sunu, wulf came to be spelled come, some, monk, son, wolf because the letter "u" in book handwriting was easy to confuse with "n" or "m", whereas "o" was clearer and easier to read. Other Orthographic Changes "a" replaces "æ" - in OE, "æ" distinguished [æ] from [a]. By ME, "æ" is lost as 1. it wasn't found in French and 2. long [æ] > [ɛ:], which was spelled with "e" OE Brut MnE æȝhwylcne alcen/alc each ælmigtiȝan almiten almighty fæder fader father's ræd/rædan radde read stæþe staþe bank toȝædere togadere together þære þare the þæt þat that Other Orthographic Changes Introduction of the letter "g" to English OE used yogh "Ȝ" for [g], [j], and [ɣ] Leȝemon uses "g" for [g], "ȝ" for [j] OE Brut MnE enȝle engle the English enȝlena englene of the English ȝod godd God ȝeond ȝond throughout More Orthographic Changes Variant spellings for [ʃ] Early OE "sc" = [sk] > [ʃ] (ON spelled it "sk") Variations included s, ss, sch, ssh, sh (except in words where evidence of their derivation was left as a marked feature, i.e. machine, schedule, etc. OED lists variant spellings for "shield" from OE to MnE: scild, scyld, sceld, seld, sseld, sheld, cheld, scheld, sceild, scheeld, cheeld, schuld, scelde schulde, schylde, shilde, schelde, sheeld, schield, childe, scheild, shild, shylde, sheelde, schielde, sheild, shield Reduction of Unstressed Vowels Reduction of unstressed vowels in MnE to [ə] is so normal that [ə] is the commonest vowel in speech In OE -on, -an, -am, -um, -a, -u, etc. the vowels were originally pronounced as [ɔ], [a], [ʊ] When the spelling of these vowels become inconsistent, it's a strong indication that they were weakening to [ə] Reduction of Unstressed Vowels OE Brut MnE "a" > "e" - [ə] biddað biddeð prays hire/hira/heora heore their sel/selra sel/selre good/better þridda þridde third "or" > "er" - [ər] modor > moder "u" > "e" - [ə] sunu > sone Reduction of Unstressed Vowels "an" > "en - [ən] OE Brut MnE æþelan æþelen noble butan boten/buten outside tellan tellen tell writan writen write Loss of unstressed vowel: mæran > mern (splendid, chief) [ɛj] > [ɛɪ] > [ɪɛ] feȝde (feȝan) > fiede (wrote) Other Vowel Changes Formation of new diphthongs (pp 121 - 122) [æ:] > [ɛ:] (p 122) All four OE diphthongs reduce to single vowels (pp 122 - 124) [y:] / [y] either (pp 124-125) unrounded and became [i]/[i:] unrounded and became [e]/[e:] remained unchanged Other Vowel Changes These forms from the Brut indicate something was afoot and that [a:] was rounding to [ɔ:] (pp 125 - 127) OE Brut MnE ȝan gon Pret Marker ȝehaten ihoten called nam (niman) nom took be+wan bi won won (acquired) Other Vowel Changes New words bring about a new low back vowel With [a:] > [ɔ:] we now have a hole in the vowel system, except that ... Many French borrowings bring [a:] with them (p. 128) Short vowels in open syllables of two-syllable words lengthen (effects [a], [e] & [o] (p. 129-130) Consonant Changes Loss of initial [h] - hwæt > wat (what), hwanon > wonene (whence) {could be French influence} Omission of [ɣ] marker.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • ELL101: Intro to Linguistics Week 1 Phonetics &
    ELL101: Intro to Linguistics Week 1 Phonetics & IPA Tomonori Nagano <[email protected]> Education and Language Acquisition Dept. LaGuardia Community College August 16, 2017 . Tomonori Nagano <[email protected]> Edu&Lang Acq. Dept., LaGuardia CC 1/41 Fields of linguistics • Week 1-2: Phonetics (physical sound properties) • Week 2-3: Phonology (speech sound rules) • Week 4: Morphology (word parts) • Week 5-6: Syntax (structure) • Week 7-8: Semantics (meaning) • Week 7-8: Pragmatics (conversation & convention) • Week 9: First & Second language acquisition • Week 10-12: Historical linguistics (history of language) • Week 10-12: Socio-linguistics (language in society) • Week 10-12: Neuro-linguistics (the brain and language) • Week 10-12: Computational linguistics (computer and language) • Week 10-12: Evolutional linguistics (how language evolved in human history) . Tomonori Nagano <[email protected]> Edu&Lang Acq. Dept., LaGuardia CC 2/41 Overview Phonetics Phonetics is a study of the characteristics of the speech sound (p.30; Yule (2010)) Branches of phonetics • Articulatory phonetics • how speech sounds are made • Acoustic phonetics • physical properties of speech sounds • Auditory phonetics • how speech sounds are perceived • See some examples of phonetics research: • Speech visualization (acoustic / auditory phonetics) • ”McGurk effect” (auditory phonetics) . Tomonori Nagano <[email protected]> Edu&Lang Acq. Dept., LaGuardia CC 3/41 Acoustic phonetics (example) • The speech wave (spectorogram) of ”[a] (as in above), [ɛ] (as in bed), and [ɪ] (as in bit)” 5000 ) z H ( y c n e u q e r F 0 0 . .0.3799. Time (s) . Tomonori Nagano <[email protected]> Edu&Lang Acq. Dept., LaGuardia CC 4/41 Acoustic phonetics (example) • The speech wave (spectorogram) of ”Was that a good movie you saw?” 5000 ) z H ( y c n e u q e r F 0 0 2.926 Time (s) .
    [Show full text]
  • Norn Elements in the Shetland Dialect
    Hugvísindadeild Norn elements in the Shetland dialect A Historical and Linguistic Review B.A. Essay Auður Dagný Jónsdóttir September, 2013 University of Iceland Faculty of Humanities Department of English Norn elements in the Shetland dialect A Historical and Linguistic Review B.A. Essay Auður Dagný Jónsdóttir Kt.: 270172-5129 Supervisors: Þórhallur Eyþórsson and Pétur Knútsson September, 2013 2 Abstract The languages spoken in Shetland for the last twelve hundred years have ranged from Pictish, Norn to Shetland Scots. The Norn language started to form after the settlements of the Norwegian Vikings in Shetland. When the islands came under the British Crown, Norn was no longer the official language and slowly declined. One of the main reasons the Norn vernacular lived as long as it did, must have been the distance from the mainland of Scotland. Norn was last heard as a mother tongue in the 19th century even though it generally ceased to be spoken in people’s daily life in the 18th century. Some of the elements of Norn, mainly lexis, have been preserved in the Shetland dialect today. Phonetic feature have also been preserved, for example is the consonant’s duration in the Shetland dialect closer to the Norwegian language compared to Scottish Standard English. Recent researches indicate that there is dialectal loss among young adults in Lerwick, where fifty percent of them use only part of the Shetland dialect while the rest speaks Scottish Standard English. 3 Contents 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 5 2. The origin of Norn ................................................................................................................. 6 3. The heyday of Norn ............................................................................................................... 7 4. King James III and the Reformation ..................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • AJ Aitken a History of Scots
    A. J. Aitken A history of Scots (1985)1 Edited by Caroline Macafee Editor’s Introduction In his ‘Sources of the vocabulary of Older Scots’ (1954: n. 7; 2015), AJA had remarked on the distribution of Scandinavian loanwords in Scots, and deduced from this that the language had been influenced by population movements from the North of England. In his ‘History of Scots’ for the introduction to The Concise Scots Dictionary, he follows the historian Geoffrey Barrow (1980) in seeing Scots as descended primarily from the Anglo-Danish of the North of England, with only a marginal role for the Old English introduced earlier into the South-East of Scotland. AJA concludes with some suggestions for further reading: this section has been omitted, as it is now, naturally, out of date. For a much fuller and more detailed history up to 1700, incorporating much of AJA’s own work on the Older Scots period, the reader is referred to Macafee and †Aitken (2002). Two textual anthologies also offer historical treatments of the language: Görlach (2002) and, for Older Scots, Smith (2012). Corbett et al. eds. (2003) gives an accessible overview of the language, and a more detailed linguistic treatment can be found in Jones ed. (1997). How to cite this paper (adapt to the desired style): Aitken, A. J. (1985, 2015) ‘A history of Scots’, in †A. J. Aitken, ed. Caroline Macafee, ‘Collected Writings on the Scots Language’ (2015), [online] Scots Language Centre http://medio.scotslanguage.com/library/document/aitken/A_history_of_Scots_(1985) (accessed DATE). Originally published in the Introduction, The Concise Scots Dictionary, ed.-in-chief Mairi Robinson (Aberdeen University Press, 1985, now published Edinburgh University Press), ix-xvi.
    [Show full text]
  • Place-Names of Inverness and Surrounding Area Ainmean-Àite Ann an Sgìre Prìomh Bhaile Na Gàidhealtachd
    Place-Names of Inverness and Surrounding Area Ainmean-àite ann an sgìre prìomh bhaile na Gàidhealtachd Roddy Maclean Place-Names of Inverness and Surrounding Area Ainmean-àite ann an sgìre prìomh bhaile na Gàidhealtachd Roddy Maclean Author: Roddy Maclean Photography: all images ©Roddy Maclean except cover photo ©Lorne Gill/NatureScot; p3 & p4 ©Somhairle MacDonald; p21 ©Calum Maclean. Maps: all maps reproduced with the permission of the National Library of Scotland https://maps.nls.uk/ except back cover and inside back cover © Ashworth Maps and Interpretation Ltd 2021. Contains Ordnance Survey data © Crown copyright and database right 2021. Design and Layout: Big Apple Graphics Ltd. Print: J Thomson Colour Printers Ltd. © Roddy Maclean 2021. All rights reserved Gu Aonghas Seumas Moireasdan, le gràdh is gean The place-names highlighted in this book can be viewed on an interactive online map - https://tinyurl.com/ybp6fjco Many thanks to Audrey and Tom Daines for creating it. This book is free but we encourage you to give a donation to the conservation charity Trees for Life towards the development of Gaelic interpretation at their new Dundreggan Rewilding Centre. Please visit the JustGiving page: www.justgiving.com/trees-for-life ISBN 978-1-78391-957-4 Published by NatureScot www.nature.scot Tel: 01738 444177 Cover photograph: The mouth of the River Ness – which [email protected] gives the city its name – as seen from the air. Beyond are www.nature.scot Muirtown Basin, Craig Phadrig and the lands of the Aird. Central Inverness from the air, looking towards the Beauly Firth. Above the Ness Islands, looking south down the Great Glen.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Old English Phonology After Our First Few Lessons Using This Language
    1 Old English Phonology After our first few lessons using This Language, A River, I’ve decided that you need supplementary materials that are a little bit clearer and more schematic, as well as a little bit more complete. The following pages are intended to supplement the material on pp. 125-132. The Old English Alphabet The Anglo-Saxons acquired the alphabet that they used in manuscripts from Christians who led efforts to convert them from the 580s onward. The Christians, as the inheritors of Roman textual traditions, used the Latin alphabet. When Christian monks began writing down Old English texts, they discovered that Old English included a number of sounds that the Latin alphabet did not represent easily. For this reason, they adapted a few runic characters into the Latin alphabet that they used to represent Old English. A momentary digression about Runes The runic alphabet was used throughout Northern Europe among communities who spoke languages that were part of the larger Germanic language family, but it was an alphabet that was best adapted for carving and inscription on stone, wood, metal, and bone rather than for writing on parchment or vellum. The oldest surviving artifact that certainly reflects a runic text is a bone comb from approximately 150AD found in a bog in Denmark (Looijenga 161). The inscription reads ᚺᚫᚱᛃᚫ: “harja.” The text may mean “warrior,” or “member of the Harii tribe,” or “hair.” Personally, I have always preferred the last interpretation because it seems like an amusingly obvious thing to put on a comb. In any case, the runic alphabets employed single graphical representations for phonemes that Germanic languages had but that Latin did not: <æ> ‘æsh’, which is also the character used in the IPA for the low front vowel phoneme in English /æ/; <þ> ‘thorn’, which represented the phoneme /θ/; <ƿ> ‘wynn’, which represented the phoneme /w/.
    [Show full text]
  • About Middle English Grammar
    1 About Middle English Grammar Before the Norman Conquest, people were taught to write a form of Old English that was more archaic than the form they actually spoke. We’re in the same position today. We’re taught to write ‘write’, even though we no longer pronounce the w and the e, and our pronunciation of the i is no longer the original pronunciation, which was originally more like the i in ‘machine’. After the Norman Conquest, when French became the language of the elite, most of the literate class were no longer taught to read and write in English. Although there were some attempts to continue an English literary tradition, it is clear that few writers could reproduce or even completely understand Old English, especially as time wore on. Instead, they tended to represent their own spoken language—early Middle English—often in unsystematic ways. Without schooling in written English, early Middle English writers wrote in their own local dialects, so that the modern reader who becomes familiar with one text must learn another system to read a text from a different part of the country. Although, by the fourteenth-century, the London dialect of Geoffrey Chaucer begins to resemble modern English, many of his contemporaries, such as the poet of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, continued to write in local dialects. This, combined with the archaic meanings of words and older grammatical forms, can make Middle English a challenge for today’s student. For the most part, however, these problems are overcome through practice and memorisation of vocabulary.
    [Show full text]
  • 127639442.23.Pdf
    •KlCi-fr-CT0! , Xit- S»cs fS) hcyi'* SCOTTISH HISTORY SOCIETY FOURTH SERIES VOLUME 4 The Court Books of Orkney and Shetland The Earl's Palace, Kirkwall, Orkney Scalloway Castle, Shetland THE COURT BOOKS OF Orkney and Shedand 1614-1615 transcribed and edited by Robert S. Barclay B.SC., PH.D., F.R.S.E. EDINBURGH printed for the Scottish History Society by T. AND A. CONSTABLE LTD I967 Scottish History Society 1967 ^iG^Feg ^ :968^ Printed in Great Britain PREFACE My warmest thanks are due to Mr John Imrie, Curator of Historical Records, H.M. General Register House, and to Professor Gordon Donaldson of the Department of Scottish History, Edinburgh University, for their scholarly advice so freely given, and for their unfailing courtesy. R.S.B. Edinburgh June, 1967 : A generous contribution from the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland towards the cost of producing this volume is gratefully acknowledged by the Council of the Society CONTENTS Preface page v INTRODUCTION page xi The Northern Court Books — The Court Books described Editing the transcript - The historical setting The scope of the Court Books THE COURT BOOK OF THE BISHOPRIC OF ORKNEY 1614- 1615 page 1 THE COURT BOOK OF ORKNEY 1615 page 11 THE COURT BOOK OF SHETLAND 1615 page 57 Glossary page 123 Index page 129 03 ILLUSTRATIONS The Earl’s Palace, Kirkwall, Orkney Scalloway Castle, Shetland Crown copyright photographs reproduced by permission of Ministry of PubUc Building and Works frontispiece Facsimile from Court Book of Orkney, folio 49V. page 121 m INTRODUCTION THE NORTHERN COURT BOOKS This is the third volume printed in recent years of proceedings in the sheriff courts of Orkney and Shetland in the early decades of the seventeenth century.
    [Show full text]
  • Old English Middle English
    The English language is divided into three periods: Old English (OE, also called Anglo-Saxon, from the 400s through 1066), Middle English (ME, from 1066 to about the 1400s) and Modern English (MnE, from the late 1400s onward). What is the difference between them? You can see the difference by looking at a text in each version. Old English Middle English Early Modern English Late Modern English Uren Fader †at art in heofnas Our Fadir that art in heuenes Our Father who art in heaven, Our father who is in heaven, Hallowed be thy name. Blessed be your name. Sic gehalyed †in noma Halewid be thi name Thy kingdom come, May your kingdom come, To cymeð þin ric Thi Kingdom comme to Bi Thi wille done as in heuen Thy will be done, May your will be done, Sic þin willa sue is in heofnas On earth as it is in heaven. On earth as it is in heaven. and in earðas so in erthe Gyve to us this dai oure breed Give us this day our dayly Give us this day our daily Uren hlaf ofer wirðe sel us to ouer other substance bread, bread daeg And forgyve to us oure dettis And forgyve us our trespasses, And forgive us our sins, And forgef us scylda urna As we forgyven to oure Even as we forgyve those who Even as we forgive those who Sue we forgefan sculdgun dettouris trespass against us. sin against us. urum And leede us not in to And lead us not into Lead us not into temptation, And no inleadeð uridk in temptacioun temptation But deliver us from evil.
    [Show full text]
  • Scotland Has Place-Names from Many Different Sources. Some, Especially
    SCOTTISH PLACE-NAMES AND THEIR SOURCES lseabail Macleod cotland has place-names from many different sources. Some, especially Sseveral river names, originate from so far back in the past that one can only speculate as to their origins; but most of them mirror the country's population over the last two millennia. The majority are from Gaelic or English/Scots, but other waves of inhabitants have also left their mark. Early inhabitants of southern Scotland spoke a language related to modem Welsh. The Picts in the north have left only a meagre linguistic trace. In some areas, notably in the Northern and Western Isles and along the adjoining seaboard, Scandinavian influences have left a strong legacy. At the time of the Roman invasions of Britain, most people in what is now southern Scotland spoke a Celtic language related to Welsh, variously known as Cumbric, Brittonic, Brythonic and British. Welsh and Gaelic are examples ofthe two divisions ofthe Celtic family of languages: P-Celtic and Q-Celtic, from the different initial sounds in certain words-as in the word for 'head': in Welsh pen, in Gaelic ceann; as in Scottish place-names Pencaitland and Penpont; and in Kintail, Kincraig, Kinlochbervie and Kinlochmoidart. P-Celtic at the present time consists of Welsh, the Breton of north-west France, and Cornish, recently revived after a long gap. Q-Celtic consists of Irish, Scottish and Manx Gaelic. The last native speaker of Manx died in 1974, but Manx, too, is enjoying a revival. The Picts, powerful north of the Firth of Forth in the middle of the first millennium, have left little trace of their language, but from the meagre evidence available, modem scholarship suggests that it was a P-Celtic language, akin to its neighbour Cumbric, possibly with other elements.
    [Show full text]
  • Iso/Iec Jtc1/Sc2/Wg2 N2641
    ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N2641 2003-10-05 Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set International Organization for Standardization Organisation internationale de normalisation еждународная организация по стандартизации Doc Type: Working Group Document Title: Proposal to encode one Irish phonetic letter in the UCS Source: Michael Everson Status: Individual Contribution Action: For consideration by JTC1/SC2/WG2 and UTC Date: 2003-10-05 Irish phonological texts, like all such texts, make use of a number of special symbols to distinguish different sounds. While many researchers use the International Phonetic Alphabet today, a body of linguistic material exists which makes use of a phonetic notation system which is not unlike the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet. One character from that tradition is not yet encoded in the UCS, and is proposed here. 1D79 Ã LATIN SMALL LETTER INSULAR G The following samples are taken from one of Irish linguistics’ most important works: Ó Máille, Tomás. 1927. Urlabhraidheacht agus Graiméar na Gaedhilge. Cuid I. Baile Átha Cliath: Comhlucht Oideachais na hÉireann. Figure 1. Back consonants. Shown are “open voiced” Ã [V], “open breathed” ¯ [x], “closed voiced” g [g], and “closed breathed” k [k]. Reference can be made here to N1549 On the derivation of YOGH and EZH (1997-04-20), in which it was demonstrated that <J> EZH is derived from <z> via a more zed-like shape <ø> and that <É> YOGH was derived from <Ã> INSULAR G which had become redundant after the Carolingian g was introduced by Norman scribes in England. The INSULAR G as used in Irish phonetics is not a YOGH, however, and YOGH glyph shapes are as unacceptable for it as the original insular glyphs shape is for YOGH.
    [Show full text]
  • Translating Symbols
    Translating Symbols The facts of life. Something that is an unfortunate but necessary part of the education of linguists is the translation of equivalent phonetic symbols. (Actually, transliteration would probably be a more accurate term.) There are several traditions within which different symbols have developedto mention just two of the most influential, the International Phonetic Association, with deepest roots in Europe (and the British Isles especially), and a decidedly American tradition, developed by anthropological linguists who worked on the languages of the New World. Our textbook (which has its roots in Canada) has generally opted for the former, often called the International Phonetic Alphabet, or the IPA for short, whereas many Statside linguists use alternate symbols at several points. The Phonetic Symbol Guide published by the University of Chicago Press (by Geoffrey K. Pullum and William A. Ladusaw) in 1986 refers to these respectively as IPA usage and American usage. Complications. This discussion is complicated by esoteric symbols on both sidessymbols that are not on the usual typewriter or computer keyboard, and that therefore are difficult to show on the usual web page or send via email. We will attempt to get around this complication by several routes: 1. On this page, we will use the names for some symbols (and descriptions of them) together with the symbols themselves. Some of these names will be borrowed from the Phonetic Symbol Guide referred to above. 2. For email, we will suggest alternate symbols (or combinations of symbols) that are available on computer keyboards. We also mention, where applicable, a popular usage that is sometimes found in the comics and/ or as phonetic respelling in dictionaries.
    [Show full text]
  • Highland Place Names from West Aberdeenshire, Scotland Lillia De Vaux, Crampette Herault (Rebecca S
    Highland Place Names from West Aberdeenshire, Scotland Lillia de Vaux, Crampette Herault (Rebecca S. Johnson, 2019) Introduction This article consists of mostly Scots or Latinized Scots names compiled from Place Names from West Aberdeenshire [19]. This article includes Highland place names primarily dated to the 12th-17th centuries, with a few earlier forms. The names show influences from the underlying Gaelic, Pictish, English, or Latin. Place Names from West Aberdeenshire was written by James MacDonald and edited and published posthumously in 1899 by the New Spalding Club (an antiquarian society dedicated to the publication of texts concerning the history of Aberdeenshire). MacDonald relied heavily on 19th century transcriptions of charters and other sources rather than the primary sources. Thankfully, many of his sources are available online and do not appear to include obviously normalized spellings, except where noted in the comments. The place names are listed first by MacDonald's modern header forms, which include some editorial accents for pronunciation aids. Only places dated up to 1650 are listed below. In a few cases, an exact date was not given by MacDonald. If anything was not dated, or the text was unclear, the spellings and dates were verified using his or other sources when possible. If a date could not be determined, only forms using period spelling conventions and/or implied by the text to be period forms are included; these are marked as "not dated" in the raw data below. In several cases, MacDonald noted that a date was recorded using a 16th century hand. These have been dated as "16th C".
    [Show full text]