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Home , Elaeis, Elaeis guineensis, Elaeis oleifera, GreenPalm

PALM S Rival & Levang: Oil Palm Vol. 59(1) 2015

ALAIN RIVAL The Oil Palm Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche ( Agronomique pour le Développement guineensis ): Jakarta, [email protected] Research AND

Challenges PATRICE LEVANG Institut de Recherche pour Beyond le Développement Yaoundé, Cameroon Controversies [email protected]

Scientists certainly have a part to play in the debate over oil palm ( Jacq.) cultivation, which has captured and polarized public opinion, kindled and undoubtedly shaped by the media. How can this palm be viewed as a “miracle ” by both the agro-food industry in the North and farmers in the tropical zone, but a serious ecological threat by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) campaigning for the environment or the rights of indigenous peoples? The time has come to move on from this biased and often irrational debate, which is rooted in topical issues of contemporary society in the North, such as junk food, , energy policy and ethical consumption.

One of the reasons the public has developed as nuclear energy, genetically modified crops such fixed ideas is that there has been a lack or shale gas) that is causing controversy but an of accurate information on the sector and its entire agrom-food sector that has come to actors and a clear-headed analysis of what is symbolize the conflict between the at stake. We point out that the production and conservation of natural spaces and de- processing of are part of a complex velopment. Consumers, elected representatives globalized agrom-industrial sector shared by and scientists are finally forced to take sides for multiple actors and stakeholders with often or against palm oil, with no room for ifs and conflicting interests. For the first time ever, it buts, and very few of them are willing to is not a major technological innovation (such switch positions.

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Distributors, processors, NGOs and journalists have often deliberately overstated the case and resorted to short cuts (oil palm means ) or superficial information (good/bad ) to make their point. This type of debate relies on clear-cut and definitive opinions, whereas researchers naturally tend to query, test out and weigh up each argument. They have nuanced and complex messages to convey (Rival & Levang 2014) that are incompatible with the format imposed by the media. The present article is aimed at clarifying some issues and developments and at highlighting challenges for researchers in several multidisciplinary fields embracing agronomy, , breeding, ecology or social and human sciences. Both the public and the oil palm sector are waiting for immediate, applicable, robust and credible results, and this creates unique opportunities for multi- disciplinary and collaborative research initiatives. Two palms, two oils The oil palm, Elaeis guineensis Jacq. (Fig.1) 1. The African oil palm, Elaeis guineensis . follows a strictly tropical distribution, and its fruit pulp provides palm oil, which is half main enemies are cold (it stops growing at saturated fatty acids and half unsaturated fatty 15°C) and drought (Jacquemard 2012). Two acids, made up of 44% (saturated species of Elaeis are exploited for their oils: E. fatty acid), 5% (saturated fatty guineensis of African origin (Gulf of ) acid), 39% (monounsaturated) and and E. oleifera (Kunth) Cortés of American 10% (polyunsaturated). Negligible origin (Amazon Basin). These two species quantities of myristic and are also produce oil of very different chemical found (remaining 2%). composition, the oil extracted from E. oleifera being richer in unsaturated fatty acids. It is Oil palm provide oil with a possible to hybridize the two species; plant chemical composition similar to oil. breeders are interested in this prospect because A significant proportion of kernel oil (82%) is E. oleifera has morpho-agronomic features that made up of saturated fatty acids, namely 48% could serve to improve the African palm, lauric acid, 16% and 8% palmitic which is the main species cultivated today. acid. Nearly 18% of kernel oil is unsaturated, Indeed, the Amazon palm has a slower growth with 15% made up of oleic acid (mono- rate that allows for a longer period of unsaturated) and 3% linoleic acid (poly- cultivation because bunches hanging above unsaturated). This oil accounts for about 10% 15 m on older palms become difficult to of oil palm yield. It is therefore more than just harvest (Fig 2.). also demonstrates a by-product in terms of the industry’s balance resistance to diseases such as bud rot, which sheet. It has the same uses as coconut oil with has a dramatic impact in Latin America. In which it is in direct competition. The this region, planters have no alternative but to numerous uses for include plant palms from hybrid origin. Another asset , when mixed with other vegetable of the hybrid is the quality of its oil, which is oils, margarine, , cosmetics and oleo- lower in saturated fatty acids than the African chemicals. palm oil. Record-breaking oil yields One fruit, two oils The oil palm shows quite exceptional oil yields Within the plant kingdom, the oil palm has a of 3.8 tons per hectare (t/ha) as a global unique feature: its fruit contains two oils of average, nearly 6 t/ha in the best strikingly different composition (Fig. 3). The in and more than 10 t/ha in the

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2. Harvesting of oil palm fruits in North Sumatra, Indonesia. Old stands providing low oil yields and being more difficult to exploit are replaced by new plantations with improved cultivars with slower growth, better disease tolerance and higher oil yield.

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3. The oil palm fruit. highest yielding genetic trials currently Although it has been genetically improved underway in research institutes. Such yields since the 1940s (Cochard et al. 2005), oil palm place the oil palm at the head of industrial oil remains a very hardy plant and is able to adapt crops (Fig. 3). to a very wide range of cultivation systems. These systems of cultivation range from family The proportion of palm oil in worldwide plots of a few hectares (or even less) to agrom- production of vegetable oils has continued to industrial estates covering several tens of grow over recent decades to reach the number thousands of hectares. Oil palm is a very one spot, ahead of . Today, it accounts resilient crop adapted to various agronomic for over a third of the produced contexts: oil yields vary according to the worldwide (Fig. 5). density of and systems for Although it occupies only 7% of agricultural irrigation, fertilization and intercropping. The land devoted to oil-producing (Caliman stem (trunk) of the palm plays a vital part 2011), oil palm provides 39% of world’s in this flexibility, enabling it to accumulate production of vegetable oil on a much lower significant organic (carbohydrate) and mineral proportion of this land than that devoted to reserves (Legros et al. 2009). Thanks to such soybean (61%), (18%) and sunflower physiological plasticity, oil palms can survive (14%). Palm oil also has the lowest production an extended dry season, several years without costs of all vegetable oils, 20% lower than fertilizer and competition from other oil palms soybean. or crops planted in proximity, such as maize, cassava or legumes. Almost 40% of the palm An exploited agronomic flexibility oil produced today comes from small farms. Nearly 18 million hectares of land in tropical Globally, around 3 million smallholders are areas have been planted with oil palm. involved in the sector. In Indonesia alone it is

4. Comparative oil yields between major oil crops.

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5. Share of palm oil in the global market (statistics from 2013). estimated that 25 million people are now 2. oleochemicals (19% of usage): cosmetics, making a living – directly or indirectly – from production, lubricants and greases, oil palm cultivation (WWF 2011). candles, pharmaceutical products, leather, surfactants, agrochemicals, paint and lacquer, A versatile product electronics, etc. The fatty acid composition of palm oil gives it 3. (1% of usage). specific physiochemical properties that explain its successful adoption by processing com- The fragile coexistence with tropical panies in the North. In these countries its The biological requirements of oil palm limit consistency at room temperature gives it a its distribution to the wet tropics, where natural “melt in the mouth” characteristic, plantations must coexist with some of the which means it can be used as a substitute for planet’s last biodiversity hotspots, namely the butter in many agri-food processing industries Congo Basin, the Amazon and (Fig. 6). (patisserie, confectionery, savory snacks, ready- Other major oil crops also have to coexist with made dishes and frozen food). These technical fragile environments. Indeed, the cultivation and organoleptic properties can be obtained of soybean (75% genetically modified), for from oils extracted from temperate oil crops example, has to overcome significant (rapeseed, soybean or sunflower), but such oils environmental constraints, particularly in have to be artificially hydrogenated, which Brazil where the area under cultivation has risks producing trans fatty acids (trans fats), increased from 1.7 million to 21.7 million which are legally banned or at least recognized hectares within 40 years. as harmful. Palm oil responds well to the challenge to find alternative forms of with Oil palm and deforestation little or no trans fatty acids (FFAS 2012), which The relationship between palm plantations explains its success in the food industry. and deforestation is neither direct nor Palm oil can replace most other vegetable oils automatic. Concessions are granted by public and has a very wide range of uses in: authorities, often at local level, to forestry companies who extract timber. Degraded 1. the agri-food industry (80% of palm oil forests can become fallow land, savannah or usage): table oil, frying oil, margarines, fat for farmed land, depending on what people do. bakery products, patisserie and all types of food Only a portion of deforested land is converted preparation, etc. into palm plantations. Out of 21 million

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Much uncertainty remains over the relative contributions of various -exploiting sectors to forest losses. Indeed, Abood et al. (2014) recently compared the magnitude of forest and carbon loss, and forest and carbon stocks remaining within oil palm plantations, , fiber plantation (pulp and paper) and coal-mining concessions in Indonesia. The authors found that fiber plantation and logging concessions accounted for the largest forest loss. Although the oil palm industry is 6. Worldwide distribution of oil palm cultivation. often highlighted as a major driver of deforestation, it was ranked third in terms of hectares of primary forest that disappeared in deforestation and second in terms of carbon Indonesia between 1990 and 2005, no more dioxide emissions. Crucially, 35% of than 3 million were developed as palm Indonesia’s remaining forests is located within plantations. However, there are growing signs industrial concessions, the majority of which of a direct link in new frontier areas, such as is found within logging concessions . Borneo, where nearly 30% of the primary New frontiers under scrutiny forests felled have been planted with oil palm (Carlson et al. 2012). On average new The major oil palm plantation programs plantations are responsible for 10% of the underway in (Liberia, , Gabon deforestation that has taken place in Indonesia and Cameroon) also pose an increasing threat and (FAO 2010). These figures do not to forests (WWF 2011). As a result of the take into account the indirect causes of growing number of international regulations deforestation linked to activities that spring to prevent the conversion of natural forests, up following the introduction of plantations shortage of land, monitoring of major land at the edge of forests; these activities are acquisitions and hopes raised by REDD (the difficult to estimate but are far from negligible. reduction of emissions caused by deforestation

7. Schematic representation of oil palm production systems.

38 PALM S Rival & Levang: Oil Palm Vol. 59(1) 2015 and degradation) in major producing countries just around the corner leads peasants to such as Malaysia and Indonesia, the big Asian neglect preparation of their food crop plots. companies are tempted to diversify their The early stage of production of the production zones, and they now invest plantations is disappointing, yields are low strongly in Africa (Hoyle & Levang 2012). and do not meet the family’s needs. Often Indonesia anticipates doubling its production finding themselves in debt, these families have between now and 2020, while and no choice but to sell off their plots of palms the Congo basin offer a new frontier: 650,000 at a low price to their better-off neighbors or hectares were at the planning stage in Liberia to migrants. alone, although these figures are now revised A few years later, when the palm enter downwards. into full production, the sellers have nothing A recognized role in poverty eradication left but the clothes they stand in. Their land capital has disappeared and their only option From the beginning, oil palm is always viewed is to seek jobs as laborers at the company in by local people as the best way out of order to survive. For those who know how to underdevelopment and of gaining a toehold in wait or have the means to do so the situation the modern way of life. In isolated forest areas is different. Seven years after being planted, of Sumatra or Kalimantan in Indonesia, local the oil palm enters the mature phase of people dream first and foremost about paved production. Despite the 30% cut in price to roads, electricity, water supply, mobile phone repay the loan, the owners benefit from a networks, schools and dispensaries, even steady source of income and have the security international airports. Living in harmony with to allow themselves to contemplate the future by hunting and gathering forest with more serenity, put money aside to educate products, far removed from the stress of the their children or even expand their land modern commercial world is the dream of the holding. When the start of the mature phase affluent urban westerner and not that of the of the plantation coincides with high palm oil “noble savage.” When the companies’ door-to- prices, as in 2008, some planters choose to door salesmen turn up, offering a high and accelerate the reimbursement of their debt, regular source of income, salaried jobs and paying it off in as little as 6–8 years (Feintrenie modern infrastructure, they are not forcing et al. 2010). anyone’s hand but are meeting a real demand. The terms of exchange may sometimes be Oil palm is an opportunity for development unequal, but it should not be forgotten that offered to the local population as a whole but land is abundant and cheap on the forest is something only a proportion of them will margins of the Indonesian archipelago. Loans, be able to take advantage of. The same would labor, selected seeds and agricultural inputs have applied to any other or new are, however, rare and expensive. If the forest opportunity such as fish-farming or mining. people have any lingering doubts, the local government representatives and their village Designing smarter production systems leaders can easily dispel them. Planting palm There are several ways in which oil palm plan- trees is a national project, and the few doubters tations can be developed without destroying are accused of being behind the times, of vast stretches of tropical forests in the process. holding up progress or of being antisocial. If These include agrom-forestry techniques, enough of them resist and if they know how patchwork developments, landscape planning to stay grouped, their lands will be excluded and ecological intensification (Fig. 7). from the deal and treated as enclaves. Part of the land granted to the company will be Agrom-forestry handed over to transmigrants from or Many researchers, both agronomists and socio- Bali, and these settlers will provide the labor economists, won over by the sustainable that is lacking locally. nature of agrom-forests, have tried to preempt Once the deal has been struck the dream may what appears to be an unavoidable progression take some time to come true. The work takes sweeping through most tropical parts of the longer than expected. Between clearing and world (Rival & Levang 2014). To improve the the official handing over of plantations years economic profitability of the agrom-forests, go by, and the cash made from giving up the agronomists are trialing viable associations of land is just a distant memory. In the worst several economically attractive species. Such case scenario, the vision of a new life of luxury studies are still underway, but promising results

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8. Impact of genetic improvement and best management practices on palm oil yields. have apparently been obtained for associations working with older farmers. Once married, of oil palms and cocoa plants planted in they create their own plantations and enjoy conjunction with a few lines of fruit trees. the fruit of their investments when they retire. The wild fauna also benefits from this diversity The main problem is the strong shade in the landscape. A varied range of niches produced by palm fronds, which does not help exists, from intensively cultivated food crops in companion planting and makes it necessary to set-aside land and former fallow land, to reduce significantly the density of palms. although the fauna in question mainly However, even if research manages to develop comprises rodents, birds and reptiles of all economically viable associations, the sorts. There is barely enough space for large biodiversity of these systems remains very low mammals such as tigers, rhinos, elephants and in comparison to primary forest. There is large primates. always the danger that economically profitable systems, even of the agrom-forest type, will Landscape planning induce local people to make more agricultural This model follows the idea of a patchwork land out of the adjacent forest. effect but is more tightly organized and Patchwork developments controlled. Here, the objective is not to preserve the forest as a whole but rather to Patchwork developments are in some ways a limit the worst effects of conversion. Following reflection of change in areas that were formerly where possible the RSPO (Roundtable on mainly agrom-forests. Here, diversity is neither Sustainable Palm Oil) Principles and Criteria deliberate nor managed. It simply reflects the (see Fig. 7), landscape planning aims at range of socio-economic situations of the preventing those zones recognized as of high households found within it. Monospecific conservation value (HCV) or of High Carbon plantations are juxtaposed with agrom-forests Stock (HCS) from being converted. The same (which are dotted through forest clearings of applies to riparian areas, hilltops and very steep various ages), plots growing food crops, slopes. Sacred grounds, cemeteries and places shrubby fallow land and even islands of of worship or cultural significance are also primary forest. The countryside is constantly preserved. As a result, only part of the changing as shrubby fallow land becomes a countryside is converted into plantations. food plot, the latter is then set aside, agrom- Great care is taken to connect the different forest is replaced by a monospecific plantation conservation zones. Where necessary, agrom- and old plantations are invaded by wild forest zones serve as buffers between species. conservation and plantation zones. This model The cycle of slash and burn follows the was recently tested in Malaysia and Indonesia lifecycle of the heads of household. Young by a few companies that are keen to improve people take jobs as laborers or tenant farmers their environment-friendly image. There is an

40 PALM S Rival & Levang: Oil Palm Vol. 59(1) 2015 underlying economic motive: being awarded measured at 1–1.5% per year (similar to maize) certification implies respect of the highest which makes a significant contribution to environmental standards, and both ecological intensification (Fig. 8). shareholders and investors are increasingly However, this alone is not enough to meet concerned about their corporate social increased needs for vegetable oil (increasing responsibility. Unfortunately, there is a range 3–4% per year) and for palm oil in particular of factors that serve to hinder the spread of this (increasing 5–6%). Best agricultural practices system of ecological planning. First and should also be adopted to contribute to this foremost, implementation requires a degree of intensification, which is designed to meet technical knowledge that is still rarely available global demand without expanding the area on the ground. It also entails a substantial under cultivation. additional outlay that is by no means made up for by the premiums provided by certification, Ecological intensification also relies on the and the financial and legal incentives are still implementation of well-planned fertilizer too low for most companies and smallholders’ application, both for economic reasons cooperatives. The market dominated by (fertilizers account for over 60% of the running emerging countries is more interested in cheap costs of a palm plantation) and out of respect oil than “green” oil and the weak governance for people and the environment. Fertilizers in most of the countries where the major made from petrochemical products or non- companies are active tends not to respect renewable mineral sources have a limited legislation (when this exists at all). future. The challenge is therefore to optimize the use of fertilizers (mineral and organic) to Ecological intensification ensure they provide maximum benefit to the Areas already planted with oil palm often fall plant through staggered and well-planned well short of producing the expected oil yields applications that avoid any surplus leaching (3.7 tons per hectare as a global average while into ground or surface water. These needs are selected plant material used in trials produces assessed from mineral analysis of soil and more than 10 tons per hectare under optimum samples taken in the plantations. Analysis ecological conditions). It is, therefore, provides thresholds for fertilizer use depending important to optimize the production system on climate, plant physiology, soil type and the of existing palm plantations while keeping the genetic origin and age of plantation. This type impact on people and the environment to a of science-based management is not exactly a minimum (Caliman 2011). new concept. It has developed in recent years with the growing awareness of the need to Ecological intensification of productivity combine high yields with environmental means first and foremost ensuring all planters protection. – both smallholders and agrom-industrial estates – have access to selected and certified Major headway is being made in composting seeds, so more people can benefit from the organic waste and recycling palm latest genetic breakthroughs made by research. effluents. Almost all the and by- The adoption of improved seeds adds value at products generated in plantations and oil mills all stages of oil production and primary can be recycled and used as organic fertilizers. processing. Investing US$1 in an oil palm This includes the pruned fronds as well as originating from the best hybrids will provide empty bunches and liquid effluents from mills. an average income of US$1300 by the end of This practice is now integrated into its 20 years of exploitation. fertilization management plans, mainly in industrial plantations; inputs from inorganic Improved planting material provides the fertilizer can be cut by at least 15%. Some of planter with higher yields in terms of bunches the recycled products improve not only and optimizes labor (through easier harvesting fertility but also the texture of the soil and of shorter palms). It helps the factory owner both under- and above-ground biodiversity by offering better extraction rates and the (Carron et al. 2015). The combination of refiner by increasing olein content. By inorganic and organic fertilizer (derived from providing better resistance to disease and recycling or composting) is managed making it possible to use the same land for differently from plantation to plantation, several generations, genetic selection and the according to the specific needs of the plot of availability of selected hybrid seeds help reduce land, as the application of organic fertilizer pressure on land, particularly since yields also alone is not always sufficient to maintain soil rise. Genetic progress for the oil palm has been fertility.

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Lagoons for the decanting of liquid effluents The eight principles of RSPO certification produce methane – a gas with a strong greenhouse effect – and are now used to 1. Commitment to transparency produce around oil extraction plants. 2. Compliance with applicable laws and This is a way of harnessing the considerable regulations energy potential of organic palm oil by- products (12 m 3 of methane per ton of fruits 3. Commitment to long term economic and extracted, 15 m 3 of methane per m 3 of liquid financial viability 3 effluents). Each 1 m of biogas generated saves 4. Use of appropriate best practices by the equivalent of 0.56 liters of diesel. This growers and millers practice is spreading rapidly in a large number of plantations, and new installations are now 5. Environmental responsibility and con- equipped at the time of construction for servation of natural resources and biodigestion of effluents and biogas capture. biodiversity The transportation of this excess energy 6. Responsible consideration of employees, remains problematic because plantations and and of individuals and communities affected oil mills are often geographically very isolated by growers and mills from the distribution networks. Ironically, some plantations have to settle for burning 7. Responsible development of new plantings their surplus biogas in flares. In Indonesia 8. Commitment to continuous improvement alone, at the level of 2012 palm oil production, in key areas of activity the biodigestion of palm oil mill effluents can produce approx. 3.3 million MWh per year. 9. RSPO Principles and Criteria. This can reduce the use of diesel oil by 1.3 million kiloliter per year, which is around 4% of the annual diesel import volume, and thus grouped together in cooperatives remain can save US$1–1.3 billion of foreign exchange harder to reach, and therefore convince, in reserves per annum. spite of the enormous gains in yield to be achieved. The use of pesticides in oil palm cultivation is restricted to limited applications of herbicides Choosing a model for development in young plantations to control the growth of Smallholders or agrom-industries? cover plants and to create paths for harvesting. In some areas, particularly in Southeast Asia, The choice of development model is therefore use of rat poison is common, although this is not a technical decision but a societal choice. increasingly being replaced by the There is no doubt that agrom-industries are introduction of barn owls ( Tyto alba ), their often more efficient than family farming in natural predators. terms of fruit and oil yield. Transaction costs are lower, and State involvement may be The ecological intensification of oil palm limited to granting easy terms to investors. In cultivation comes up against the biological addition, in terms of duties and taxation, constraints of the plant, which make monitoring compliance with environmental production difficult to mechanize. Palm oil rules (such as the Roundtable on Sustainable has to be extracted promptly from the fruit to Palm Oil certification or pollution control) or avoid losing its physical and chemical social standards (workers’ rights), it is always properties. This requires an efficient harvesting easier to deal with a small number of big network, maintained infrastructure and estates than thousands of unorganized or reliable organization of the harvesting areas. poorly organized smallholders. But, in terms of social justice, job creation and reduction of The transfer of innovation to smallholders poverty, there is also no doubt that family remains one of the main challenges facing farming has proved itself. ecological intensification. If these planters can be organized into national projects or public The association of agrom-industrial estates and and private sector associations, the transfer of smallholders, following the model that has innovation (selected seeds and best agricultural contributed to the success of the oil palm in practices) is relatively easy and swift; the Southeast Asia, would be beneficial in organizational structure offers the necessary economic, social and environmental terms. credit facilities and technical and financial Economically speaking, the involvement of a support. Independent planters who are not large number of smallholders creates more

42 PALM S Rival & Levang: Oil Palm Vol. 59(1) 2015 jobs, both direct and indirect, and triggers an Like a large number of multi-stakeholders economic snowball effect that has a major initiatives devoted to the promotion and impact on the reduction of rural poverty. The standardization of a sustainable product (Forest additional cost of involving smallholders Stewardship Council, Marine Stewardship (mainly transaction costs) is partly made up for Council, Round Table on Responsible Soybean, by requiring smallholders to pay the cost of BonSucro), the RSPO receives considerable development through credit. On the social criticism. It is based on the voluntary level, shared goals and development aid, rather acceptance, by consensus of all members, of its than competition and the exclusion of principles and criteria and is therefore smallholders, will boost social cohesion. considered not rigorous enough and lacking in Finally, on the environmental level, the power (Laurance et al. 2010). The fact that development of plantations on land that has RSPO certification is unable to protect the already been cleared by smallholders near rights of indigenous people in terms of land villages and roads, means the equivalent area rights, compensation for land annexation and of primary forest is spared (Hoyle & Levang respect for customary law has also been 2012). highlighted. As happened in the case of Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification for Certifying sustainability timber, the RSPO principles and criteria, which The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil were designed to be consensual and universal, (RSPO) initiative have become very difficult to apply and therefore of limited use in complex local When it was launched in 2004, RSPO was a contexts, such as in Indonesia, where land business-to-business initiative bringing ownership conflicts are not settled by the together about 10 members, both private Central Government but at the district level. actors in the industry (such as ) and This means that on one side we have a set of NGOs (such as WWF). It was designed as an directives based on the logical approach of the international, multi-stakeholder platform to North and on the other we have a local certify and promote sustainable palm oil. In authority which may have little awareness of November 2005, eight principles and 39 questions of sustainability, feels the pressure of criteria for certification were approved (Fig. 9), development and is therefore in a precarious leading to certification of the first plantations position. Negotiations are necessarily un- in 2008. The first batch of Certified Sustainable balanced, and the process of certification does Palm Oil (CSPO) was sold at the end of 2008. not succeed in protecting the rights of Today, the Roundtable has reached 1800 indigenous people. This puts the credibility of members, divided into seven categories: the whole process of certification at stake and growers, processors and traders, manufacturers, clearly raises question about the role of banks and investors, retailers, environ- governments (McCarthy 2012). Ruysschaert mental/nature conservation NGOs and and Salles (2014) recently questioned how social/developmental NGOs. The Roundtable effective RSPO is in attaining its claimed has various working groups through which it conservation goals, especially regarding carries out, diversifies and enhances its . Their study described five short- activities. National or regional interpretation comings explaining the poor outcomes groups are responsible for integrating the regarding the protection of the forest area, and certification principles and criteria into especially the habitat: financial national legislation. There is still some way to compensation too small, too much room for go before they are adapted to the specific interpretation in the guidance document, constraints of family farmers; the cost of postponement on contentious issues, non- certification and corrective action, estimated integration of RSPO within the socio-politico- at US$20–40 per hectare is often prohibitive for legal Indonesian context and the lack of smallholders who are barely, if at all, organized effective external control system. As these into cooperative arrangements (WWF 2012a). shortcomings complement each other, the Today, 3.1 million hectares of plantations are authors found that effectiveness of the RSPO RSPO certified, that is about 18% of the global scheme was dramatically reduced for surface area planted (as compared to 106,000 biodiversity conservation and that it was hectares in 2008) and 11.2 million tons of negligible for species such as Sumatran certified sustainable palm oil as were produced orangutan, which needs large areas of forested in 2013 (620,000 tons in 2008). habitat.

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Strengths and weaknesses of a voluntary participate in deforestation, and on providing international standard technical support to suppliers who wish to implement the sustainability guidelines. In Its detractors criticize the RSPO for the lack of February 2011, in collaboration with The participation by governments from the Forest Trust, the Indonesian group Golden moment the Roundtable was set up. Ironically, AgriResources, one of the main Nestlé suppliers it is the public authorities in each country that and a target of , set up a forest have the task of translating the RSPO Principles conservation program designed to protect high and Criteria into legislation in conformity with conservation value forests and . their respective constitutions. They are also responsible for applying these laws effectively In addition, some RSPO members make much in the field and of enforcing sanctions against of the confusion between the concept of offenders. It is all well and good to draft a affiliation, which is a form of voluntary highway code, but it is not worth the paper it adherence to the general principles of the is written on if there are no incorruptible Roundtable, and certification, which follows policemen at the side of the road, responsible from a process that is standardized and for ensuring that it is respected! validated by an independent certifying body and alone confers the right to use the Finally, the market share of certified crops registered trademark RSPO. remains limited even if, as in the case of oil palm, it is growing rapidly. To date no more RSPO constantly revises its Principles and than 2.5% of world cane sugar is BonSucro Criteria, which had become necessary to adapt certified, as compared to 16% of palm oil sold to the specific constraints of smallholders. It under the CSPO (Certified Sustainable Palm became pressing to do more to involve Oil) label. In the case of palm oil, the paradox stakeholders who were still under-represented, lies in the fact that many processors and such as governments, importers and processors distributors in the North only committed from the South (China, India, Pakistan), themselves to using 100% CSPO certified oil smallholders, universities and national and by 2015, when they could have been doing it international research centers. An improved long before this virtual deadline because about system of certification should also ensure that half (48%) of the certified oil available on the governments are given an important role. market is not being bought up. The goodwill Because, when all is said and done, it is they expressed by consumers is taking its time to who are in charge of legislating and applying bring about change in the supply chain of the laws that convey the criteria of processors and distributors in the North. sustainability in each country (forest moratoria, compulsory standards, land There is no denying that the supply network concessions and community rights). is extremely complex. The first positive impact of certification has been to map and identify The recent emergence of national standards the networks of suppliers and intermediaries. (Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil and There are many lessons to be learned from the Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil) is a sign of the recent work carried out by Nestlé and The successful appropriation of the idea of Forest Trust in this area. In 2010, a campaign certification but also of the need to move on by Greenpeace which was very persuasive and to compulsory national rules backed by an visually violent compared a Kit-Kat chocolate enforceable legal system instead of voluntary bar with the bloody fingers of an orangutan, international ones. accusing Nestlé of destroying tropical forests The request for a credible certification system and their biodiversity. Nestlé then entered into comes also from major investors such as the a partnership with a specialized NGO, The World Bank (Teoh 2010; WWF 2012b) or major Forest Trust, which was to help it develop a banking groups, which are increasingly aware completely sustainable supply chain. The of the importance of ethical investments. partnership led to guidelines for sustainability (Responsible Sourcing Guidelines), which are Beyond voluntary certification specific to palm oil and establish the principle Going further on the sustainability track of traceability back to the plantation. A considerable amount of work has been done The Palm Oil Innovation Group (POIG) aims to map suppliers and intermediaries. The to demonstrate innovation in sustainable palm strategy is based on assessing the performance oil production through developing new of suppliers in order to exclude those who models and paradigms for best practices in the

44 PALM S Rival & Levang: Oil Palm Vol. 59(1) 2015 sector. The POIG currently consists of The signatories are firmly committed to, and international NGOs along with several palm are fully supportive of the RSPO and its oil producing companies recognized as Principles and Criteria. Signatories will con- innovative leaders in socio-environmental tinue to ensure that the palm oil produced, issues. Current members include Agropalma, traded, processed and consumed are in line Daabon Organic, Forest Peoples Programme, with RSPO standards. The RSPO is currently GAR Agribusiness and Food, Greenpeace, New the only sustainability standard available in Britain Palm Oil Limited, Action the global edible oil industry, making palm oil network and WWF. The group was initiated the only edible oil produced on a large scale after the 2013 review of the RSPO Principles that adheres to stringent social and environ- and Criteria, which POIG members believed mental standards. could have been more innovative, especially On the research agenda on the issues of deforestation, carbon stocks, biodiversity and social relations. All of the Sayer et al. (2012) smartly defined the four oil POIG members are committed to improving palm truths: 1) the demand for palm oil will the RSPO Principles and Criteria. continue to increase in response to a growing and increasingly affluent global population; The Manifesto 2) oil palm is one of the most profitable land Launched in July 2014, The Sustainable Palm uses in the humid tropics; 3) oil palm Oil Manifesto is a commitment to achieve plantations store more carbon than alternative common objectives held by a group of growers, agricultural land uses; 4) native biodiversity traders, processors and end-users who are key within oil palm plantations is far lower than stakeholders in the palm oil industry, to ensure the natural forests they often replace. sustainability in the entire chain from These four simple truths address multiple cultivation to consumption. Signatories to the issues for researchers who are also in charge of Manifesto are among the largest players in the providing a sound scientific basis for the legal palm oil industry, which include Asian Agri, certification schemes of sustainability that are IOI Corporation Berhad, Kuala Lumpur under way. The public and the oil palm sector Kepong Berhad, Musim Mas Group, and Sime are both waiting for immediate, applicable, Darby Plantation, who together produce about robust and credible results, and this creates 9% of the world’s palm oil. Other signatories unique opportunities for multidisciplinary and include global palm oil trader Apical and global collaborative research initiatives. Over the last agribusiness group . The Manifesto aims decade, several large-scale collaborative to build upon the signatories’ existing projects linking plantation companies, NGOs sustainability commitments to the Roundtable and academic institutions have finally got off on Sustainable Palm Oil’s principles and the ground and started work on decoding the criteria with three specific objectives: biological, agrom-ecological and social bases of 1. To build traceable and transparent supply sustainability in oil palm cultivation. chains; The High Carbon Stock (HCS) Study of the 2. To accelerate the journey to no deforestation Sustainable Palm Oil Manifesto through the conservation of high carbon stock This is a project linking Australia’s Common- forests and the protection of peat areas wealth Scientific and Industrial Research regardless of depth; and Organization (CSIRO) and the group of 3. To increase the focus on driving beneficial growers, traders, end users and key economic change and to ensure a positive stakeholders in the palm oil industry social impact on people and communities. committed to the Sustainable Palm Oil Manifesto. The study aims clearly to define A key commitment in the Manifesto is the what constitutes HCS forest, and establish HCS funding of a study to define further what thresholds that take into account not only constitutes High Carbon Stock (HCS) forests, environmental concerns but also socio- and to establish HCS thresholds that take into economic and political factors in developing account environmental, socio-economic and and emerging economies. The study aims to political factors, as well as other practical provide: 1) a definition of HCS forests that is considerations in developing and emerging based on potential economies where oil palm is cultivated. The from biomass and soils, as well as a practical study is expected to take 12 months. method for identifying and delineating HCS

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10. Changes in the number of published articles referring to oil palm (Web of Science). forests on the ground; 2) suggested threshold SAFE (Stability of Altered Forest Environ- values for greenhouse gas emissions from HCS ment) forests, which take account of the regional socio-economic context in SE Asian and This project is being carried out on the island African countries where new oil palm of Borneo over a period of 10 years developments are planned and 3) Guidance (2010–2020), by the Royal Society of London on how to accommodate the rights and and the Foundation, with a budget livelihoods of local communities and of €7.3 million. This is an ecological research indigenous peoples when implementing a project designed to quantify the impact of future HCS approach to land use planning. establishing oil palm plantations on the biodiversity of adjacent forests. It aims to SENSOR (Socially and Environmentally identify situations that minimize impact on Sustainable Oil Palm Research) biodiversity and optimize ecosystem services. This project, coordinated in Southeast Asia by Research programs look at the diversity of flora the Royal Society of London is aimed at and fauna, water and soil, the carbon cycle, developing a multidisciplinary approach to nutrients and the microclimate in forest blocks the validation and development of RSPO of 1, 10 and 100 hectares, set aside within an principles and criteria. The project brings oil palm plantation. The study zones are set up together the European universities of York, in new plantations, productive plantations, Wageningen, Leeds, Lancaster and Swansea zones previously deforested and plots of and tackles five major topics: water and soil, primary forest. air quality and greenhouse gas, biodiversity, BEFTA (Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function zones of high conservation value, and in Tropical ) Project participatory rights and procedures and standard of living. Its main objectives are to This aims at quantifying the effect of habitat build up confidence in CSPO palm oil amongst complexity within oil palm plantations on users, investors and the general public, biodiversity and experimentally test the role of guarantee that the efforts and investments put this biodiversity in ecosystem functioning and into sustainable practices are profitable and productivity. Working in Indonesia with the oil that these practices are recognized in the palm industry (Sinar Mas Agrom Resources and market and, finally, to protect the Technology Corporation Research Institute – environment and society in the long term SMARTRI) and an international team of through rigorous evaluation and the collaborative researchers led by the University development of practices capable of delivering of Cambridge, UK, the BEFTA project is proven results. experimentally manipulating the habitat

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Useful Internet Sites indicators, encourage new forms of collaboration and multidisciplinary research Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function in and disseminate results among a wide audience Tropical Agriculture (BEFTA) Project: of potential users. http://oilpalmbiodiversity.com/ Sustainable Palm Oil Production (SPOP) Forest Stewardship Council: www.fsc.org At the interface between agronomy and social Greenpalm: www..org sciences, this project, led by CIRAD and Manifesto High Carbon Stock Study: http:// supported by the French Agence Nationale de www.carbonstockstudy.com/Home la Recherche, aims to verify the sustainability of current smallholder-based systems or to Palm Indicators Network PalmiNet: http:// propose new sustainable systems. It involves community.plantnet-project.org/pg/ actors in the process through participatory groups/2879/palminet/ methods such as multi-agent modelling. Palm Oil Innovation Group: http:// Conclusions and research avenues wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/footprint/ agriculture/palm_oil/solutions/palm_oil_ Improving sustainability requires multi- innovation_group/ disciplinary and collaborative research Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil: Large scale projects based on public/private www.rspo.org partnerships are emerging or are presently underway, although some of them are facing Roundtable on Responsible Soy Association: funding problems to initiate or continue their www.responsiblesoy.org activities. In order to provide robust, Socially and Environmentally Sustainable Oil trustworthy and shared results, such projects Palm Research Program (Sensor): www. need the successful integration of a large and searrp.org/sensor diverse partnership and – above all – the involvement in the (very) long term of all Stability of Altered Forest Ecosystems Project: contributors. Indeed, this is not an easy task; www.safeproject.net huge study areas are needed, and research Sustainable Development of Palm Oil conclusions and resulting statements are not Production (SPOP): http://spop.cirad.fr/ immediate, as academic results need some time project/context/agrobiosphere-2011 before being translated into reliable indicators and thresholds. This is far from comfortable lab research. complexity of plantations to test its effect on a wide range of taxa and ecosystem processes. As an example, all stakeholders now agree on Through establishing the role of biodiversity the need for establishing buffer zones between within tropical agrom-ecosystems, the project protected areas and plantations. This being will develop improved oil palm management said, research is crucially needed to determine and industry-compatible biodiversity surveys the size and shape of such zones and and guides. developers are waiting for clear answers: inside or outside the plantation area? One single zone PalmiNet network or a stepping stones design? Connecting France’s CIRAD (Centre de coopération protected zones with biodiversity corridors or internationale en recherche agronomique pour not? Which percentage of the planted area to le développement) and INRA (National be protected: 10%, 20% or 40% as in Institute for Agronomic Research), Amazonia? The same applies for questions CENIPALMA (Corporación Centro de arising from the exploitation of peat soils, the Investigación en Palma de Aceite in Colombia), controlled use of pesticides or the mitigation PT Smart (an Indonesian plantation company) of greenhouse gas emissions. and NBPOL (New Britain Palm Oil Ltd, Public awareness has pushed new plantation company, ) set approaches and new actors into the sector up this network in order to develop shared indicators on the social and environmental Even if they were rarely science-based, quite impact of the oil palm crop. The idea is to caricatural and sometimes misleading, cam- promote the use of indicators by actors in the paigns by NGOs played an important role in sector, share research efforts and feedback, pushing all branches of the oil palm sector facilitate the development of tools and towards improved sustainability. RSPO is most

47 PALM S Rival & Levang: Oil Palm Vol. 59(1) 2015 probably only the tip of the iceberg, as most and Wild Asia, a specialized NGO with estate companies are now addressing expertise in training Lead Auditors for RSPO, environmental and sustainability issues as they has also launched a course on Auditing have embarked towards national and/or Certification Schemes on Sustainability hosted international certification. Most of the major in Malaysia by the Institute of Agricultural and plantation companies now publish a yearly Food Policy Studies. This is just a start; each sustainability report and have created their company is still training its own executives own sustainability department or task force. following its own principles, and there is still Interestingly, “revolving chairs” are at work as huge room for improvement in sharing most of such departments are led by former knowledge and methodology. environmental NGO executives. Of course, the risk of green-washing still exists (it is ironically Scientists must be part of the public debate branded “Talk and Log”), even if the sector is Since developments such as the controversy in now permanently under scrutiny from NGOs Europe over genetically modified crops, we and public agencies and – increasingly – from scientists have become aware of the sensitivity governments. A growing number of companies of politicians and decision makers to public and their distributors cannot afford any more opinion, which more often retreats to severe mistakes in their sourcing, traceability entrenched positions. Some branches of or social responsibility policies. NGOs and science can be denied public funding once impact assessment bodies are now part of they have been publicly categorized as multidisciplinary research as they bring in new “sensitive.” Paradoxically, this has the opposite competencies and extended field-based effect to that sought by early detractors. expertise on both social and environmental Indeed, by depriving a whole field of research areas. Such actors also bring in a recognized of public funding the door is left open to expertise in using mass media and especially scientific research supported exclusively by the powerful, web-based social media. private money without any counterweight and Research results are more published and therefore highly questionable. The public recognized debate about the oil palm like in any other issue is generally triggered by the lack of The “publish or perish” rule applies also to oil sharing of scientific evidence obtained without palm researchers. Sustainability issues cannot conflict of interest by independent research be solved easily without the help of basic teams. Thus scientist must not hesitate to show science. As an example, soil science now not only doubts and concerns but also includes metagenomics to describe and promising research and development results monitor life under and above ground. Remote and encouraging changes in the sector. sensing and precision agriculture are needed either to anticipate and mitigate climate LITERATURE CITED changes such as El Niño, to map precisely ABOOD S.A., J. S ER HUAY LEE , Z. B URIVALOVA , J. planted and protected areas or to detect GARCIA -U LLOA AND L. P IN KOH . 2014. Relative outbreaks of pests and diseases. Breeding contributions of the logging, fiber, oil palm, strategies are now routinely integrating and mining industries to forest loss in molecular markers (Rival et al. 2010) and Indonesia. Conservation Letters 1755–263X- genomics data derived from the recent http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/conl.12103. sequencing of the oil palm genome (Singh et al. 2013). Scientific literature on oil palm CALIMAN J.-P. 2011. Palmier à huile: le management environnemental des planta- research has boomed, reaching almost 800 tions. Dossier Biodiversité et cultures journal articles (more than 7000 citations) in végétales (approches), économie – 2013 (Fig. 10). développement. OCL, Oléagineux, Corps There is a need for education and capacity Gras, Lipides 18: 123–131. building on sustainability CARLSON , K.M., L. M. C URRAN , D. R ATNASARI , A. Before or during their professional life, M. P ITTMAN , B. S. S OARES -F ILHO , G.P. A SNER , S. plantation managers, cooperative leaders, N. T RIGG , D. A. G AVEAU , D. L AWRENCE AND H. researchers and planners must share the same O. R ODRIGUES . 2012. Committed carbon corpus of basic knowledge about sustainability. emissions, deforestation, and community A very recent initiative linking CIRAD with land conversion from oil palm plantation Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), the expansion in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) PNAS 109: 7559–7564.

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CARRON , M.P., M. P IERRAT , D. S NOECK , C. RIVAL , A. AND P. L EVANG . 2014. Palms of Contro- VILLENAVE , F. R IBEYRE , S UHARDI , R. M ARICHAL versy: Oil Palm and Development AND J.P. C ALIMAN . 2015.Temporal variability Challenges. CIFOR, Bogor Indonesia. in soil quality after organic residue RUYSSCHAERT , D. AND D. S ALLES . 2014. Towards application in mature oil palm plantations. Soil Research, in press. global voluntary standards: Questioning the effectiveness in attaining conservation goals: COCHARD , B., P. A MBLARD ,AND T. D URAND - The case of the Roundtable on Sustainable GASSELIN . 2005. Oil palm genetic improve- Palm Oil (RSPO).Ecological Economics 107: ment and sustainable development. 438–446. Oléagineux, Corps Gras, Lipides 12: 141–147. SAYER , J., J. G HAZOUL , P. N ELSON AND A.K. FAO. 2010. Global Forest Resources Assessment BOEDHIHARTONO . 2012. Oil palm expansion 2010: Main Report. FAO, Rome. transforms tropical landscapes and liveli- FEINTRENIE , L., W.K. C HONG AND P. L EVANG . 2010. hood. Global Food Security 1: 114–119. Why do farmers prefer oil palm? Lessons SINGH , R., M. O NG -A BDULLAH , E.-T. L. L OW , learnt from Bungo District, Indonesia. Small- M.A.A. M ANAF , R. R OSLI , R. N OOKIAH , L.C.-L. Scale Forestry 9: 379–396. OOI , S.-E. O OI , K.-L. C HAN , M.A. H ALIM , N. FFAS. 2012. L’huile de palme, aspects AZIZI , J. N AGAPPAN , B. B ACHER , N. L AKEY , S.W. nutritionnels, sociaux et environnementaux: SMITH , D. H E, M. H OGAN , M.A. B UDIMAN , E.K. État des lieux du Fonds français pour LEE , R. D ESALLE , D. K UDRNA , J.L. G OICOECHEA , l’alimentation et la santé. http:// R.A. W ING , R.K. W ILSON , R.S. F ULTON , J.M. www.alimentation-sante.org/wp content/ ORDWAY , R.A. M ARTIENSSEN AND R. S AMBAN - uploads/2012/11/Etatdeslieux_HdP_ THAMURTHI 2013. Oil palm genome sequence 1112.pdf. reveals divergence of interfertile species in Old and New worlds. Nature 500: 335–339. HOYLE , D. AND P. L EVANG . 2012. Le doi:10.1038/nature12309 développement du palmier à huile au Cameroun. Working document. Geneva: TEOH , C.-H. 2010. Key Sustainability Issues in WWF. awsassets.panda.org/downloads/ the Palm Oil Sector. Washington, DC: developpmentpalmie- rhuilecameroun.pdf. International Finance Corporation,World Bank Group, 53pp. http://siteresources. JACQUEMARD , J.C. 2012. Le Palmier à Huile. Quæ worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/2 Éditions, Versailles, France. 26271-1170911056314/Discussion. LAURANCE , W. F., L.P. K OH , R. B UTLER , N.S. S ODHI , Paper_palmoil.pdf. C. J. A. B RADSHAW , J. D. N EIDEL , H. C ONSUNJI WWF. 2011. Huile de palme: de la AND J. M ATEO VEGA . 2010. Improving the déforestation à la nécessaire durabilité . WWF, performance of the Roundtable on Paris. 40 p. Accessed April 2013. http:// Sustainable Palm Oil for Nature Conser- awsassets.wwfffr.panda.org/downloads/rapp vation. Conservation Biology 24: 377–381. ort_huile_de_palme_111122045222_phpapp LEGROS , S., I. M IALET -S ERRA , A. C LEMENT -V IDAL , 01.pdf. J.-P. C ALIMAN , F.A. S IREGAR , D. F ABRE AND M. WWF. 2012a. Profitability and Sustainability in DINGKUHN . 2009. Role of transitory carbon Palm Oil Production. WWF, Gland, reserves during adjustment to climate Switzerland. 60 p. http://assets.worldwildlife. variability and source–sink imbalances in oil org/publications/350/files/original/Profitabili palm ( Elaeis guineensis ). Tree Physiology 29: ty_and_Sustainability_in_Palm_Oil_Producti 1199–1211. on.pdf?1345734683. MCCARTHY , J. 2012. Certifying in contested WWF. 2012b. Palm Oil Investor Review: spaces: private regulation in Indonesian Investor Guidance on Palm Oil. The role of forestry and palm oil. Third World Quarterly investors in supporting the development of 33: 1871–1888. sustainable palm oil industry. WWF, Gland, RIVAL , A. AND E. J ALIGOT . 2010. Oil palm Switzerland. 24 p. http://awsassets.panda. biotechnologies are definitely out of infancy. org/downloads/wwf_palmoil_investorreview. Oleagineux, Corps Gras, Lipides 17: 368–374. pdf.

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