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Earth Sciences 1 CK-12 Earth Science For Middle School Julie Sandeen Jean Brainard, Ph.D. Say Thanks to the Authors Click http://www.ck12.org/saythanks (No sign in required) www.ck12.org AUTHORS Julie Sandeen To access a customizable version of this book, as well as other Jean Brainard, Ph.D. interactive content, visit www.ck12.org CONTRIBUTORS Erik Ong Craig Freudenrich, Ph.D. Mary Lusk CK-12 Foundation is a non-profit organization with a mission to John Benner reduce the cost of textbook materials for the K-12 market both Dana Desonie, Ph.D. in the U.S. and worldwide. Using an open-content, web-based Julie Sandeen collaborative model termed the FlexBook®, CK-12 intends to Kurt Rosenkrantz pioneer the generation and distribution of high-quality educational Corliss Karasov content that will serve both as core text as well as provide an David Bethel adaptive environment for learning, powered through the FlexBook Platform®. Copyright © 2015 CK-12 Foundation, www.ck12.org The names “CK-12” and “CK12” and associated logos and the terms “FlexBook®” and “FlexBook Platform®” (collectively “CK-12 Marks”) are trademarks and service marks of CK-12 Foundation and are protected by federal, state, and international laws. Any form of reproduction of this book in any format or medium, in whole or in sections must include the referral attribution link http://www.ck12.org/saythanks (placed in a visible location) in addition to the following terms. Except as otherwise noted, all CK-12 Content (including CK-12 Curriculum Material) is made available to Users in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution-Non-Commercial 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC 3.0) License (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by-nc/3.0/), as amended and updated by Creative Com- mons from time to time (the “CC License”), which is incorporated herein by this reference. Complete terms can be found at http://www.ck12.org/terms. Printed: January 11, 2015 iii Contents www.ck12.org Contents 1 MS What is Earth Science?1 1.1 The Nature of Science........................................ 2 1.2 Earth Science and Its Branches................................... 12 1.3 References.............................................. 19 2 MS Studying Earth’s Surface 20 2.1 Introduction to Earth’s Surface ................................... 21 2.2 Modeling Earth’s Surface...................................... 29 2.3 Topographic Maps.......................................... 39 2.4 Using Satellites and Computers................................... 47 2.5 References.............................................. 54 3 MS Earth’s Minerals 56 3.1 Minerals............................................... 57 3.2 Identification of Minerals...................................... 66 3.3 Formation of Minerals........................................ 75 3.4 Mining and Using Minerals..................................... 79 3.5 References.............................................. 86 4 MS Rocks 88 4.1 Types of Rocks ........................................... 89 4.2 Igneous Rocks............................................ 94 4.3 Sedimentary Rocks ......................................... 99 4.4 Metamorphic Rocks.........................................104 4.5 References..............................................107 5 MS Earth’s Energy 108 5.1 Earth’s Energy............................................109 5.2 Nonrenewable Energy Resources..................................115 5.3 Renewable Energy Resources....................................122 5.4 References..............................................130 6 MS Plate Tectonics 131 6.1 Inside Earth .............................................132 6.2 Continental Drift ..........................................138 6.3 Seafloor Spreading .........................................142 6.4 Theory of Plate Tectonics......................................147 6.5 References..............................................159 7 MS Earthquakes 160 7.1 Stress in Earth’s Crust........................................161 7.2 Nature of Earthquakes........................................173 iv www.ck12.org Contents 7.3 Measuring and Predicting Earthquakes...............................184 7.4 Staying Safe in Earthquakes.....................................190 7.5 References..............................................197 8 MS Volcanoes 199 8.1 Volcanic Activity ..........................................200 8.2 Volcanic Eruptions .........................................204 8.3 Types of Volcanoes .........................................212 8.4 Igneous Landforms and Geothermal Activity............................218 8.5 References..............................................223 9 MS Weathering and Formation of Soil 224 9.1 Weathering..............................................225 9.2 Soils.................................................231 9.3 References..............................................241 10 MS Erosion and Deposition 242 10.1 Erosion and Deposition by Flowing Water .............................243 10.2 Erosion and Deposition by Waves..................................252 10.3 Erosion and Deposition by Wind ..................................259 10.4 Erosion and Deposition by Glaciers.................................264 10.5 Erosion and Deposition by Gravity.................................269 10.6 References..............................................273 11 MS Evidence About Earth’s Past 275 11.1 Fossils................................................276 11.2 Relative Ages of Rocks.......................................281 11.3 Absolute Ages of Rocks.......................................290 11.4 References..............................................295 12 MS Earth’s History 296 12.1 The Origin of Earth.........................................297 12.2 Early Earth..............................................302 12.3 History of Earth’s Life Forms....................................307 12.4 References..............................................317 13 MS Earth’s Fresh Water 318 13.1 Water on Earth............................................319 13.2 Surface Water............................................324 13.3 Groundwater.............................................331 13.4 References..............................................339 14 MS Earth’s Oceans 340 14.1 Introduction to the Oceans .....................................341 14.2 Ocean Movements..........................................349 14.3 The Ocean Floor...........................................358 14.4 Ocean Life..............................................364 14.5 References..............................................369 15 MS Earth’s Atmosphere 371 15.1 The Atmosphere...........................................372 15.2 Energy in the Atmosphere......................................378 15.3 Layers of the Atmosphere......................................384 v Contents www.ck12.org 15.4 Air Movement............................................391 15.5 References..............................................397 16 MS Weather 398 16.1 Weather and Water in the Atmosphere ...............................399 16.2 Changing Weather..........................................406 16.3 Storms................................................412 16.4 Weather Forecasting.........................................423 16.5 References..............................................428 17 MS Climate 430 17.1 Climate and Its Causes .......................................431 17.2 World Climates ...........................................438 17.3 Climate Change...........................................445 17.4 References..............................................453 18 MS Ecosystems and Human Populations 455 18.1 Ecosystems .............................................456 18.2 Cycles of Matter...........................................465 18.3 The Human Population .......................................471 18.4 References..............................................479 19 MS Human Actions and the Land 481 19.1 Loss of Soil .............................................482 19.2 Pollution of the Land ........................................489 19.3 References..............................................496 20 MS Human Actions and Earth’s Resources 497 20.1 Use and Conservation of Resources.................................498 20.2 Use and Conservation of Energy ..................................507 20.3 References..............................................513 21 MS Human Actions and Earth’s Water 514 21.1 Humans and the Water Supply ...................................515 21.2 Water Pollution ...........................................522 21.3 Protecting the Water Supply.....................................528 21.4 References..............................................533 22 MS Human Actions and the Atmosphere 534 22.1 Air Pollution.............................................535 22.2 Effects of Air Pollution.......................................541 22.3 Reducing Air Pollution .......................................548 22.4 References..............................................552 23 MS Observing and Exploring Space 553 23.1 Telescopes..............................................554 23.2 Early Space Exploration.......................................564 23.3 Recent Space Exploration......................................574 23.4 References..............................................582 24 MS Earth, Moon, and Sun 584 24.1 Planet Earth.............................................585 24.2 Earth’s Moon ............................................594
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