r ~-=- · - '" - __ .._. ,1'..,.-- .. ~..c-.;.... o:· -- .. . •·

... ~:. -:_.. ~-· .. 11th CONGRESS INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF SOIL SCIENCE EDMONTON, CANADA

JUNE, 1978

GUIDEBOOK FOR A TOUR TO OBSERVE SOIL LANDSCAPES AND CROPPING SYSTEMS IN CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN ALBERTA AND SOUTHWESTERN SASKATCHEWAN

TOURS 5 AND 13 T. W. PETERS AGRICULTURE CANADA, SOIL SURVEY, EDMONTON, ALBERTA J.A. SHIELDS AGRICULTURE CANADA, SOIL RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF OTTAWA, ONTARIO J.G. ELLIS SASKATCHEWAN INSTITUTE OF PEDOLOGY, SASKATOON, SASKATCHEWAN

GUIDEBOOK EDITORS D.F. ACTON AND L.S. CROSSON CONTRIBUTION OF SASKATCHEWAN INSTITUTE OF PEDOLOGY S.R.I. No. 652 SASKATOON, SASKATCHEWAN PREFACE The a geographical area of great interest. a resources, but sparsely popu­ better appreciate the scale, nature route and general relief across the western in Fig. P.l. les) in southern Alberta and soil zonat on ecting gradual anges ces from Edmonton southeast and t. It also witnesses the e evation on the anks the n climates, soils and landforms are rises and cropping practises. Tour lement the excursion itself by providing descri ve i areas traversed. The Guide is arranged in three section I or Plains of Canada, the daily log, ces. nying maps provide an informative tra ogue concerni landforms. Crop yields and management practices on di areas are discussed in relation to soil capability. are interspersed throughout log. Appendix A desc s, Appendix B contains meteorological data and Appendix C con on relating to crop yields and production costs. i i i

109' 108°

54° ALBERTA- SASKATCHEWAN

53'

52°

50°

I 49° Selected City or Town 0 __ .J ______49' Overnight Stop cfu Tour Route . .. -

0 20 40 60 80 MILES t--·---,----1, -y 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 KILOMETRES

114' 113' 112' 111° 110' 109' 108°

FIGURE P.l THE ROUTE AND GENERAL RELIEF MAP FOR TOURS 5 and 13 iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page THE INTERIOR PLAINS Or CANADA ...... 1 Major Physiographic Regions of Canada ...... 2 The route ...... 4 Wisconsin Glaciation and Deposits in the Interior Plains ... . 6 Bedrock Geology of the Interior Plains ...... 9 Physiographic Divisions of the Interior Plains ...... 11 Principal Rivers and Drainage Basins ...... 13 Soil Temperature of the Interior Plains ...... 15 Soil Moisture of the Interior Plains ...... 18 Agro-climatic subregions of the Interior Plains ...... 18 Vegetation of the Interior Plains ...... 20 Zonal soils of the Interior Plains ...... ~...... 23 Main Types of Farming in the Interior Plains ...... 27 Canada Land Inventory of the Interior Plains ... ooo••o•••oo·. 30 Land Survey Systems in the Interior Plains ...... ······oo.. 32

LEGEND FOR DAILY TOUR ROUTE MAPS ...... o ·••o•o•••o····· •••• 38

DAY 1. CROPPING PRACTICES AND YIELDS OF BLACK AND DARK BROWN CHERNO- ZEMIC SOILS; EDMONTON TO DRUMHELLER ... o •••• •o o••o•· •• ••••• 44

Site l: Black Solodized Solonetz ...... 0 •••• o. 0 •••• o 0 ••••• 49 Solonetzic Soils ...... o •••••••••••••••••••• o ••• o ••••••••• o 50 Summerfallow ·········o···········o •• ooo•·······••o••oo•o• 53

000 00 0 Site 2: Orthic Dark Brown Chernozemic '' ' •••• ••••••• 55

Site 3: Rego Dark Brown Chernozemic ...... •o••········ 0 •• 56 DAY 2. SOILS AND AGRICULTURE OF THE DARK BROWN AND BROWN SOIL ZONES; DRUMHELLER TO BROOKS o ••••••• o •• o •••••••••• o •• o •••• o •••••• o 58

Production Costs . 0 ••••••• 0 •••••• 0 ••••• o0 0 •• 0 ••• 0 •••• o.... 58 Alberta Horticulture Research Centre .. ·····o·•·••o••oo•.. 62 DAY 3. BROWN CHERNOZEMIC AND SOLONETZIC SOILS AND THEIR AGRICULTURAL

UTILIZATION; BROOKS TO MEDICINE HAT ...... o 0 ' •• 64

Dinosaur Park ...... o •••••••••••••••• o •••• o...... 64

Site 4: Brown Solodized Solonetz •o········ oo••·••oo•• 0 ••o 64 Site 5· Brown Solod . o •••• o •••• o ••••••• o ••••••• o ••• o...... 64 Developments of Ranching and Farming in Southeastern Alberta 67 DAY 4. DRYLAND SALINITY IN THE BROWN SOIL ZONE; MEDICINE HAT TO SWIFT CURRENT ..... o ••••• o ••••••••••• o o ••••••• o •• o ••••••••• o.... 70

Great Sand Hills ... o •••• o •••••• 0. o ••••••••••• o •••• o. 0.... 76. Site 6: Orthic Regosol -Saline Phase ..... o•······· ...... 79 Site 7: Orthic Brown Chernozemic ...... o...... 79 So i 1 Sa 1 in i ty o •••••••••• o ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• o • • • • • 7 9 Swift Current Research Station ······o· ····o•o•• o········· 83 v

Page DAY 5. PRAIRIE TO PINE; SWIFT CURRENT TO MEDICINE HAT VIA THE CYPRESS HILLS ...... 85 Swift Current Loess ...... 85 Site 8: Orthic Brown to Dark Brown Chernozemic ...... 88 Avena Community Pasture ...... -·...... 90 General Description of the Cypress Hills Area ...... 92 Historic Fort Walsh ...... 95 DAY 6. BROWN AND DARK BROWN CHERNOZEMIC SOILS UNDER IRRIGATION AND DRYLAND AGRICULTURE; MEDICINE HAT TO LETHBRIDGE ...... 97 Site 9: Orthic Brown Chernozemic ...... 100 Site 10: Rego Dark Brown Chernozemic-Carbonated Phase ..... 103 Site 11: Calcareous Dark Brown Chernozemic ...... 103 Lethbridge Research Station ...... 103 DAY 7. REST DAY ...... 104 DAY 8. LAND USE PANORAMA FROM THE PLAINS TO THE FOOTHILLS; LETHBRIDGE TO CALGARY ...... 107 Wind Erosion ...... 107 Chinook ...... 110 Buffalo Jump ...... · .... · ...... · .. ·. 110 Site 12: Orthic Black Chernozemic ...... ~...... 112 DAY 9: BLACK CHERNOZEMIC AND SOLONETZIC SOILS, THEIR UTILIZATION AND AVERAGE CROP YIELDS; CALGARY TO EDMONTON ··············· .. . 114 Site 13: Gleyed Eluviated Black Chernozemic ...... 119 Lacombe Research Station ...... 119

REFERENCES o 1>" 1> o 11 <> o o $II! II> fll 0 II 0 o .o o o" 0 <11 1> It" 1101 t1 <1 " 'I 10 <>'" & 0 "'" "" e ill e I" 0 124 APPENDIX A. Field Description, Analyses, and Micromorphological Descriptions of Soil Sites ...... 126 APPENDIX B. Meteorological Data 158 APPENDIX C. Crop Yields and Production Costs ...... 163 APPENDIX D. ·Format for Micromorphological Descriptions 170 vi

LIST OF APPENDICES Page APPENDIX A. , ANALYSES, AND MICROMORPHOLOGICAL IL SI ...... 126

Appendix A.l.l. is. and ogy onetzic so l 126

Appendix A.l.2. 1 Site 2 128

Appen x A. l. 3. ion, analysis, and cromorphology Che c soil at te 3 131 Appendix A.3.4. on, anal is, and cromorphology zed Solonetz soil at Site 4 134

Appendix A.3.5. eld ion analysis of a Brown Solod soil 5 (Brooks) ...... 136 Appendix A.4.6. analysis of an Orthic Regosol seat Site 6 (Benallack Farm) ...... 138 Appendix A.4.7. ption and analysis of anOrthic Dark soil at Site 7 (Ben a 11 ack Farm). .. 140 Appendix A.5.8. eld ption, analysis, and micromorphology an ic Brown to Dark Brown soil at Site 8 (Girodat Farm) ...... 142 Appendix A.6.9. Fi d ption, analysis, and micromorphology of an Orthic Brown Chernozemic soil at Site 9 ( )...... 145 Appendix A.6.10. on analysis of a Rego Dark Brown c soil-carbonated phase at Site 10 ) ...... 147 Appendix A. 6. 11. and analysis of a Calcareous Dark c 1 at Site 11 (Lethbridge) ..... 149 Appendix A.8.12. cromorpho logy c s l at te 12 152

Appendix A.9. 13. Field scri ion, analysis, and micromorphology of a.Gl El ated Black Chernozemic soil at Site 13 Lacombe) ...... · · · · · · · · · · 155 vii

Page APPENDIX B. METEOROLOGICAL DATA 158 Appendix B. 1 Meteorological data showing temperature, precipitation and days without frost for weather stations along the tour route, 1941-70: ...... 158 Edmonton Cypress Hill Park Camrose Foremost Stettler Lethbridge Drumheller Claresholm Brooks Lyndon Gull Lake Skyline Medicine Hat Pekisko Swift Current Calgary Shaunavon Olds Eastend Lacombe APPENDIX C. CROP YIELDS AND PRODUCTION COSTS ...... 163 Appendix C. 1. 1. Yields from different cropping practices on soil capability areas 20 and 3D in agroclimatic subregion 1, 1966-74 ...... 163 Appendix C. 1.2. Monthly precipitation at Camrose from April to October (1965-74) and crop yields on soil capability areas 20 and 30...... 164 Appendix C. 1.3. Summerfallow costs for Warner District...... 165 Appendix C.l.4. Monthly precipitation at Drumheller from April to October (1965-74) and crop yields on soil capability areas 1 and 2C ...... 166 Appendix C. 1,5. Average crop yields from different cropping practises on soil capability areas 1 and 2C, 1965-74...... 167 Appendix C.2. 1. Cost of wheat production in the Hussar District. . . 168 Appendix C.4.1. Plant communities of the Great Sand Hills...... 169 APPENDIX D. FORMAT FOR MICROMORPHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTIONS ...... 170 viii

Page LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1 Average eld of eld crops under all management prac- ces on capabili areas 20 and 30, 1965-74 ...... 49

Table 1.2 Average crop elds occurring on capability areas 2M and 3M, 1965-74 52 Table 1.3 low costs in different soil-climatic subzones ... 55 Table 2.1 Average production costs for wheat in soil-climatic sub- zones along the tour route ...... 61 Table 5.1 Climatic data for selected stations in southwest Saska­ 88 tchevJan 'It ill "' • 11 ., ,. <11 "' ., "' • • • ., ., t .. e "' ., " "' " " • ., ,. ., ., • e e ., ,. ., ., ., ~ • " ., .,. ., ,. "' ., .. Table 5.2 Average crop yields for Municipalities in the Shaunavon-Robsart area, 1964-73...... 91 Table 8.1 Average crop yields for some Dark Brown soils from Municipal Dis ct No. 26, 1968-74 ...... 111 Table 9.1 Average crop elds on thin Black Chernozemic soils, 1966-74 ...... 114 Table 9.2 Average crop yields on Black Chernozemic soils in County No. 17, 1966-74...... 118 Table 9.3 Crop yields on Black Solodized Solonetz soils developed on Residual Material, 1967-74 ...... 123 ix

Page LIST OF FIGURES i i i Figure p. 1 The route and general relief map for Tours 5 and 13

Figure Major physiographic regions of Canada 3

Figure 2 Route for Tour 5 and 13 5 Figure 3 Wisconsin glaciation and deposits in the Interior Plains . 7

Figure 4 Bedrock geology of Interior Plains ...... 10

Figure 5 Physiographic divisions of the Interior Plains ...... 12

Figure 6 Principal rivers and drainage basins of the Interior Plains ...... 14

Figure 7 Soil temperature of the Interior Plains ...... ······· 16

Figure 8 Soil moisture of the Interior Plains 17

Figure 9 Agro-climatic subregions of the Interior Plains ...... 19

Figure 10 Vegetation of the Interior Plains 22

Figure 11 Zonal soils of the Interior Plains 26

Figure 12 Main types of farming in the Interior Plains 28

Figure 13 Area covered by Canada Land Inventory in the Interior Plains ...... 33

Figure 14 Land survey system in the Interior Plains · ······· ······· 36 Figure 15 Soil-climatic subzones of the central Alberta and south- western Saskatchewan ...... 39

Figure 16 Legend for daily tour route maps ..... · .... · .. · · · · .. · · .. · 40 Figure 1.0 Tour route for Day 1 ············ ····· ...... 45 Figure 1.1 Percentage of the total cultivated acreage in fallow, 1971 ...... 54 Figure 2. 0 Tour route for Day 2 ...... 59 Figure 3.0 Tour route for Day 3 ...... 65

Figure 3. l Cross section diagram of the Patricia-Millicent area showing surficial deposits and seepage areas ...... 66 Figure 4.0 Tour route for Day 4 ...... ··· 71 X

Page Figure 4.1 Map showing occurrence of dunes and loessial deposits along tour route ...... 77

Figure 4.2 Transverse dune profile ...... 78

Figure 4.3 Soil map of salinity demonstration plots, Benallack Far~ 80

Figure 4. 4 St t gra and groundwater rology in t vicinity of University, Goodale Farm 82

gure 5.0 Tour route for Day 5 ········· ···· ··· ·· .. ·· .. ····· ......

Figure 6. 0 Tour route for Day 6 · · · · · · · .. · · · · · .. · · · · .. · · · · · · · · · · · .. · 98 Figure 6.1 Rainfall isohyetal lines for southern Alberta .... · · · · · · .. 101 Figure 6.2 !salines showing hours with wind velocities greater than 50 km per hour, southern Alberta ...... 101 Figure 6.3 Number of days in January and February with maximum temperature of 4.4°C or greater, southern Alberta ...... 101 Figure 6.4 Area of southern Alberta s ect to serious wind erosion where st p cropping is practised ...... 102 Figure 8.0 Tour route for Day 8 <> 0 ~ .. " .. "' ...... "' ...... " ...... " .. .. " " .. 0 " ~ .. " Figure 9.0 Tour route for Day 9 xi

GUI AND CONTRI J.F. DORMAAR CULTURE ION, LETHBRIDGE, AlBERTA A. JOHNSTON AGRI CANADA, RESEARCH STAT , LETHBRIDGE, ALBERTA S. DUBETZ AGRI , RESEARCH STAT 9 LETHBRIDGE, ALBERTA U.J. PITMAN , LETHBRIDGE, ALBERTA F.G. WARDER AGRICULTURE CURRENT, SASKATCHEWAN C.A. CAMPBE AGRICULTURE , RESEARCH STATION, SWIFT CURRENT, SASKATCHEWAN

D. W. L. READ AGRI • SWIFT CURRENT, SASKATCHEWAN C.A. SCHAUPMEYER ALBERTA CULTURE9 RESEARCH CENTER, BROOKS, ALBERTA B. REEVES DEPARTMENT ~RCHEOLOGY • UNIVERS , CALGARY, ALBERTA

D. K. ~~CBEATH AGRICULTURE STATION, LACOMBE, ALBERTA

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors g many indivi ls and organizations who contri in a the ion of this guide book. In particular we want the fo11owing: previous page for preparing commen-

H.B. se. ka::chewan In i of , for reviewing the manuscript. Staff the did the clay mineralogy, micromorphological typing the manuscript~ Thank all.

THE INTERIOR PLAINS OF CANADA

Compiled by J.G. Ellis Saskatchewan Institute of Pedology University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Saskatchewan

For Tours 2, l1, 5, and 13 Eleventh International Congress of Soil Science Edmonton, Canada

June, 1978 2

or ic ions of ada

The of Canada are delineated in Fig. 1. Canada, from east to west, extends from about 5 west to 140° west longitude. The southernmost Canada is 41°41' north latitude and the northernmost point is however, in the Canada lies be north latitudes 49° and 83°.

The grouped and very briefly described as mountains and highlands in- clude the The Cordilleran Region includes the Pac on highly disturbed and folded and volcanic rock.<;;. Region is a hilly and moun- tainous area made up of disturbed rocks with minor igneous intrusions. The Innuitian Region consists of two mountain ranges that are separated by up­ lands. These features .are mainly deform<'d sedimentary rocks with minor igneous intrusions.

The Canadian Shield is a peneplain whose vast expanse covers nearly one half of the. Canadian mainland. lt consists of exposed Precambrian rocks.

The principal and lowland areas are mainly underlain by slightly disturbed Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata. include the St. Lawrence lowlands, a narrow the SL Lawrence River and extending \vestward to the Great Lakes ~ which lies west of the Precambrian Shield and stretches down the Mackenzie Arctic Ocean; the Hudson Bay Lowland, which lies acent to the southwestern of the Bay; and finally, the Arctic Plains Lowlands.

Canada, as·a in aereal extent by the U.S.S.R. Canada covers some not significantly different from conti­ nental U.S.A., interest, however, is the fact that Canada's population is one of the U.S.S.R. or the U.S.A. Canada's small population is restricted environment, namely, large areas of mountains, rocky rigors of Arctic climate. These restrictions are not conducive expansion either from within or through immi- gration.

Due to its environment, Canada's developed areas are not more than one third of its total area. The occupied farm area is less than one twelfth of Canada's total, and the forest land less than one quarter. There is no perma- nent settlement in 89% of the total area. About 11% of Canadians occupy .1% of the total of Canada in the settled areas east of Quebec City to the Atlantic Ocean. Another 57.8% of the population occurs in the settled areas, which 2.2% of the area of Canada from Quebec City to the west side of the Great Lakes. This 2. 2% settled area an area vJhich measures about 1040 km miles) east to west and v.1hose greatest north to south distance is 432 ( miles). cities in this area, , Quebec City and Montreal tn the • and Toronto, Hamilton, Ottawa, London, Windsor,

and In Ontario 1 contain 25.8% of Canada's population.

The t t:r;;lct of continuous settlement occurs in the Canadian Prairies in a traet of land which measures about ll~OO km (875 miles) east to west along the .S.A. border north , while east of Winnipeg, it stretches about 160 km miles) north of this border, and in the west, about I \.!(:f:J' I / I Arctic I Ocean

~

w

.g ;:; t!1.

Scale 1:36,1 78,560 0 500 mi

i i iT,--,--,-,...,.---, 0 800 km Ocean

FIGURE 1 MAJOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS Of CANADA 4

660 km (415 miles) north or approximately to 55° north latitude. This tract of land represents 6.2% of the total area of Canada and contains 15.4% of its population. .Four cities "1.-lithin this area, namely, Edmonton and Calgary in the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Winnipeg in Manitoba, contain 7.3% of the national

Between north latitudes 55° and 57°, and north of the tract of land just outlined, 0.6% of Canada's population resides in an area which represents 0.3% of its total area.

The settled areas in the southern Cordilleran region, adjacent to the U.S.A., represent about 0.7% of Canada's total area and contain 9.5% of its population. It should be noted, however, that in this region 4% of the national population occurs in the Vancouver me area.

The foregoing statements account for 94% of Canada's population which resides in 10.5% of its total area. Thus, the remaining 6% reside in scattered and isolated settlements which occupy about 0.5% of Canada's total area.

The geographical knowledge of Canada is reasonably complete considering its size and its large area of difficult access. All of Canada has been surveyed and mapped at a scale of 1:250 000 presenting a detailed depiction of relief, river systems, transportation facilities, forest cover, and centres of population. Comparisons of different features and areas can be made as all map sheets of the National Topographic Series are prepared by the Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Ottawa, to the same specifications. In addition, all settled areas and regions of northern development have been mapped at larger scales, in par­ ticular 1:50 000. Vertical ai.r photography showing still more details of the terrain are available for all of Canada and vary from about a 1:63 360 scale in the Arctic to a 1:15 840 or larger scale in settled areas. Photography from the Earth Resource Technology Satellite is also available.

Politically, Canada is divided into ten provinces and two territories. Each province is sovereign in its own sphere and administers its own natural resources upon which the economy of each province is based. The natural resources (except for wildlife) of the territories are administered by the federal government.

Route

Tour 5 commences in Edmonton on June 9 traversing southwestward to Swift Current, Saskatchewan before Edmonton via Lethbridge and Calgary on June 1 g. It traverses 2215 km (1,375 miles) in nine days. Thus, each traversed rather speedily. Official enroute stops could hours. Hopefully, other nonscheduled stops can be made, time and interest

Overnight accommodations have been reserved at Drumheller, Brooks, Medicine Hat, Swift Current, , and Calgary where it is anticipated some local culture can be observed.

Tour 13 commences in Edmonton on June 28 and terminates in Edmonton on July 6. This tour follows the same route and overnight accommodations will be provided at the same locations as Tour 5. 60r--._____ I ~ 1--_ I /

I I ~~ / I ' ----- I I '------....-__./ I

L'l

---

Scale 1: 1 0 million

100 mi 100 50 0 95° 200 100 0 200 km

fiGURE 2 ROUTE FOR TOURS 5 and 1 3 6

Wisconsin Glaciation and Deposits in the Interior Plains

The appearance of the Interior Plains is mainly a result of Wisconsin glaciation >vhich vias the last events that occurred during the Pleistocpne Epoch. The other the oldest to the youngest are known in North America as the raskan, Kansan, and Illtnoian respectively and correlate with the Mindel, and Riss glaciations. The Wisconsin sychronizes with the

At the beginning of the the Ceno c Era, the climate gradually cooled with the accumulation of t ice caps at the great centers of glaciations. These caps, referred to as the Cordilleran, Keewatin and Labrador are indicated on Fig. 3 as is the present day Greenland cap. Each of these caps were active each of the glacial periods and served, therefore, as a centre of ice radiation more than a single advance. As conditions varied firs one and then the other ice source dominated so that the various its from the three centers overlap to some extent.

The Labradorian center east of Hudson Bay and was the source of glacia- tion which covered much of the eastern part of the continent. The Keewatin which crossed the Interior Plains lay west of Hudson Bay and from its centre, ice moved west, south, and southeast, the Labradorian sits in the general vicinity of the Great Lakes. The Cordilleran stretched along tl1e mountainous Cordilleran belt and was confined to that region.

The total s i.s as follows. When the ice accumulation became sufficient to cause its movement, the first ice advanced as far south as Nebraska and thus the first stage was so named. As the climate became milder during the Aftonian interglacial interval, wastage of the dominated over ice movement and thus the glacier retreated. Following the Aftonian interval, cool conditions returned with the build up of the Kansan which then moved outwards. The warmth of the Yarmouth interglacial interval followed Kansan glaciation and then came the build up and thrust of the Illinoian ice, followed by the Sangamon interval, and finally the occurrence of the last or Wisconsin glaciation. Today we are probably in some stage of another interglacial interval.

The legend in Fig. 3 indicates that ice-laid and water-laid deposits are associated with the Wisconsin in the Interior Plains. It is of interest to note that two areas in Saskatchewan, one just west of longitude 105°, and another on longitude , were unscathed by Wisconsin glaciation, due to their marked elevation above the terrain. Thus, it may be concluded that glacial ice followed the resistance and its forward movement across the Interior Plain was the terrain it traversed.

It is reported by some scientists that the apex of the Keewatin ice cap which caused the Wisconsin tion was about 38 m (8000 feet) thick. As the ice moved from tiais apex, it up soil, disintegrated rock, and hard rock masst:s from the Canadian Shield. The hard rock, mainly granites, from the Shield acted as or tools on the material over which the ice passed and left in the hardest materials engraved lines of traverse, or striations, which indicate the direction of its passage. Boulders of the Precambrian rocks ~:t?i:q] Areas not glaciated. Areas of Wtsconsin (last) glaciation mainly ice lain deposits. ~-I.\ .... Eg. various morames and rolated local outwash plains.

Areas of pre·Wisconsin glaciation- not covered by Wisconsin ice. ;";";;";"\ Areas of Wisconsin glaciation mainly water lain silts and clays and deltaic ~."...."! sands and silts with significant inclusions of ice deposits. mainly tilL

.:-

Hudson

Bay

-.....]

......

Scola 1 : l 0 miUion

10() 50 0 100 mi

200 100 0 HD ~ 95"

AGURE 3 WISCONSIN GlACIATION AND DEPOSITS IN THE INTERIOR PlAINS 8

and Paleozoic tones were carried south and mixed with shales and other sediments \

In theory a continenta occurs but it is apparent that in many areas all sequences do perhaps to their eradication by post erosion ither of deposition or removal) or the sequence which should have occurred did not because of the differing composition of the in the various over which it moved.

In simple terms the sequences of a continental tion rould be as follows: Dur the advance of the a bedrock waH pulverized ;md in the ice shePt to be Th material is known as glacial drift. In the Interior the drift var rom a few centimeters thick to several hundreds and texture of the deposited drift is related to the rate and composition of debris held in the ice. When the forward movement of the ice equalled the melting at the face, drift accumulated along the ice front forming a ridge-like deposit known as moraine. Where caused enormous water action and where ice was laden with coarse debris, extensive sorting resulted in the construction of coarse textured moraines. Other materials carried out in front of the moraines the meltwaters formed outwash The coarser materials were ted first and as the meltwater decreased fluviolacustrine The silts and clays were carried to where settled down in trine retreated from the one moraine to the next, known as ground moraine or till were formed.

retreat of the ice sheet several were formed. They have left behind lake floors and terraces. Dur the lif of the many of their waters through courses that have since reversed 'I~ese reversals in flow occurred because retreat of the ice channels, courses have features such as river terraces, sand- bars, lakes, and swamps their traverses.

In summary, it can be stated that the Interior Plains were sculptured by the Keewatin ice sheet and its waters. The recognizable moraines, till plains, outwash plains, lake beds, and drainage courses left behind plus their composi­ tion and environment have a direct influence on the consequent soil development and its classification. Bed Geology of the Interior Pl ns

The Bedrock Geology depicted in Fig. 4 indicates the materials which were deposited in the Interior Plains during the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. The oldest of these eras, or the Paleozoic, commenced about 370 million years ago and was followed about 165 million years ago by the Mesozoic, which was followed about 65 million years ago the Cenozoic.

Rock formations, from the oldest to the youngest sequence, namely the Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian were laid down during the Paleozoic Era. These formations are mainly water-laid lll1estones and dolomites. As can be ob­ served in Fig. 4, the Paleozoic rocks occur along the eastern edge of the Interior Plains, and are bordered on their east side the granites, sedimentary gneisses, and schists of the Canadian Shield. Much of the calcium and magnesium content of the soils in the Interior Plains is related to Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian rocks, either by in situ development on them, or by the transportation, pulverization and incorporation by glacial action of these rocks into and unto other sediments, that become soil parent materi.als. Ordovician and Silurian rocks are named after the British tribes "Ordivices" and 11 Silures" of Wales, who were so named by the Romans. The Devonian rocks are named after Devonshire, England.

Bedrock materials contributed the Mesozoic Era, from the oldest to the youngest includes those of the Jurassic and Cretaceous age. Jurassic rocks are named after the Jura Region of France and Cretaceous rocks are named from the latin word , meaning chalk.

The Jurassic deposits, which are shales contai lime carbonates, parallel the Paleozoic rocks in the southeast corner of the Interior Plains. Many important oil wells in Saskatchewan occur in Jurassic rocks.

West of the .Jurassic and Paleozoic rocks, the Lower Cretaceous and then the Upper Cretaceous shales occur. Cretaceous sed:iments are widespread across the Interior Plains as illustrated in have an influence on the soils of the Interior Plains in that they are le for their generally fine texture. They form the ingredient of drift which is the most exten- sive of the surficial on the Plains.

The Lower Cretaceous strata are buried under most of the Interior Plains and consist of clay and sandstone of marine and non-marine or1g1n. Where the Lower Cretaceous directly underlies the drift, much of the sandy soil associated with this stratification is due to the Lower Cretaceous sandstone. From an economic standpoint, the Lower Cretaceous are of interest as the Athabasca Tar Sands are of this age.

The Upper Cretaceous sediments have been divided into a number of formations. The older and generally the thicker formations are mainly marine shales, silt­ stones, and sandstones while the upper more recent formations are non-marine. For the most part, these formations are covered with glacial deposits, but in severely eroded and dissected areas outcrops can be observed. Fossils of various ERA EPOCH

CENOZOIC Tertiary

MESOZOIC

Lower Cretaceous

PALEAOZOIC -- -' - -" --

!_,

0

/

Scale

100 0 100 mi _____L_

200 100 0 200 km 95° FIGURE 4 BEDROCK GEOLOGY OF INTERIOR PlAINS 11

types of dinosaurs are numerous and may be observed in the Provincial Park at Drumheller, Alberta. Most of the clay content in the glacial drift which covers the Interior Plains can be attributed to Cretaceous The marine type, with high sodium a11d magnesium contents, rise to Ewlonetzic soilA, hut fortunately in large areas, the of limestone and other calcium bearing rock into the various cretaceous shales has rise to fertile Cherno- zemic soils. Some large tracts of duned soils, such as the Great Sand Hills in southwest Saskatchewan can be attributed to Upper Cretaceous sands.

Tertiary sediments of the Cenozoic era have been separated into various formations which were formed in the Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, and Miocene epochs. These early and middle Tertiary sequences were basically periods of deposition, across the Interior Plains, of materials which were carried east- ward because of the uplif Rocky Mountains of the Cordilleran Region. All Tertiary deposits are, therefore, non-marine, and materials such as gravels, conglomerate, sarlds, and clay were deposited as transported materials from the newly formed western mountains. The last of the Cenozoic era in Pliocene times was one of extensive erosion. of feet of Ter sediments laid down earlier were removed underlying Cretaceous sediments. The remnants o formations that were left on the more elevated areas of the Interior Plains are indicated on . 4. In the central portion of the Interior Plains, Ter deposits on elevations were unscathed by the various Lations which occurred in the following Quatenary period. Physiographic visions Interior Plains

The southern portion of the Interior Plains, or that portion below 55° north latitude in Fig. 5, is divided into three major physiographic regions. These regions are frequently referred to as the three steppes or levels. This reference describes the recognizable sequences in the southern portion of the Plains, but they are less observable in the northern portion. As can be seen on Fig. 5, the southern part of the three levels or plains are separated by two eastward facing escarpments. The first or lower prairie level is referred to as the Manitoba Plain or Lowland. It is developed mainly on Paleozoic rocks and in this respect differs from the more typical landscapes to the \ilest, which are mainly on softer Cretaceous rocks. The Manitoba Plain was occupied on the retreat of the contin- ental glaciers Lake z, thus much f its surface is covered by alluvium and lacustrine ts as well as drift. The levations throughout the Hanitoba Plain are less than 30.5 m feet) above sea level (ASL).

The Manitoba Plains are separated from the second level or the Saskatchewan Plains by an east facing Cretaceous known as the Manitoba Escarpment. The drainage channels from the Saskatchewan Plain to the Manitoba Plain are wide and divide the Manitoba several highs known from the north to south as the , Duck, • and Pembina hills. The summits of these highs rise from 152 to 304 m (1000 feet) above the level of the Manitoba Plain.

The Saskatchewan Plain is separated from the third level or Alberta Plain by the Missouri Coteau. It is a step-like rise from 60 to 152 m (500 feet) that does not mark the elevation from one plain to another as strikingly as does the 1. Manitoba Pl>tn • ·· g•H>era!ly k1ss than 305m 4. Alberta Plateau- generally 610 m with upland areas 610 to 916 m. <~Manitoba f:.euJrpment ·-boundary between 1 and 2. Approximately 400 m. 2. Saskatchewan P!a-i0 between 460 to 790 m. with upland meas up to 915 m. 5. Peace River lowland - generally 305 to 61 0 meters . .,.«'"'Missouri Coteau- between 2 and 3. Generally 610 to 915 m with highs ove1 1220 m. 3. Alberta Plain generally berweon 610 to 915 m with upland areas 915 to 1220 and k>eal highs 6. Fort Nelson lowland -generally 305 to 610 local areas over 61 0 m. over 1220 m. 7. Great Slave Plain generally less thlln 305 m

I - '""'-· --

Bay

~ N I /

I /

/

SccJie : I million 100 50 0 100 mi --- 200 100 200 km FIGURE 5 PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVlSIONS OF THE INTERIOR PLAINS 95° 13

Manitoba Escarpment. It forms, however, a convenient dividing line to separate the plains to the east, which in general are above 305 m (1,000 feet) ASL, from those above 610 m (2000 feet) to the west. The front of the Missouri Coteau is almost everywhere covered by glacial drift. It seems possible that the Coteau acted as a barrier to ice advancement at certain glacial periods, and the generally thicker deposits of glacial drift to the east of the escarpment, as compared to the west, can be accounted for in part by this assumption.

The third level or Alberta Plain stretches from the Missouri Coteau to the foothills. It is in general like the Saskatchewan Plain except, as mentioned previously, the surficial deposits are thinner. There is only one tertiary plateau in the Saskatchewan Plain region, namely, the Turtle Mountain, which occurs along the boundary between Manitoba and the U.S.A. There are however, a number of such residuals in the Alberta Plains. Chief among these are the Wood Mountain Plateau along the Saskatchewan-U.S.A. border, and the Cypress Plateau which straddles the Saskatchewan-Alberta border.

The foregoing threefold division of the Interior Plains is useful for de­ scriptive purposes. The actual decrease or increase in elevation in passing from either west to east, or visa versa, is small in comparison to the general down­ ward or upward slope across the plains. For example, Winnipeg, Manitoba, is 230 m ASL, while Medicine Hat, Alberta, which is almost on the same north latitude as Winnipeg, but 1170 km (731 miles) to the west, is 660 m ASL.

The region is mainly undulating landscapes whose beauty during the changing seasons leaves an impression not easily erased. Principal Rivers and Drainage Basins of the Interior Plains

The small portion of the Gulf of Mexico Draimage Basin which oceurs in the Interior Plains is indicated on Fig. 6. This basin drains 32 013 km2. The drainage is through those portions of the Milk River 'vhich traverse. Alberta before joining the Missouri River in Montana, U.S.A.

The majority of the Interior Plain is within the west portion of the Hudson Bay Drainage Basin. The major rivers within this area are indicated on Fig. 6. The Belly, Bmv, and Red Deer rivers in Alberta drain 23 042, 28 738, and 47 379 km2 respectively. The South Saskatchewan drains 169 580 km2 and the North Saskatchewan 141 618 km2, the Churchill 299 030 km2 and the Manitoba portion of the Red River drains 164 143 km2.

The northwest portion of the Interior Plains is part of the Arctie Drainage Basin. Within this section of the Interior Plain the Hay River drains 66 537 km2 the Peace River 150 162 km2, and the Athabasca River 152 492 km2.

The rivers of the Interior Plains were used as exploration routes and for transporting goods during the,fur trading era in Canada. It is of interest to note that from the head waters of the Bow River, down the South Saskatchewan and North Saskatchewan rivers across Lake Winnipeg and down the Nelson to Hudson Bay there are 2646 km of continuous waterway. It is also of interest to note that nearly all the waters in the major rivers have their source in the Cordilleran Region, and despite their large drainage basins, additional waters added to them, as they traverse the Interior Plains, is very restricted. 1 GULF Of MEXiCO BASIN. 6Qo/' ', I C>l--- .... ~ ...... 2 HUDSON BAY BASIN. I ~ u / --...... / /l'/ 3 ARCTIC BASIN I I I I I -~ - ;.__'__;/ I

Hudson

Bay

1-' ~..:;_,

:l~..u;~ i : i ~ mllilvu wo mi 100 so

~;~·------, 95° ~· o 200 km 200 100

FIGURE 6 PRINCIPAl RIVERS AND DRAINAGE SASINS OF THE INTERIOR PLAINS 15

Soil Temperatures of the Interior Plains

The various Soil Temperature regions of the Interior Plains and their extent is illustrated in Fig. 7. The criteria for the various temperature regimes are as follows.

SUBARCTIC

Very Cold

Mean annual soil temperature <-7°C to <2°C Mean summer soil temperature 5°C to <8°C Growing Season >5°C, <120 days Growing Season degree days >5 0 C, <555 No Thermal Period >l5°C

Regions in this class have widespread permafrost. Some profiles do not have permafrost within a depth of 1 m.

CRYOBOREAL

Cold to Moderately Cold

Mean annual soil temperature 2 to <8 0 C Mean summer soil temperature 8°C to <15°C Growing season >5°C, 120 to 220 days Growing season degree days >5°C, 555 to <1,250 Thermal period >l5°C, no significant days Thermal period degree days >15°C, <33

So Lls wi 1 h aquic regimes remain frozen for portions of the growing season. Organic soils having discontinuous or localized permafrost should be classified as subarctic.

Cold

Growing season >5 0 C, 120 to 180 days Growing season degree days 5°C, 555 to 1,110

Moderately Cold

Growing season >5 0 C, <220 days Growing season degree days >5°C, 1,110 tn <1,250

BOREAL

Cool to Moderately Cool

Hean annual soil temperature 5 0 C to <8 0 C Hean summer soil temperature 15°C to 5°C, 120 to <220 dnys Growing season degree days >5°C, 1,250 to <1,72.0 Thermal period >15°C, <120 days Thermal period degree days >15°C, 33 to 222 BOREAL: Moderately Cool CRYOBOREAL: Moderately Cold

fllliiiill BOREAL: Cool CRYOBOREAL: Cold to Moderately Cold

CRYOBOREAL: Cold

-...__, SUBARCTIC: Very Cold, to CRYOBOREAL --,,;--,

Bay

,_, m

/ / CORDILLERAN / /

,~

~

Scale 1 1 0 million

lOO 50 0 100 mi I I 200 100 200 km J 95°

fiGURE 7 SOIL TEMPERATURE OF THE INTERIOR PlAINS HUMID Slight moisture deficit to ~;";l SUBHUMID: Significant moisture deficit 60('-, SUBHUMID: Significant moisture deficit ~ I I -,~ ~ SUBHUMID to HUMID SEMIARID: Moderately severe moisture deficit ;~ I~­ I SUBARID: Severe moisture deficit I / I I />_------, __ ) ,·f f

hucfson /

-_;:c / Bay

;! ,_. / '-! / / / / / / / 120";,"

~

Scale 1:1 0 million

100 50 0 100 mi

200 100 200 km

FIGURE 8 SOIL .MOISTURE OF THE INTERIOR PlAINS 18

Cool

Growing season Growing season ,250 to <1,388 Thermal

Moderately Cool

1,388 to <1,720

i sture In or a ins

The extent various Soil Moisturt' Regions which occur in the Interior Plains is illustrated in The criteria for the various moisture regions are as follows.

HUMID Soil is not for as long as 90 consecutive days in most years. moisture ts in the growing season. Water deficit 2. to em.

SUBHUMID Soil is in some years when soil temperature is >5°C. ture defic.its within the growing season. \-Jater deficits <12.7

SEMIARID most years when soil deficits in the season.

SUBARID Soil is most of the time when soil temperature

90 consecutive , occur when the soil is mois .

0 nterior Plains

By utilizing the in Figs. and 8 an Agro-Climatic map for the Interior Plains The climatic para- meters for the In Plains are as follows.

Climatic Mean Degree-days ral comments subregion annual above 5.5°C ) (ern) l >90 1225-1670 Climate is :c;uJtable to permit growing of a 1 crops that an' i cCJ1 tu the prairie ------

3H I I I I I \ I I

I 1-' I \.0 I I \ \ i~ ' "'""" \ \ 5H " ) :'--;~<'>7..~\-::;. \ \ -:>.::0 \ \ ~ \ \ "tin. \._ l \ } \ lrandon •Wmnipeg \ -~-I

--SASKATCHEWAN _____ IL---- MANiT'l5BA -----'"'

RGURf 9 AGRO-CLIMATIC SUBREGIONS OF THE INTERIOR PLAINS 20

2A 30--40 >90 1330·-16 70 Areas where the amount of pre- cipitation in approximately 50% of the years has been a limiting factor to growth crop

3A 27-35 90-120 1330-1670 Areas where the amount of rain has been a severe limit- factor to crop growth; a 2 year rotation is practised to the virtual exclusion of all other rotations

2H 40-50 75-90 1060-1225 Areas where amount of precipi- tat ion is adequate but where wheat has suffered some frost in approximately 30% of the years

3H 27- 75 1000-1112 Areas where the amount of pre- cipitation has usually been adequate but where it is not considered practical to grow wheat because of frequency of frost

'iH 27-3 <60 <950 Areas where the amount of pre- tation has usually been uate bu where average frost- free period has been so short that it is not practical to grow cereal crops; that is, only hay crops are recommended.

* In Alberta south of latitude 55°N, the annual precipitation has averaged 42 to 47 em.

ion I or Plains

The climax vegetation of the Interior Plains is the result of the adaptation of the various the climatic environment in which are viable. The common bo for the in the various vegetative regions of the Interior ted in as follows.

Common Name Botanical Name

LOW GRASS Grama Grass Bozde Zoua lis Wheatgrass smithii Needlegrass

MEDIUM GRASS s Agropyron dasytachyum Grama Grass Bou te Zoua curtipendu la 8tipa v1>Pidula 21

TALL GRASS Bluestem Andropoeon furca-tus

BROADLEAF TREES with GRASSLAND Aspen Populus tPemulo-£des Bur Oak (Man.) Needlegrass Fescue

NEEDLELEAF TREES with some Black Spruce BROADLEAF TREES, BOGS, and Tamarack SWAMP Jack Pine Pinus banksiana Aspen Populus tremuloides Balsam Poplar Populus tacmnahacca Sedges Carex spp. Sphagnum Moss Sphagnv.m spp.

NEEDLELEAF TREES with some White Spruce Picea glauca BOREAL BROADLEAF TREES Black Spruce Picea mariana Aspen Populus tremuloides

NEEDLELEAF with SHRUB and Jack Pine Pinus banksiana BARREN PATCHES Black Spruce Picea mariana

NEEDLELEAF TREES with WESTERN White Spruce P1:cea g lauc:a CONIFEROUS SPECIES Black Spruce Pic:ea marviana Lodgepole Pine Pinw~ conl~o.r•La

The native vegetation is extremely important in soil formation because the type of vegetation determines the type of organic material added to soils during their formation under virgin conditions. Vegetation also affects the soil climate, and the soil climate in turn affects the productlon of vegetation and controls tbe rate of its decomposition by soil microorganisms.

Under a grassland cover the grasses and herbaceous plants grow as perennials and produce organic matter within the soil. The herbaceous plants and grasses go into a resting stage in the winter time, but annually some of the roots die and thus organic matter is added to the soil between the soil particles or aggre­ gates. Grassland vegetation may add organic matter both within the soil and as a grass mat on the surface, unless the latter is destroyed by fire. This method of deposition of organic matter explains the high organic matter content in the upper portion of, and within the profile of, grassland soils. Such soils with a high organic content are invariably more fertile than soils developed under forest.

On the other hand, it may be noted that the roots of the trees are perennial, and under forest the organic matter added to the soils consists of leaves, etc., which fall on the surface of the ground in the fall of the year. Thus, under timber vegetation, organic matter :i.s added on the soil in the form of forest litter, rather than in the soil as is the case with grassland soils. Hence the organic matter content in soil profiles under forest is invariably much lower than in grassland soils. Under coniferous woods the forest l:ltter is much thinner than under deciduous trees and the needles of coniferous trees, which fall on the surface, do not decompose as readily as the leaves of deciduous trees.

It should be noted further that under forest the vegetation is rarely all of one type and there may be different levels of plant cover. It is rare in the ~ tOW GRASS-· Grama Grass, Wheatgrass, Needlegrass. BROAD LEAF TREES WITH PATCHES OF GRASSLAND -Aspen, Bur Oak, Needlegrass, Fescue. MEDIUM GRASS- Wheatgrass, Grama Grass, Naedlegrass. ~~~;;a NEEOlELEAF TREES WITH SOME BROADLEAF TREES AND PATCHES OF BOGS AND SWAMPS- t=-=-:J : Black Spruce, Tamarack, Jack Pme, Poplar, Sedges. Sphagnum Moss.

TAll GRASS- Bluestern. ~:•:•: NEEDLELEAF TREES WITH SOME BOREAL BROAD LEAF TREES- Spruce, Aspen.

NEEDLELEAF TREES WITH SHRUB AND BARREN PATCHES- JIICk Pine, Black Spruce.

NEEDLE LEAF TREES WITH WESTERN CONIFEROUS SPECIES- Spruce, Lodgepole Pine.

Hudson

Bay

/

f'\.) N

, CORDillERAN "Oo.c "/,~REGION / 12(JC ......

......

Scale l: 1 0 minion I -:;><48 • A .• 11 I AO ,.,,..,..,, __j 100 50 Q 100 mi

200 100 0 200 km fiGURE 10 VEGETATION OF THE INTERIOR PLAINS 95° 23

Interior Plains to find trees without any other associated vegetation. There may be a crown covering of trees, a shrub cover below the trees, an herbaceous cover below the shrubs, and a cover of mosses below the herbaceous covering. The extent to which these various forms of vegetation exist affects the organic depo­ sition. Under very humid forest conditions mosses will be found growing pro­ fusely and the forest mat will consist of raw acid humus under which acid soils of low fertility are generally developed. Under less humid conditions mosses may be more or less absent and the forest .litter may be formed largely from the leaves of the trees and shrubs.

Where the leaf mat is formed chiefly from the leaves of trees and shrubs, in the broadleaf trees with patches of grassland region, the humus produced by the organic deposition is often neutral in reaction and the soils are generally fertile. This is also found to be the case with the humus added to most of the Dark Gray Chernozemic and thicker Dark Gray Luvisol (Dark Gray Wooded) soils. The humus in the intensely leached Luvisolic, Brunisolic, and Podzolic soils of the northern forests is generally acidic. The forest soils with high acid humus are less fertile than the forest. soils with neutral to slightly acid humus.

It is apparent, therefore, that the production and addition of organic matter is determined by vegetation and climate. The decomposition (or humification) of organic matter is also determined by climate, because the latter affects the rate of activity of the soil micro-organisms. Under virgin soil conditions the pro­ duction and the destruction of organic matter reach an equilibrium with the soil climate, so that the normal soils of any region tend to possess a high or low content of organic matter within the soil profile that is more or less character­ istic for each of the respective soil zones.

Under cultivation, the native growths are destroyed by "breaking", plants with different root systems are sown, and the plant products are removed as crops. Moreover, most of the crops (cereals) grown in the Interior Plains occupy the soil for only part of the open season. Consequently the substitution of culti­ vated crops for virgin crops upsets the rate and kind of the production and addition of organic matter to soils; and further, the use of fallow, etc., brings about conditions which favor more rapid destruction. Hence under cultivation the organic level of grassland soils falls to lower levels until a new equilibrium between production and destruction of organic matter is reached. This equilibrium level is further reduced by the mechanical removal of finely divided organic matter through the action of wind.

On the other hand, it should be pointed out that when soils which are low in organic matter within the soil are brought under cultivation (as in the case of the forest soils from which the leaf mat has been removed), the organic matter produced and added to the soils may be increased by replacing timber with grass vegetation. Zonal Soils of the Interior Plains

The major types of native vegetation reflect the broad differences in climate that occur in the Interior Plains, and the combined influence of these two factors results in the occurrence of several major soil belts or zones. Starting with the southeast section of Alberta the combination of relatively low rainfall, high summer temperature; and occurrence of warm westerly winds (the 11 chinook" 24

wind effect) rela The above con­ ditions are reflected in the ils, brown surface The are related matter content of the soil, and the arid section of the Interior referred to as the Brown Soil Zone.

eastward and northward from the Brown soils, the climate becomes less arid and the vegetation taller. As a result surface of the soil become progressively darker because of the corre increase in the amount of organic matter accumulated in the soil. Thus the Dark Brown and Black soil zones are zed. These zones are characterized patches of wooded vegetation in the more moist and cooler locations.

In the northern and northeastern tions of the settled area the climate is more humid and cooler, and forest replaces the grassland vegetation. The effect of the climate, wooded vegetation, and the dominant kinds of soil micro-organisms results in the formation of soils with a grayish coloured surface layer which, in virgin soils, is overlain a of leaves and par ed organic matter. This is the Soil Zone.

In addition to the or soil zones, transitional belts between zones, and "islands" of zonal soils also occur. These areas the effects of local variations in climate, vegetation drainage, and parent materials, or combinations of these factors. For , Black, Dark and soils occur in the grassland-forest transition area. Dark Brown, Black, and soils occur on the s Hills, where the a cooler, more moist climate than that of the lower plains Brown soils. Again Black soils may occur on the north and east facing areas in the northern portions of the Dark Brown soil zone.

Soil colors can be determined either for zonal connotation or profile de- scriptions the "Pocket Edition of the Nunsell Soil Color Charts". The color charts used more for soils of the Interior Plains are indexed as lOYR, 2 5Y SYR 7. SYR and the "Gley chart.

The organic matter in the mineral soils of the Interior Plains ranges from around one to nearly percent of the soil by weight, the percentage varying with climatic conditions, character of the vegetation, and type of soil. The matter is derived from the decomposition of plant remains by living of the o matter is or o lightly decom- , is present as a dark brown to black material called humus, which is te resistant to future decay the greater part of the matter occurs in the surface of the soil. Al the proportion of organic matter in mineral soils is small, its effect on their physical and chemical nature is o great tance. In the first the organic matter is a source and storehouse of the element nitrogen and it also contains mineral elements required It is also a source of energy for many and conditions of moisture storage, structure, and aeration of the soil. Hence the maintenance of an adequate supply of matter is an tant part of il management. matter is maintained tubble and straw, green manure crops, or !1:k1.nure the soil. 25

The areal extent of the major soil. zon~s is Jllu~trnted in Fig. ll and th~ relationships between the vegetation, climate, and productivity record are as follows.

1. Brown soils of the short grass prairie, the most arid section of the Interior Plains. Wide variation in crop yields and frequent severe droughts.

2. Dark Brown soils of the mixed grassland prairie, less arid than Brown zone. Variable crop yields but less frequent severe droughts.

3. Dark Brown - Black transitional zone between true 2 and 4; but more like 4 than 2.

4. Black soils of the parkland region. Better moisture conditions and better average yields than on the prairie. Severe droughts rarely experienced.

5. Dark Gray soils of the parkland-forest transitional area. Good moisture conditions, high crop yields.

6. Gray and Dark Gray soils of the agricultural region in the forested areas south of 55°N and Gray soils in the forested area north of latitude 55°. There are good moisture conditions but the yields of the cultivated soils are lower due to lower native fertility as compared to zone 5.

The foregoing comments regarding the climate and yield indicate their vari­ ability in the various soil zones of the Interior Plains. The following data indicates the importance of the clay and organic matter content of soils in regard to the water available for crop growth.

Relation of Clay and Organic Matter in the Soil and Water Available to Plants*

Available Soil Clay % Organic Matter % Soil Water %

Dark Brown heavy clay 67.2 3.6 20.1 Thick Black silty clay loam 37.1 11.7 19.9 Black clay 44.9 10.0 17.3 Black clay loam 31.5 6.0 13.4 Brown loam 17.4 2.7 11.2 Brown very fine sandy loam 11.9 3.5 9.4 Gray Wooded sand 1.6 0.9 2.3

* From W.L. Hutcheon -- The Relation of Clay and Organic Matter to Soil Moisture Equilibrium Points. Scientific Agriculture, Vol. 23, 1942.

Under the dry semi-arid sub-humid climates of the Interior Plains, soil moisture is most often the main limiting factor in crop yields. The increase in organic matter between the Brown and Black soil zones is accompanied·by pro­ gressively darker surface colors. The relationship between organic constituents and soil color are the basis for the establishment of soil zones. It is import­ ant to compare soils of similar genesis when identifying different zonal colors. SOIL ZONES

~Brown~ Black

Ji>o••·o~ Dark Brown Dark Grey r. 00 rn• Dark Brown- Black Grey -r-- 0~~,~ Hudson ~ Say

N 01

......

Scale 1 : 1 0 million

100 so 0 100 mi L---~--~------J ! r------,------, 100 100 o 200 km 100° FIGURE 11 ZONAL SOILS OF THE INTERIOR PLAINS 95° ?7

For example, Dark Brown Solonetz soils may have a lighter surface color than Dark Brown Chernozemic soils because they are lower in organic matter, but they will be darker in color and higher in organic matter than Brown Solonetz soils. Main Types of Farming in the Interior Plains

The main types of farming and their extent across the Interior Plains are illustrated in Fig. 12.

Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta contain 75% of the farm land in Canada. Precipitation that averages only 343 to 508 mm a year and a climate of bitter winters and short hot summers favor the production of high quality hard red spring wheat, by far the largest single crop in all three provinces. Rangeland and pasture also support a large cattle population and the rearing of livestock in general is a major industry.

Manitoba has the highest rainfall of the three provinces and an average of 100 frost-free days, resulting in more varied farming. Wheat and other grains predominate but rapeseed is also grown, and mixed farming with an emphasis on livestock is common. Vegetables, sugar beets, and sunflowers are grown south of Winnipeg and processed locally. Dairy farms are common around Winnipeg, hog production and sheep farms are widespread, and beef cattle are found in the south­ west. There are also some poultry farms of local importance.

Saskatchewan grows about two thirds of all Canada's wheat and large quantities of other grains, aided by light spring rainfall and long sunny days. Rapeseed is a popular crop and irrigation assists vegetable and forage crops. Mixed farming is common in the north where rainfall is higher, and turkey farming as well as egg and broiler chicken production are increasing. Hogs and beef cattle are also of importance. Some commercial flocks of sheep exist.

Alberta is second to Saskatchewan in grain production but has more beef cattle than any other province. These are concentrated in large ranches in the south and in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. Cattlefeeding operations are expanding and Alberta is a leading producer of hogs and sheep. Irrigation in the south aids in producing canning crops, sugar beets, and forage crops. Dairy and poultry products are prominent in the mixed-farm economy of the province. In the northwest the Peace River district produces significant quantities of grain and livestock.

The following figures indicate the number of farms which are involved in the principal type.s of farm enterprises in the Prairie Provinces.

Type of Farm Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta

Dairy 1 614 701 2 490 Cattle, hogs, sheep (excl. dairy) 9 829 15 913 25 843 Livestock Combinations 1 418 2 269 1 612 Poultry 519 210 644 Wheat 2 738 26 516 3 893 Small Grains (excl. wheat) 7 249 13 900 9 105 Field Crops (excl. grain) 376 112 814 Field Crop Combinations 767 1 808 1 303 Fruits and Vegetables 65 14 40 Mixed Livestock and Crop 2 721 5 433 3 587 60"1'- 1 .. ----_ MIXED FARMING WHEAT GROWING GRAZING I . ---.___ I I --...... _ I I .. -, -- ! / I I j

Day -[

·~

I

/[ N ._, / c / /

CORDilLERAN

\ \.. \

---- ......

Scale 1: 10 million

100 100 ml

200 100 200 km

FIGURE 12 MAIN TYPES OF FARMING IN THE INTERIOR PlAINS 29

Due mainly to 3djustments caus by ic pressures the number of farm units in the Interior Plains is decreasing but their size is increasing. The size and numbers of farm units in the Prairie Provinces is as follows.

Size Manitoba s k:1tchewan. Alherta

Under 1.2 hectares 146 Ul L'04 L 2-3.6 532 301 700 4.0-27.9 1 713 886 2 521 28.3-96.8 6 391 7 213 10 609 97. 2-161.6 7 739 12 411 12 606 162. 0-226.4 6 066 11 780 9 128 226.8-307.4 4 979 12 638 8 196 307.8-453.2 4 381 15 316 8 478 453.6-647.6 1 910 9 261 4 846 648 and over 1 124 7 033 5 414

Total 34 981 76 970 62 702

The improved agricultural land which includes land in crop, land in pasture, and land in sununerfallow amounts to approximately 5.2 mi1lion ha in Hanitoba, 18.6 million ha in Saskatchewan, and 11.3 million ha in Alberta. The unimproved L:md utilized for agriculture in the aforementioned provinces is 2.4, 7.7, and 8.5 million ha respectively. It is of interest to note that in Manitoba slightly less than t of the improved agricultural land is in summerfallow, while in Saskatchewan it is one-third, and in Alberta one-quarter.

The following figures relate to the area occupied by various field crops in the Prairie Provinces.

Crop Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta (Area in Hectares)

Wheat 1 215 000 6 237 000 1 822 500 Oats 486 000 769 500 688 500 Barley 729 000 1 620 000 2 065 500 Fall Rye 36 450 135 675 Ul 625 Spring Rye 810 6 07 ') 10 125 Peas 16 200 2 430 11 745 Buckwheat 16 200 Flax 303 750 222 750 81 000 Rapeseed 202 500 607 500 486 000 Sunflower 12 150 Mustard 16 200 81 000 !+!+ 5 50 Shelled Corn 2 025 Potatoes 14 175 1 620 9 315 Tame Hay 506 250 810 000 1 498 500 Fodder Corn 11 340 Sugar Beets 10 935 14 175

The following figures relate to the area occupied by and the productivity of selected grain and oil crops in the Prairie Provinces in 1974. 30

Crop Production Production ( tare ) t ric tons) (Bushels)

') ,~ , Wheat 9 "·_) l 00 4 7 '3 000 499 M from 22.9 M acre Oats ] SU9 200 2 851 200 198 M from 4.8 M acre barley 4 !t03 600 7 970 400 369 M from 10.9 M acre 323 200 1438 480 17.4 M from 0.8 M acre Flaxseed 606 000 360 360 14.3 N from 1.5 M acre Rapeseed l 292 800 l 310 400 52 M from 3.2 N acre

1 acre = 0.404 hectares, 1 pound = 0.45 kilograms Pounds per bushel Wheat 60, Oats 34, Barley 48, Rye 56, Flax 56, Rape 50 in U.S. measure; Oat.s 39, Barley 50, Flax 52 in Imperial measure. Canada Land Inventory in the Interior Plains

The Canada Land Inventory (CLI) is a comprehensive survey of land capability and use designed to provide a basis for resource and land use planning. It includes assessments of land capability for agriculture, forestry, recreation, wildlife, present land use, and pilot land use planning projects in each province. It was undertaken as a federal-provincial program and is administered under the r lcultural Rehabilitation and Development Act (ARDA) of June, 1961.

Competition for land for alternative uses and increased government economic and social planning in rural areas has made apparent the need for improved know­ of the productive capability of Canada's lands, their location, and extent.

Canada's relatively t transition from a primarily agricultural economy to a primarily urban-industrial-economy resulted in changes in land use; further changes may be expected as new economic and demographic changes occur. Effective planning for change of this nature requires an information base of the physical quality of lands and soils and the location and quantity of each type.

The CLI was designed primarily for planning rather than for management. It is of a reconnaissance type, it provides information essential to land development planning at the municipal, provincial, and federal levels of government. It does not provide the detailed information required for management of individual parcels of land, nor for land planning in small watersheds, local government units, etc. The CLI, which uses a computer mapping technique, will facilitate more detailed future studies as more detailed land capability information becomes available and as socio-economic factors change.

The broad ective of the Canada Land Inventory is to classify lands as to their capabilities; to obtain a firm estimate of the extent and location of each land class, and to encourage use of CLI data in planning.

A vast amount of information on Canada's land resources is being gathered, stored, , and in a way that permits the inventory to be a valuable tool for rural development planning across Canada. Lands are classified according to:

ility for use in agriculture, forestry, recreation,

- their use ... 31

The area covered by the Canada Land Inventory program in the Interior Plains is depicted in Fig. 13. The basics, in brief, relative to the determining the land capability for agriculture, are as follows.

The agricultural capability inventory provides information, in the form of maps and statistical tables, on the location, quality, and extent of land suitable for the production of annual field crops, forage, improved pasture, and native grazing. The data are used at municipal, provincial, and national levels for planning the efficient use of agricultural resources. The information is particularly useful to delineate agricultural lands, identify submarginal farm­ land, consolidate farms into viable units, establish an equitable assessment base, and indicate where urban and industrial expansion might take place without unduly reducing agricultural production.

The capability inventory is based on the interpretation of the data provided by systematic soil surveys, generally at the scale of one or two centimeters to the kilometer. Through interpretation, the soils are ranked according to their general suitability for the production of common field crops, taking into account the effects of climatic and soil limitations in a system of mechanized farming.

The classification was developed jointly by the then National Soil Survey Committee and the Federal and Provincial ARDA administrations. In this classifi­ cation, the mineral soils are grouped into seven classes depending on the degree of limitation, and into thirteen subclasses according to the kinds of limitation. Class 1 soils have no significant limitations and, together with Classes 2 and 3, are considered capable of sustained production of common field crops. Class 4 soils are physically marginal for sustained arable agriculture. Soils in Class 5 are unsuitable for annual field crops but suitable for forage production and improved pasture, while those in Class 6 are restricted in their use. to native grazing. Class 7 is unsuitable for agriculture use. Organic soils are not in­ cluded in the classification but are shown separately on the maps.

Thus, on the basis of soil survey information, mi.neral soils are grouped into seven classes. Soils in Classes 1, 2, 3, and 4 are considered capable of sustained use for cultivated field crops; those in Classes 5 and 6 only for perennial forage crops, and those in Class 7 for neither.

Important criteria on which the classification system is based are:

- Soils will be well managed and cropped using a largely mechanized system; - Land requiring improvements (including clearing) that can be made econo- mically by the owner is classed according to its limitations or hazards in use as if the improvements have been made. Land requiring improvements deemed beyond the means of the individual owner is classed according to its present condition; - The following factors are not considered: distances to market, type of roads, loc'ltion, size of farms, type of ownership, cultural patterns, skill or resources of individual operators, and hazard of crop damage by storms.

The classification does not include ility of soils for trees, tree fruits, small fruits, ornamental plants, recreation, or wildlife. tural limi of

lass l Class 2 Class 7 (Jn )

2 Sask. 8 ta. 11 109

i s

is an fer le farm-

landscape, pattern of of of

post­ immense f marking, and

The of By be wi 22, west of the 64.8

lands land was to 60(- ~~

1 . ·------/ ---- ~ --h ,1 ·-~~ ;-~------.

. ' 7 -- -,

Bav

c.; w

CORDillERAN

'-....

Scale l : 1 0 million

100 50 0 100 mi

200 100 0 200 km 95°

FIGURE 1 3 AREA COVERED BY CANADA LAND INVENTORY IN THE INTERIOR PlAINS 34

"An aura of mystery and conjecture has, to some extent, surrounded the plac­ ing of the Winnipeg Meridian, ever since it was surveyed and marked on the ground. A meridian line the trace of a passing through any given point on the earth's surface and the two poles of the earth's axis as well. The records indicate that astronomical observations were taken at Pembina to determine the exact location of the international boundary in that vicinity. Thereupon the initial or start point for the Meridian was fixed 10 miles to the west on that boundary. The of the Principal Meridian to the prime meridian passing through Greenwich, , is expressed by the longitude description of the former line. This has been reliably ascertained to be 97°27' 28.4111 West longitude.

Why then, it may be asked, was not this Principal Meridian not run at 98° West longitude? To have done this would have been more in keeping with the pattern of other initial meridians subsequently laid down and tied in with the Dominion Lands Survey System. Each was placed exactly 4 degrees apart, commencing at 102° West longitude, the location of the 2nd Initial Meridian. Astronomical observations were taken at Pembina in 1869 to determine the position of the international boundary after which the initial point of the Principal Meridian was fixed as already indicated. But why 10 miles west of Pembina? All available evidence indicates that this particular point was selected in order to avoid the then settled, cultivated areas as well as a belt of timber spreading along the Red River. The point could not be fixed as far west of the river, however, as to be inconvenient for dependent surveys proposed for the vicinity of Fort Garry. It is also possible that, in the absence of any reliable map of the area, it was considered that the 10 mile margin would allow ample clearance of settled river properties as well as the wooded areas."1

The Principal Meridian supplied the main backbone of the Dominion Lands Survey System. The Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Initial Meridians, west of the Principal Meridian, all marked on the ground, were lines only slightly less vital to the successful application of the entire western Canadian survey structure.

These Principal Meridians are adopted as starting places for convenience in surveying and to maintain accuracy in the laying out of the townships and sections. The first meridian from which the survey of the western provinces was begun is a little west of Winn:Lpeg and is known as the 1st principal meridian. This meridian is almost at degree of longitude 98, the others already mentioned are at degree 106, 110, 114, and 118 respectively.

From these meridians as starting places lines called "Base Lines" are surveyed due westward. The first of these, called the "First Base Line", is the southern boundary of Canada, the 49th paralleL Other base lines parallel with the First are run at intervals nortlnvard of 24 miles and these are numbered in regular succession.

The method of survey is thus: From a principal meridian a base line is run· westward. On this base line beginning at the meridian, six sections of the exact width of 80 chains are marked off with a road allowance one chain wide on the west side of each section. surveyor's "chain" is 66 feet long and 80 chains make 1 mile. The six sections with their road allowance make up the width of the township. The township and the section boundary lines are then run due north

35, Volume , Men and Heridians bTD.W. Thomson. 1967. Queen's Printer, Ottawa. 35 and south of the base lines for a depth of 12 miles each way which is half way to the adjacent base lines on either side.

Owing to the convergence and divergence of all meridian lines these town­ ship lines will converge north of the base line and diverge to the south of it, hence the lines run north from one base will not connect with those run south from the next base line above it when the come together, but will neces- sitate a og". The outlines of the are completed by joining the corners with east-and-west lines and the line between townships on which the jogs occur, that is midway between the base lines, is known as the "correction line". (See Item 1, Fig. 14).

Townships are numbered consecutively northward starting at number 1 on the International Border. Tiers of townships known as "ranges" are numbered conse­ cutively from one meridian to the next. (See Item 1, Fig. 14).

Townships are divided into ions containing 640 acres (259.2 ha), more or less, and sections into "Quarter Sections" containing 160 acres (64.8 ha), and again into "Legal Subdivisions'\ containing 40 acres (6.2 ha), more or less.

The 36 sections forming a township are numbered consecutively in rows beginn­ ing with number 1 in the southeast corner and proceeding along the south boundary to number 6 in the southwest corner. The next row above is numbered from west to east beginning with number 7 immediately north of number 6 and reaching number 12 at the east boundary. This order of numbering is followed through the township ending with number 36 in the northeast corner (See Item 2, Fig. 14).

Between every two rows of sections a road allowance of 20.1 m (one chain) in width running east and west is provided and these, with the road allowance already mentioned on the west of the sections, gives access on three sides of every section.

Quarter sections are not numbered but are known by the points of the compass as "the Northeast quarter of Section 10, Township 30, Range 12, West of the 2nd Meridian; the Southwest Quarter of Section 18, Township 22, Range 14, West of the 3rd Meridian", and so on.

Legal Subdivisions of the section are numbered from one to sixteen beginning with number one in the southeast corner of the section and proceeding, as in the numbering of sections in the township, to number 16 in the northeast corner of the section (See Item 3, Fig. 14).

For many years parties of surveyors were sent out each summer by the Department of the Interior in Ottawa, each surveyor being required to keep a diary and to prepare an official report of the work done by the survey crew under his direction. These diaries and reports were filed with the department and extracts from these reports were published. Of especial interest are the descriptions given of the character of the land; these referred to such as vegetation, water supply, and the general appearance of the landscape. These were of great value to prospective settlers, especially since the surveyor usually described in a general way the type of soil in the area and rated the land as to its suit­ ability for agricultural purposes. SYSTEM Of SURVEY DOMINION LANDS

2. Plan of a 3. Plan of o section 3rd sys!em

w 5 6 7 8

3

s

and range system

Range Numbers Shown Thus Ill !II IV

l 2 3 4

FIGURE 14 !..AND SURVEY SYSTEM IN THE INTERIOR PlAINS 37

Under this survey system provisions were made for road allowances, for corrections made necessary because of the curvature of the earth's surface, and for monumentation. While changes were made over the years in the survey system and there were even some exceptions, particularly for a few river lot surveys, the basic pattern of survey followed Western Canada was tht• square:• township of thirty six sections.

As mentioned previously the thirty six sectiuns each were further subdivided into quarter sections each of 160 acres. The section became a common unit of land holding and formed the basic unit of the homestead system. As shown in Item 2, Fig. 14, the sections were numbered from the southeast corner and then across the township in alternate directions. In contrast, the section numeration of townships in the United States began in the northeast corner. In the fertile area all even-numbered sections were reserved for homesteading pre-emption, except for one and three quarter to two sections of land in each township which were reserved as Hudson's Bay Company lands. Sections eleven and twenty - nine in each township were reserved as school lands; these were offered for sale to provide financial support for the school system. Odd-numbered sections might be used for railway or other land grants or offered for sale.

So as to settle the vacant lands of the North-West Territories the Dominion Government adopted a free homestead grant system by Order-in-Council in 1871. Subsequent legislation made changes in the regulations under which title to home­ stead could be obtained, but the basic system remained the same. Entry for a homestead of one quarter section was permitted on the payment of a $10.00 fee by males over 18 years of age and for widows who were the sole head of a family. Proxy entries under certain conditions were accepted. In order to obtain his patent or title the homesteader was required to fulfill certain conditions 'as to buildings, cultivation, and residence. He also had to become a naturalized citizen. In some cases a homesteader was allowed a pre-emption which permitted him to purchase a quarter adjoining his homestead for a small payment, usually $3.00 per acn~. 38

IL ROUTE

accompany the tour log for each c characteristics 0 ic

maps was derived super- revious . 9 on the soil zone of divided in rphic and in J9

LEGEND

SOIL ZONE (Right Symbol} 2H-4 & 5

Gwy & Dcrk G

2H-4 & 5

2H-3 I I -./T\ I '--.___ I \ 2A-2 I \

2A-1

I ) I // Brooks I \ 2A-1 ')\ I \ ""-, \ \ \ I ...... , 2A- 1 ~ 3A-1 'I ----....._ I L.., ---~- I . \ ------~------

FIGURE 15 SOil-CliMATIC SUBZONES OF CENTRAL ALBERTA AND SOUTHWESTERN SASKATCHEWAN fiGURE 16 LEGEND fOR DAilY TOUR ROUTE MAPS

2H-6 PORTION OF DAY 1 TOUR MAP

MAP SYMBOLS

The 1 is composed of a top and bottom line as shown in 1 Texture

Fl ______Ma te ria 1 ----- Composition ic as

% ope

2 3 4 41

MATERIAL COMPOSITION+ (Second letter) Symbol Material E Loess M Morainal (glacial till) L Lacustrine F Fl al A Alluvium (recent) R Residual (local bedrock surface) +Dominant surficial material.

SOIL CAPABILITY FOR AGRICULTURE Class - Soils in this class have no significant limitations in use for crops. Class 2 Soils in this class have moderate limitations that restrict the range of crops or require moderate conservation practices. Class 3 - Soils in is class have moderately severe limitations that re- s ct the range of crops or require special conservation practices. Class 4 - Soils in this class have severe limitations that restrict the range of or require special conservation practices or both. Class 5 - Soils in this class have very severe limitations that restrict their capability to producing perennial forage crops, and improve­ ment practices are feasible. Class 6 - Soils in this ass are capable only of producing perennial forage crops, and improvement practices are not feasible. Class 7 - Soils in this class have no capability for arable culture or permanent pasture.

Subclasses C - Adverse climate. 0 - Undesirable soil structure and/or low permeability. E - Erosion. F- Fertili I - Inundation by streams or lakes. M- Moisture limitation. N - Salinity. P - Stoniness. R - Consolidated bedrock. S - Adverse soil characteristics. T - Topography. W - Excess X - Cumulative minor adverse characteristics. 0 - Organic soils. 42

OR E rst 1

on

l u H random knolls, short ridges es ide internal drainage

M as in Cypress Hills. These areas i v vall

so TEXTURE* Symbol incl (see l texture diagram below)

5 ) 6 loam(SL), gravelly loam 7 loam. 1oam(L), silt loam(Sil) 8 loam, cl loam(CL), silty clay

9 ay cl (SiC), heavy cl (HC)

*Dominant su

!00

~ 60 ~r-~~--i--~ v 2 50 w v ""~40~~~------~·

PEilCENT SAND

Soil textural classes. sand in the main textural classes of soils; the remainder t. 43

Example of Soil Capability f1ap Symbol ie. Bottom line T an area of Class 4 land with topographic and stoniness limitations. 4p

For more detailed information see: The Canada Land Inventory - 1965, Soil Capability Classification for Agriculture, Canada land Inventory, lands Directorate, Department of Environment, Ottawa. Ontario.

Solonetzic soils

Irrigated areas

Soil climatic subzone boundary

Soil geomorphic boundary 44

DAY l, ING AND Y OF BLACK AND DARK BROWN CHERNOZEMIC SOILS

Km (Mile)

0 (0) of berta and has a It after ton, nee of I\ l bert a was a, is sit- uated eventually drains nto Hudson Bay. This y explorers and fur traders. The establis rival trading posts around isl ildings. The trade of two Blackfoot I ians who travelled ove and fl~om Woodland Crees were also regular traders

y as 1846. However, the first was at St. rt Mission just area g ually attracted settlers and adian i c Railway reached beginning of accelerated an oil nery and oil well serving city cultural community. In addition it is north to c an. textu , undulating lacustrine material adja- cent River (see map legend). The soils are mainly Black C rnozemi c are Black Solonetzic. Most of the soils are very imat c data is venin Appendix B.l. More informa on on soil and classification schemes is given in the Canadian System of Soil Class i Proceedi rough the oldest commercial district ver. This dist ct was y was p nent in the before the two settlements on either At junction of Street continues junction with left lies st unin- a on of lacust ne ating

ture ada, 1978. The Canadian System of soil classification. Queens Printer, Ottawa. 1-6

2H-6

1-5

:}

1-5

1-4

5 10 mi

10 15 km

1-4

FIGURE 1.0 TOUR ROUTE FOR DAY 1 1-4 I

\

I 2H6L 3M

ffil f·­ J L.

10 15 km

TOUR ROUTE DAY 0

5 0 10

FIGURE 1.0 TOUR ROUTE FOR DAY 1 48

Major l use i udes dairyi , beef cattle, cereals and acreages. Acre- ages of 1.2-8 ha ( 20 acres) in size, occupy a large portion the area and are commonly referred to as farms . Residents on the acreages usually work in Edmonton. Farms than acreages average l ha ( acres) in size. Proceeding turning east at Bretona, we enter an area of loam textured disintegration moraine scattered areas of ne textured superglacial lacustrine material. The soils are Black and Dark Gray Chernozemic. 27.4 (17) JUNCTION OF HIGHWAYS NUMBERS 14 AND 21 Note: Subsequently, Highway numbers ll be indicated simply as #14 and #21. Turning south, we proceed through Beave ills moraine. This moraine occupies a large area east of Edmonton and sou to the ller lacustrine in. is area is dominated by Dark Gray Che c soils th nor amounts of Gray Luvisols. The land is used primarily dai ng and acreages. Vegetation of this area has been classified as rest and grass in the Boreal Forest Region Rowe. 1 Aspen Poplar tl~em'Aloides) occur in the d er slope positions, whereas balsam poplar ), te spruce ( ), and willow (sa spp) occupy Saskatoon (Ame ), chokecherry ncherry ) , snowberry ( ada buffaloberry ), and roses (r'osa spp) main sh . Sphagnum moss may be found in the depressions with brador g1•eenZ-cmdicwn) as the p ncipal shrub.

38 (24) LOOMA, hamlet. Proceeding south of Looma to New Sarepta, we pass through an ulati moraine of loam texture with numerous level to depressional areas in which cl lacus ne materia has been deposited. Black Chernozemic soils occur on the morainic material and Black Solonetzic soils on the lacustrine material. The land is utilized for dairying and the average rm size is less than 160 ha (400 acres).

52 (32) NEW SAREPTA, village, named after the settlement of Sarepta in Russia. From New Sarepta to Hay Lakes, the tour traverses a level, loam tex­ tured, moraine with some level to depressional areas of clayey lacustrine material. Black Solonetzic soils interspersed with Black Chernozemics occur on these lacustrine and morainal deposits.

64 (40) HAY LAKES, llage, named because of large hay meadows in the vicinity.

74 (46) ARMENA, et, probably after the Armenian settlement located nearby. The tour now entered the western portion of the large area of Sol ic soils in central Alberta. These Black Solonetzic soils have devel on level to lati morainal or lacustrine material overlying slightly sa ine s les and sands s of Cretaceous age ( ton forma- tion); the local occurs at de s of 1-4 m. The develo t of Solo netzic soils is usually associ local regional ground water discharge. Some 511 200 ha (l 278 000 acres) of Black lonetzic soils have been mapped in central Al rta. Mi ng is the nant land use.

1 Rowe , J . S. , l t regions Canada. Can. Dept. of Environment, Forestry Service. Publication . l . 1972. 49

I 1 : IZ

79 ( 49) site are given in area are nly Sol Solonetz have been

u Land Inventory, Black imatic s ion l . the range of crops or used because depth this particu ar s ho zon to the s areas a 1 the route and nei ven in 1 . Average crop yields were areas on 30 areas by 75. 1 oats,

Table 1.1 Average under all management practices on 30. 1 74 Crop

Wheat 2 .5 1 29.4 Oats 2 54.5 l .4 rley 2 . 5 2 .6 rta Hail Crop ranee on.

so been compiled in Appendix C.l.l. le, and lized ces occurred between rally kg/ha in 30 areas ces the average from

ponse to rtilizer was ave ng only 187 kg/ha on low 104 kg/ha is d i cate either that the wrong kind 1i zer give a 1 eld res se on l-cl imatic tions. 50

Ni fertilizers1 as a rule give the greatest increase in yields on these soils alt gh they uire greater than average amounts of nitrogen fertilizer. Solonetzic soils tend to become acid in the A horizon over the years with the application of um sulphate fertilizer. Consequently, fertilizers containing calcium should be used, or in some cases, deep plowing may be utilized to bring the carbonates from the lower ho zons to raise the pH of the surface.

So1onetzi Soils

Characteristics of Solonetzic soils that adversely affect their productivity and also create special management problems for the farmer are:

1. The hard compact B horizon limits air, water, and root penetration. Rainwater remains on the surface and is lost by evaporation. As a result, the roots concentrate near the surface and crops grown on these soils cannot withstand of as do the more permeable non-Solonetzic soils.

2. The high salt content of the subsoil limits root penetration because the osmotic pressure of the soil solution may be greater than that of the plant's solution.

3. The B and C horizons and often the Ap horizon are slowly permeable to water, therefore, it is not practical to attempt to remove the salts by tile drain.

!+. The Ae horizon is Jow in organic matter and is of platy structure. This horizon special crusts very readily when brought to the surface by culti­ vation, wl1ich adversely affects the emergence of seedlings.

5. The particular chemical composition of these soils adversely affect the uptake of plant nutrients by the roots; this is particularly true of nitrogen. The A horizons of Solonetzic soils without an Ae horizon are usually thinner than those of the associated non-Solonetzic soils.

6. Low pH values of the Ap horizon may adversely affect the growth of sensitive crops such as alfalfa.

7. The extreme variability in these soils over a short distance makes good management difficult.

Solonetz soils also present problems for different types of construction as indicated by the follovJing: a. The saJts in these soils corrode metal surfaces and have a deteri- orating ffect on ordinary cement thus requir special construction techniquv .

l Toogood, J.A. and Cairns, R. 1973. Solonetzic soils technology and management. Bull. B- 1. Univ. of Alta., Edmonton, Alta. 51

b. Because of the high sodium conteut soil aggregates are unstable and these soils erode readily. This is an important factor in road building and the construction of earthen struttures.

c. The low permeability of these soils suggests that they are inferior as a site for sewage disposal.

100 (62) BATTLE RIVER - named after a fight between the Blackfoot and Cree Indians. This is a misfit stream. 1 Its source is the Battle Lakes some 96 km (60 miles) to the west. 103 (64) DUHAMEL, hamlet, named after the most Reverend Joseph Duhamel, Catholic Bishop of Ottawa (1841-1909). 108 (67) NEW NORWAY, village. This area was settled by Norwegians. Soils in is area are developed on loam to sandy loam textured lacustrine materials. They are Black rnozemic and are rated as l and 2T for agriculture. Mixed farming is the major land use.

114 (71) GLACIAL SPILLWAY forming the headwaters of Meeting Creek which drains into the Battle River. 121 (75) FERINTOSH village, named after a village in Scotland. Adjacent to Meeting Creek are gravelly terraces utilized by the railway as a source of gravel. After crossing Meeting Creek the tour traverses a loam textured hummocky moraine (Beaverhills) enroute to Bashaw. The soils are Black Chernozemic th soil capability for agriculture of 3T (slopes 5-10%) and 4T (slopes 10-30%). The major land use is mixed farming. The native vegetation is forest-grassland. 140 (87) BASHAW, town, named after a local settler. The tour now enters an area of loam to sandy loam textured, level to undulating, lacustrine material. The soils are Black Chernozemic and are rated 2M for agriculture. Land use is for livestock (beef and dairy cattle) and cerea1s (primarily wheat). Average size of farm is 160-224 ha (400-560 acres). Buffalo Lake located to the left, is named because it resembled a buffalo hide stretched out to dry. 151 (94) LAMERTON, hamlet, named after lamerton, Devonshire, England. Continuing south for 4 km the tour encounters an area of fine sandy loam textured lacustrine materials with slopes of 6-9%. The soils are Black Cherno­ zemic and are rated 3WT for agriculture. Mixed farming is the major land use. The following table the average crop yields under all management practices on Black c soils developed on loam to fine sandy loam tex­ tured lacustrine mate characteri c of soil capability areas 2M and 3M/T.

1Misfit stream - a stream that is too small to have eroded the valley in which it flows. 52

le 2 Ave on ca b li areas

c il ili

2 .6 ,0 2 .0 • 7 2 • 7 '7

Sour·ce: Al Hail Crop Insurance

166 (103) AND #12. tour turns east proceeds to Tail

170 k ns lo Lake to of this campground. The name tail of a stretched sk n The exposed in this vall

Depart Ta i1 #12 to ne travelling through Black loam to sandy loam textured 1 acus acial spill

1 74 ( l 08) 1 mines formerly

184 ('114. 7) ERS kine, B tish ju st. East of onetzic area of Alberta. 195 (121) STETTLER, er, ana ve of Berne, tze ur turns south on #56.

196 ( 122) veloped on a blanket of morainal les sandstones (Edmonton formation).

( 127) on a level to undulating veneer al mate al. il capability is 2M.

209 ( "130) The capability 4T.

218 ( 1 I direction of the ice movement was on.

226 (141) BIG r a r River to The floor to s intermittent veneer uv al material. 53

226-258 (141-161) ZONAL BOUNDARY. The tour passes from the Black Soil Zone to the Brown 1 Zone. These Dark Brown Chernozemic soils are developed on loam textured morainal material with slopes of 10-30~~.

main native grasses are wheat grasses (Agropyron A. r.;pensL bluegrass (Poa pa Junegrass (KoeZer>ia cr>it~tata), and porcupine grass spm•tea). tum) is prevalent in dry sloughs and ake beds that are sli y saline. American slough grass (Beckmania syzi- gathne), ckle grass (Agrostis hiemaZis), and reed canary grass (PhasZaris arundinacea) are found in moister areas. 11ow (salix spp.) and aspen poplar ) are usually adjacent to sloughs or on the south

The soils are Brown Chernozemic and are rated 5T for agriculture. Ranching is the major land use with farm sizes ranging from 304 to 448 ha (760- 1120 acres) in size.

Summerfallow

Cropping rotations along the tour route are many and varied. However, one component common to them all is the bare fields of summerfallow which comprise up to 45% of the total cultivated area Fig. 1.1). In the semiarid region of North America, summerfallow has long been lauded as a means of storing water for the next crop, as an essential weed control practice, and to regenerate soil fertility, particularly nitrogen.

In contrast, the practice of sununerfallow has been publicly criticized by several researchers. Some of their research is summarized as followsl:

1. Surnmerfallmv is a contributing factor to the alarming loss of soil organic matter which has occurred since the country was opened up 70 years ago. On the average 50% of the soil organic matter has been lost.

2. Nitrogen in organic form cannot be leached out of the soil. However, with rapid decay of the soil humus and crop residues characteristic of a 2-year rotation, large amounts of nitrogen are released in mineral form, a portion of which disappears out of the rooting zone.

3. Summerfallow is an inefficient means of utilizing precipitation that falls during the 21 month fallow period. On the average only 20-25% of the pre­ cipitation is stored in the soil; the remainder is lost. Some of the moisture enter the soil during the fallow period moves down below the rooting zone to the water table and frequently comes to the surface again bringing unvmnted salts with it.

4. The area of saline soils in Western Canada has been increasing. A study in southern Alberta concluded that the only practical means of prevent:ing

1 Rennie, D.A., 1973. Surnmerfallow. Extension Division, Univ. of Sask., Saskatoon, Sask. Public. No. 227. r------~~-----

45' - 5-45 5-35 5 5 0- 5 ·•

FIGURE .1 PERCENTAGE OF THE TOTAl CULTIVATED ACREAGE IN 971. FRQM, GUIDEliNES FOR lAND USE AND CROPPING ROTATIONS IN 55

further spread of salinity is to crop almost continuously, i.e., cut out summerfallow entirely.

The above research supports the conclusion that summerfallow in excess is mismanagement. On the other hand, it may be argued that continuous cropping over much of the semi-arid area could equally well be termed mismanagement. Therefore, the alternatives to the high frequency of summerfallow must receive careful consideration. Decisions to increase crop rotation lengths should be based on calculations of likely net return for the various alternatives coupled with conservation practices necessary to minimize further soil degradation. Significant increase in yields through extended rotations cannot be realized without:

- greater soil storage of snow melt water, - judicious use of weed chemicals, - fertilizer application, - close attention to such factors as seed bed preparation, - optimum date of seeding, and - selection of optimum sequence of crops.

In addition to the higher levels of management required, additional machinery and/or manpower may be required to handle the increased acreages and intensity of operations. Suifu'!lerfallow costs for different soil-climatic subzones have been summarized in Table 1.3. These costs largely reflect the number of cultural operations required for adequate weed control in response to soil moisture con­ ditions. More information on summerfallow practices will be given on Day 9 when the tour visits the Lacombe Experimental Station.

Table l. 3 Summerfallow costs in different soil-climatic subzones

Soil Climatic Subzone Average Cost/ha* (1975)

1-3 $14.00 2A-2 $12.50 JA-1 $10.62

*Summarized from 1976 Farm Management Data Manual. Detailed cost breakdown for the Warner area (2A-2) is given in Appendix C.l.3.

SITE 2: ORTHIC DARK BROWN CHERNOZEMIC

258 (161) This site shows the profile variation over a hummock in a morainic area (slopes 10 to 15%). The field description, lab analysis, and microphology are given in ix A.l.2. 267 (167) DRUMHELLER LAKI IN. The basin covers an area of 175 280 ha (438 200 acres). The landform is level to undulating and the soils are Black, Dark Brown, and Brown Chernozemic developed un clayey lacustrine material. ne deposits vary in s n oor. These nd

an ti

Sl 3 IC ral

cromor-

ls are Dark Brown als and are rated and the average

(1966-74) from rage wheat on ass 2C ) were 130 kg/ha

A Insurance data lized stubble cropping fallow and stubble llow (2428 kg/ ) exceeded stubble 759 kg/ha. llow barley 3018

had very little effect on soi s. In contrast, t on unfertilized

lls rising about 180 y steep escarpment s de the crown. is area. It mantle over

lower surrounding 1 ic sources well 286 (179) INTEREST STOP. Road cut exposure to show varves in the lacustrine material. 291 (182) DRUMHELLER, city, named after 1 Drumheller, a pioneer in the Alberta coal elds. The city is in the Red Deer River valley some 120 m below the surrounding plain. The coal was found in seams which outcropped along the ver s the first coal nes opened just prior to 1918. This industry was the basis for survival of the ci although coal mining has de­ creased until recently when there has been an upsurge in activity. Numerous dinosaur fossils have been taken from the bedrock fonnations and coal seams in Red ver valley here. The formation exposed is the Edmonton (Late Cretaceous in age). 58

2; I AND BROWN SOIL ZONES

les l s 10; ursday June 29

le

st along #10 to Rosedale (Fig. coal mines is area with coa 1 (62 . ) . 8 of these seams rm in ickness. The coal is classed in spots ver banks. 6 ( 4) after a here. Proceed up the sebud Creek ' a reli mini town, and up the valley slopes to 16 (10) soils are Dark Brown Chernozemic deve­ , clayey textured material. Eroded knolls where is exposed are quite common here. Soil capabi- l i ty is 3T. 19 (12) 10-15%. is is part of the Winter- morainal area. The soils are Dark Brown Che 24 (15) 10-15%). This is an area of loam ne material deposited between two Chernozemic. Capability is mainly 4T. Studies show that yields are sli morainal mate al (slopes 10-15%) than on hum- mocky 1 ar s 1opes.

PRODUCTION COSTS

Production costs vary from area to area reflecting soil-climatic variables in combination with farm size, cropping rotation, and managerial ability. Cost of producing crops in different areas has been compiled by the Alberta Depart- ment of Production Economics Branch. A summary of wheat production costs characteristic of soil climatic areas along the route is given in Table 2.1. tails of the cost categories for wheat production at Hussar (2A-2) are given in Appendix C.2.1. 50

Red\ Deer' River

FIGURE 2.0 TOUR ROUTE FOR DAY 2 6U

fiGURE 2.0 TOUR ROUTE fOR DAY 2 (continued) 61

Table 2.1 Average production costs for wheat in soil-climatic subzones along the tour route

Cost Category Soil-Climatic Area 1-3 2A-2 3A-1 ( $/lm)

Cash Cultural Crops 51.97 41.97 18.60 Cash Harvest Crops 8.07 7.55 7.80 Other Cash Costs 29.65 12.67 9.97 Total Cash Costs 89.70 62.25 36.37 Non Cash Costs 204.27 111.52 86.85 Total Costs 293.97 173.77 123.25

Source: Summarized from Farm Management Data Manual. Farm Business Management Branch Alberta Dept. of Agric. 1976.

38 (24) UNDULATING TO HUMMOCKY MORAINE of loam texture with clay textured lacustrine material in the depressional areas. The soils are a mixture of Dark Brown Chernozemic and Solonetzic with Gleysolic soils in the depressional areas. These low areas are innundated by water in wet seasons and usually serve as native pasture.

45 {28) HUMMOCKY INE wi slopes of 10-15%. Dead Horse lake is to the right, so the llage of Hussar, named after a German lieutenant in the German Hussar regiment, one of the shareholders of a German company who bought land here.

62 (39) DARK BROWN CHERNOZEMIC SOILS occu ng on a hummocky, clayey lacustrine mate al. Capability and 2C.

71 ( 45) HUM~~OCKY MORAINE 77 (48) JUNCTION WITH #1. east and proceed along #1 to Sassano. The tour has now passed into the soil zone and agroclimatic sub- region Soils are Brown Chernozemic developed on loam textured lacustrine mate al. The ve vegetation is short grass prai e a description of which is given on DAY 3, 1 .6 km.

97 (61) SASSANO, town, named after the s de ssano. a Canadian Pacific Railway s der.

1 00 ( 6 3) BROWN ILS de loam textured fluvial and 1 We are in western portion of the Eastern Irrigation Dis largest irrigated areas in the province. ll 5 ( 72 ) BROWN IC ILS are encountered occurring on undulating loam morainal mate al of low relief. 116 (73) DEEP PLOWING S area that is deep plowed in order to break zonas well as to bring up some of the to raise the s plowed layer. 62

L ran vJhere they are i gating undulating centre pivot system. There is concern about ss s. After leaving se sites, we pass mate a l interspersed th till material.

of the Canadian Paci c Railway. Eastern I gation District. Canadian Pacific Railway and the 914. Approximately 60,000 ha (150,000 a dam on the Bow River south­ vJest in the area. The pro­ vinci releases birds in the fall

I RESEARCH In the afternoon, a tour of the re different ts of ed on here will be explained ff.

Alberta Horticultural Research Centre

The Alberta Horticultural Research Center is located four km east of the town of Brooks. It is situated on Brow~ Chernozemic soils occurring on lacus­ trine materials of loam texture ited in a very old shallow river bottom. These soils have higher clay content than the surrounding area of Brown Solo- netzic soils. The sl depression results in damaging late spring and early fall frosts. Although the area is not subject to the rapid changes in temperature associated with severe chinook winds, winter temperatures are modified. This adversely affects the overwintering of marginally hardy material. Rainfall during the season averages only 15 em, and irrigation for crop production is essential. A ten year average shows 116 frost free days and 2000 heat units.

The Brooks area was developed during the first World War, when the Bow River was diverted the Bassano Dam to fill Lake Newell. These waters were then carried over a two mile to irrigate this desert like area. The Canadian Pacific of Natural Resources initiated development of the Eastern and in 1935, turned it over to the farmers in the t. At Provincial Horticultural Station was created from the C.P.R. demonstration farm. In 1970, the Provincial Horticultural Station became the Alberta Horticultural Research Centre.

at the present location was begun in 1951, when the pressure made experimental work difficult at the original site. At present, the center comprises a total of 248 ha acres) in the Brooks area. As well, special research is conducted on substations at Strathmore, Bow Island, Peace River and Provincial

ect the first year of the Center's development was the of suitable trees for shelterbelt and roadside planting. While th s of the Center work, an led research program dlrected towards of commercial horticultural industries in Alberta been lberta Horticultural Research Center 63

at Brooks provides research, , and services for horticul- tural and special crops and applied research resources for agriculture.

The Center conducts these activities by:

- complementing exist programs of Canada research stations and the universities, conduct research and applying research findings through extension and development projects;

- providing extension services to growers, growers associations, and Alberta Department of ulture extension staff;

resource staff for the Horticultural Branch s p ects for amateur horticulturalists;

- invest and promoting production through t projects ects with the Marketing Division and other agencies.

The staff at the Horticultural Research Center provides research and exten- sion services in 13 and categories. These can be divided as:

- Special crops, potato, , special, and forage.

- Environmental ornamentals tree, and bush fruit, small fruit and market and crops.

-- Laboratory services, rticultural products handling & storage, food pro- cess and evaluation, plant pathology and diagnostic. services, entomology and weed control.

The Horticultural Research Center now serves as a regional research center for many programs of the Alberta Department of Agriculture. Notable is the expansion and success of trials on such crops as forage corn and legumes that are expanding as crops in southern Alberta. Recently a diagnost service was initiated the and staffing of the pathology laboratory at the center as service for the crop industry of southern Alberta. 64

DAY BROWN CHERNOZEMIC AND SOLONETZIC SOILS AND THEIR AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION

START: Broo END: icine Hat DI 218 (136 les) with 2 stops DATE: Sunday June 11; Friday June 30

Km (Mile)

0 ( 0) PART BROOKS and proceed north on #873 (Fig. 3.0).

13 (8) TU EAST ON #544. We are novJ passing through an area settled mainly Mennonites. The soils are Brown Chernozemic developed on loam textured lacu ne material. Soil capability under irrigation is Class l. These soils are relatively free of salts except near the edges of the basin and in depressions ch collect spillwater. The land is utilized primarily for rying; alfalfa and feed crops are grown extensively. 24 (15) BROWN CHERNOZEMIC SOILS developed on a blanket of sandy loam material overlying clay textured lacustrine material, till or bedrock. Con­ siderable seepage from the canals has occurred here and much of the land has been returned to pasture and hay crops. A cross-section diagram showing discharge areas and the location of Solo­ netzic soils is shown in Figure 3. l. 29 (18) TURN NORTH ON #551 and proceed to Dinosaur Park. 45 (28) DINOSAUR PARK. This provincial park is the most unique park in all Canada. The first Lookout Point provides a panorama of the Badlands comprising 8,800 ha (22,000 acres) of queer shapes, eroded valleys, and hoodoos. The valley of the Red Deer river lies 120m below. Four well preserved dinosaur skeletons have been uncovered since 1958 and a building has been erected over each so that the public may view the skeletons just as they were found and where the dinosaurs died 70 million years ago. Each site will be visited and a chance given to roam over the Badlands. LUNCH WILL BE SERVED AT THE PICNIC SITE. After lunch we will retrace our route towards Brooks and proceed west on #l for 11.3 km (7 miles) to sites 4 and 5 whe 1 Solonetz and Solod soils will be examined. See Appendix A.3.4 and A.3.5 eld description and chemical analysis of these soils.

SITE 4: BROWN SOLODIZED SOLONETZ SITE 5: BROWN SOLOD 134 (83) TILLEY, village named after Sir S.L. Tilley, one of the fathers of Confederation. This is the last town around which irrigation is ca ed on in the Eastern I gation District. The soils being irrigated south of Tilley are Brown Chernozemic and Brown Solonetzic on loam textured lacustrine mate al. st of the Solonetzic soils have been so disturbed by levelling ~Duchess

TO SOIL

3.0 TOUR FOR DAY 3 66

LlGEND

Sands Locustnrv:

Alluvial lacustrine Till

Alluvial lacustrine to Lacustrine Bedrock

Seepage area

729

723

JJ 717 c:;J.l E c c 711 Q 11) 705 iii

698 ,,,,,,,,, 692 0 6.4 9.6 1 1.2 12.8 14.4 Kilometers East

FIGURE 3.1 PROFILE CROSS-SECTION OF PATRICIA-MilliCENT AREA SHOWING SURFICIAl DEPOSITS AND SEEPAGE AREAS. 67 and cultivation over the years that they have lost most of their solonetzic characteristics and have developed into good to very good irrigation soils. Soil capability under irrigation is Class 1 and 2X. Seepage still occurs ad­ jacent to the larger canals and in the depressional areas which catch the overflow irrigation waters. These areas are often quite saline. Cereals and alfalfa are the predominant crops in this area. After passing Tilley, the tour travels through a large relatively level area of Solonetzic soils which is near the southern edge of the Solonetzic area of Alberta. There are about 1 507 200 ha (3 768 000 acres) of these Solonetzic soils in the Brown soil zone of Alberta. Approximately 25% of these soils are Solods and most of the remai are Solodized Solonetz. Very little of this area is cultivated as the soils are unsuitable for rainfed field crops. Consequently, the area is utilized mainly for ranching. The carrying capacity of these soils ranges from 16-20 ha (40-50 acres) per head. The area is characterized by all variations of Solonetzic soils. The soil landscape is characterized by numerous eroded pits where very little vegetation grows. There are also numerous level to depressional areas occuring in which clay textured lacustrine material has been deposited and either Gleysolic, Solo­ netzic, or Regosolic soils are found. The better drained sites on this undula­ ting to slightly hummocky landform either have Brown Solodized Solonetz or Brown Solod soils developed on a blanket of glacial till. local bedrock is found at depths of one to four m. Lar·ge granite boulders are commonly found on the surface. The native vegetation belongs to the short grass pra1r1e. On the better· drained sites, b1 ue grama grass (Bouteloua graciUs), common spear grass (St-Lpa commata), common club moss (SeZagineUa densa), and prairie phlox (Phlox Hoodii) are common. In the more saline areas, bluebunch wheat grass (Agropyron smithU,,) is predominant. Cacti are quite common, Mammalaria vivipara and Opuntia polyacantha are the two species found. Sea et Mallow (MaZvastrum coccineWTI) is very common in the road ditches as well as on the undisturbed prairie. Pasture sage (Artemesia frigida) is very common on overgrazed pastures.

Herds of pronghorn antelope (Antilocapl'a americana) may be seen at times grazing amid herds of cattle.

1 Development of Ranching and Farming In Southeastern Alberta

The first agriculturalists to move into the region were the ranchers. Many Montana ranchers operated both in that state and also across the border into Alberta. For a time, some of them even maintained similar brands on their stock. But as concern developed about over-grazing in the Cypress Hills in the 1890's, in particular, and the fact that the rangelands were Canadian, brands were separated and a variety of business and other arrangements were made to separate the enterprises in the two countries. However, even to the present day, many ranchers maintain strong ties with those to the south.

1 From Tour Guide, Southern Prairies Field Excursion, 1972. 22nd Congress of the International Geographical Union. Edited by E.H. Dale and A.H. Paul. the 1880s and , the ranches operated on an open-range basis. buildings were concentrated in the stream to support the of native was either leased or used on an informal In time, many ranches, such as achieved tremendous ize. absorbed smaller ions and were grazing stock over hundreds of thousands of acres. 1"1ost of this time was Texas longhorn and it number of years before breeds, such as the Hereford and Angus, in this area.

At the turn of the , ranchers and farmers were an independent breed. were linked to small towns like Medicine Hat by an uncer- tain network of roads, eas closed by rain, or snowfall. were also remote from one another. Much of the social activity of the farmer and his o was centred on the ranch. courses and learning at home were the rule. Social events, which brought ranchers and farmers together from hundreds of square miles, were but lively. A was a major occa- ssion and often meant for weeks in advance to food and other necessities for the affair, and also usually involved staying overnight or for a few at the ranch where the dance and festivities were to be held. The common links among ranchers and farmers in this period were very strong. There was a to assist one another with , plowing, con- truction of homes, fences, and the like.

The the open-range cattleman was, however, short lived, lasting rom the 1880s to about 1910. The of the end came with the decision of the Government of Canada to encourage widespread cultivation and settlement of much of the southern Prairie provinces. The leader in this enter- was Clifford Sifton the Hinister of the Interior in the HacDonald govern­ ment. He went overseas in search of settlers not only from the United Kingdom but also from central, southern, and eastern Ukrainians, Germans, Poles, and others to western Canada by the thousands in thP years from about 1905 to 1920. The occupied 64 ha acre) homesteads.

Much land taken up for homesteads later proved to be marginal as little was known about the character of the land when it was allocated to settlers. By trial to work the land and many had failed by the then abandoned the land, leaving it to be incorporated into , and either moved into or took up farms in other parts of western Canada or even the United States. As a result of all this activity, f the leases and ranches characteristic of the 1880s and 1890s were broken the era of the open range ended. Since that time many ranches have been able to maintain themselves part on land too or otherwise unsuitable for arable and have achieved size and much economic success failed in cultivation. However, many ranchers and into diversified in which wheat, other grains, the advers ties of uncertain

163 ( some areas of undulating lacustrine Brown Chernozemic with lonetzic soils in 69

180 (112) FFIELD, et, st north of here is the Su d an and NATO forces often hold traini manoeuvers.

At Suffield, tour ses over d valley. Gravel deposits on the bottom these valleys act as rs a source of drinking water for man

Proceedi al lent. The ls are Brown Chernozemic lacustrine material ove yi gl aci the nant material. Landforms range

of it being devoted to ty conditions are common in area. n Appendix B. 1.

common weeds area i ncl ssian Thistle (saZsola ), sti weed tumbli mustard (s1:symbriwn alti-

210 ( 1 ) REDCLIFF, town, named after an outcropping red shale overlooking h uth east of the present town site. Redcli is a very ali town. ck, pottery. and glass are the main products. a growing market vegetables and flowers. before entering Medicine Hat, we cross the South Saskatchewan ver. 218 (136) MEDICINE HAT city, population 30,000. Many rs ago there was a battle between the Cree and Blackfoot Indians on the banks of the South skatchewan Rive at s location. The Crees fought valiantly until their medicine man deserted them, los his headdress in dstream as he fled to safety on the ite s , believing this to a bad omen, put down their and were massacred by the Blackfeet. The site of this tragedy was call 's Hat 1 to Medi ne Hat, when the Royal North West ice and the Canadian fie Railway roadbuilders settled this area.

The city is a ck, and tile to name a es a 1arge service r ra ng and farm- 70

4: IL [

encounters an route l­ tern ng east va ley walls ium textured

il i 1

7 r

ur co ee south

natural western imits d on sa ine, if eaten n rge r n a concen-

ons and s of heavy use l "i nity r 71

FIGURE 4.0 TOUR ROUTE FOR DAY 4

r- '- ,- 2H-2

2H-3

0 10 mi

0 10 15 km

FIGURE 5.0 TOUR ROUTE FOR DAY 5 (continued) 72

4.0

\

10 mi

10 15 km

5.0 5 73

FIGURE 4.0 TOUR ROUTE FOR DAY 4 (continued)

2A-1

/'" 1U?E ...... 3M / 2A-2 "'

Tomptins 3M

-m-lUll'

1U7E 3M-

1U7M -3M

2A-1

3A-1 0 mi I/ \J

fiGURE 5.0 TOUR ROUTE FOR DAY 5 ch is cut

mora al communi

r i ng. I s.

6

r in ss i areas

lly

is evi-

e

ved 75

86 (54) CROPPING PRACTICES on this undulating fluvial plain should be noted. Correct land use here probably should be confined to continuous grasses and legumes. Rougher landscapes usually are not cultivated but utilized as native pasture. 90 (56) ROADSIDE CAMPING FACILITIES operated the Government of Canada occupy 27.2 ha (68 acres) accommodating 139 trailers or motorhomes. It also has all major facilities and includes some historic displays. 95 (59) MAPLE CREEK, 752 m (2507 ft.) ASL. By an act of Parliament the first Experimental Farm in the West Territories was established at Indian Head in 1887 but or to this an Expe mental Farm was established for Cree Indians at t1aple k in 1880. The Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Act in the 1930's did much for Maple Creek by building irrigation structures and reservoirs. Much fodder is produced on the irrigated soils using mainly flooding techniques. For the next 22.4 km (14 miies) the tour continues eastward through an extensive area of sandy Brown Chernozemic soils on hummocky fluvial materials. Numerous local areas of soil salinity are visible and there is an occasional excavation where gravel is being mined. 117 (73) SAND DUNES. The tour traverses a small area of very weakly developed Regosolic soils occuring on hummocky eolian sands with slopes of 10-30%. Vegetation has stabilized most of these dunes with only small active ones remaining. Soil capability is 6MT. 119 (74) PIAPOT, 750 m (2500 ft.) ASL. Piapot is named in memory of the intrepid Cree Indian Chief who at first refused to sign a treaty and go on a reserve. The tour is now located in an area of sandy loam textured Brown Chernozemic soils developed on hummocky lacust ne materials (slopes 5-10%) \-Jhich extends beyond the hamlet of Sidewood and nearly to the town of Tompkins. Again, we pass several relatively large shallow saline depressions. 124 (77) HISTORIC MARKERS explaining the hardships of the early ranchers in the area. 134 (84) SIDEWOOD, 756 m (2520 ft.) ASL. Once an important livestock ipping point following roundups.

144 (90) TOMPKI 792 m (2641 ft.) ASL. Named after a Canadian Pacific employee, Thomas Tompkins Brockville, Ontario. The tour now passes into an area of loam textured Brown Chernozemic soils developed on a veneer of undulating silty clay loam lacustrine materials overlying a morainal deposit. Slopes range from 5-10%. 155 (97) CARMICHAEL, after a engineer of the Canadian Pacific Railway. An illustration station run by the Experimental Farm at Swift Current was located here for many years before the program was terminated. Many tural practices and new varieties were evolved on these experimental stations. 76

157 on h eolian mate als slopes ) . southerly oc­ sion of are of pa cular loessial mate al which will be logy and vegetation route are also of interest. It upon in

Great Sand H:i

To the north lie the Great 80 km (50 miles) in a north-south direction .1 is often well developed and in many localities the dunes are still active. To this day, the area has defied appreciable settlement and is traversed neither by an all weather road nor by a

A ic s of eolian sediments with emphasis on dune sand deposits in 1965. However, most of the dune sand occurrences in . 4. have been studied periodically since 1960. Several dune sand types have been identified and are used to set up a systematic morpholo­ gical classification of stabilized phytogenic ("organic") dunes occuring in Canada. Some of the forms described and studied in the Great Sand Hills include and filled dunes, shield dunes with border , and complex transverse dunes.

active complex transverse dune situated in the the Great Sand Hills is in . 4.2. The dune ssions bordered by low and irregular ic dunes; it has a chaotic express Detailed vegetational cover characteristics of the Great Sand Hills is in Appendix C.4.1.

162 ( l loam texture on which Brown The tour 11 encounter more Current where they will be discussed in more

'165 ( 1 Lake lfield began in the role in the growth of the town. 50% of the tax base to the Rural d the tage that the oil .) below the surface. The

E •. Chr1 ti.ansen., 1972. Excursion C22 rnary Geology peg and the Hoe Mountain International 24. 72. Edi D.J. Glass. l 110° 108" sASKATCliEW~~------~, CRAMERSBURG ) sro -'YecY Empre ~ ---~~ ~-- S.H. {~) _ 'c_ ;---~~~~ WESTERHAM ~ " -, I'--" __y ~~ r.? ~/' ", ~ Deer ~ r-'cf S.H. '-..:·. ·. ~~ ./ ~a ,~ >t/ 8s \~-5;-L- ..., ~~·. . BURST ALL ~ ·~~ ~ .. · •'· S.H. ~···2C. . ··· . . .:; -5l ~--,_ ·-.._ o Burstall ) · 1 /GR~T ~ 1HILDA ~ ~ IZS.H. . \SA~I~LS~

<(lllg Fox Vdlleyj '2c: c··.•. ANTELOPE S.H. ~-0 I-I ... ~~u ·21, ~··.··.·~.··.. ·.·_?~ .. ~··. .,_.... ~~---'I<( l .'· ... •.. ~7 SEWARD

<(I~ "'-l -...j IVJ TUNSTALL S.H. "";-~

Maple Creek

DUNE OCCURENCES LOESS ALKALI LAKES ,_. _.·~·-·~:~ (S.H.-SAND HILLS, C...~

FIGURE 4.1 MAP SHOWING OCCURRENCES OF DUNES AND LOESSIAL DEPOSITS ALONG THE TOUR ROUTE 0 300 M

1000 FT

-~~- TOP Of SLIP FACE

~~- BASE OF HEAD

_A<~~-- TOP OF BACK-SCARP

---- WIND-FURROW

------MINOR SAND RIDGE

8 - I 8ACK RIDGE

D DEFLATION DEPRESSION

HEA.D

ACTIVf SAND SURfACE

BUSH AND VEGETA Tl 0~' A GRASS VE:GETATION

-3 DUNE MEASUREMENT STATION

fiGURE 4.2 TRANSVERSE DUNE PROFILES (RUTTER AND CHRISTIANSEN 1 79

167 (105) GULL LAKE. 770 m (2567 ft.) ASL. Named because of numerous varieties of gulls found in the area. Turn left on #37 to 6th Street and past the campground. SITE 6: ORTHIC REGOSOL-SALINE PHASE SITE 7: ORTHIC BROWN CHERNOZEMIC 171 (107) A dryland soil salinity demonstration project was established on the Benallach Farm in 1975. Field studies evaluating the effect of different cropping rotations and management practices on the occurrence and movement of salts will be examined (Fig. 4.3). Staff from the Swift Current Research Station will outline the details of the research being carried on. The owner, will discuss the original problem relating to the occurrence of salts. Profile descriptions and analyses are given in Appendix A.4.6 and Appendix A.4.7. Depart Benallach Farm proceeding north to #l. 1 S o~'1 s a 1'~n1ty .

The presence of water soluble salts in amounts that adversely affect plant growth is referred to as soil salinity. In the Prairie region the most important soluble salts are sodium sulfate, magnesium sulfate, and calcium sulfate. Sodium or magnesium chlorides may occur in small amounts and only occassionally in con­ centrations that are harmful to plants.

The dominant bedrock material underlying the thin glacial deposits which cover most of western Canada contain relatively large amounts of soluble sulphate and chloride salts of sodium, calcium, and magnesium. Geologic and pedologic weathering during the past 10 000 years since deglaciation has resulted in the accumulation of salts in localized areas throughout the Prairies. However, with the cultivation of soils by man, a significant change in the water cycle has occurred with a resulting disturbance in the delicate salt balance which has only recently been reflected in a rather marked spread in salt affected soils.

The significance of salinity as a soil factor curtailing production can probably best be illustrated by referring to the scope and extent of saline soils in Saskatchewan (extensive areas of salt affected soils occur in Alberta as well but the area of such soils is limited in Manitoba). The area of cultivated saline soils estimated from Municipal Assessment data is estimated at 1.62 M ha (Crosson, 1976).2 In contrast, a similar assessment made in the early 60's suggested that there was approximately 405 000 ha of salt affected soils within

1 From Rennie, D.A., 1977. The soils of western Canada with particular reference to agriculture. Department of Soil Science, Univ. of Saskatchewan. 2 Crosson, L.S., 1976. Soil salinity map of Saskatchewan. Color map with legend. Univ. of Sask. Press. 30

SITE 7

FxC-KNA fxB

fxB

GRID

fiGURE 4,3 SOil MAP OF SAliNITY DEMONSTRATION BENAlLACK 20-13-1 81

3 the cultivated 3rea at that time (Dodd, et_ al., 1964). SemiqualitatLve in- formation obtained to date suggests that the area of saline salts in Saskatchewan is increasing annually at a rate of approximately 1% (Rennie, 1976). lf

The spread of salinity may be illustrated by reference to the Univ~rsity Goodale Farm near Saskatoon where extensive spread of salinity has occurred over the past 4-5 years. In a cooperative study, the Department of Soil Science and Saskatchewan Research Council have demonstrated that a phenomena known as SALINE SEEP is responsible for the spread of salinity, not only on the fa1~, but on a relatively large area bordering Strawberry Hills east of Saskatoon (Figure 4.4).

Excessive summerfallowing in the Strawberry Hills (summerfallowing when the soil is partially charged with water) results in the downward movement below the rooting zone of a significant portion of rainfall and snow melt waters. These waters have moved downward through fractures in the glacial till until they reach the lower portion of the Battleford formation, a gravelly, sandy deposit. This latter deposit conducts the water laterally for distances of at least 25 km as in the case of the Goodale Farm. This water, charged with salts it has picked up, has moved to the surface in the vicinity of University farm resulting in extensive salinization. 174 (108) IRRIGATION FROM TOWN LAGOON for the production of forage. This project is being enlarged. 182 (113) ANTELOPE, 769 m (2564 ft.) ASL. Named after prong-horned antelope.

192 (120) vJEBB, 778 .. m (2593 ft.) ASL. Named after an influential railway official. The tour passes a community pasture located on Regosolic soils developed on undulating sandy eolian materials. Soil capability is 6M. Information on the types of community pastures is given on DAY 5, km 197. Continuing eastward we pass along the sandy eolian landscapes and by the small towns of Seward and Beverly to the city of Swift Current. 222 (138) SWIFT CURRENT, 730 m (2425 ft.) ASL. The city gets its name from the creek along which it is situated. Formerly the creek was called Saskatchewan, meaning "swift current" but it was confusing to travellers be- cause of the Saskatchewan river with the same name so they called it Swift Current instead. At one time the city was the terminus of the main trail north to the Battleford area. It is presently the centre of a rich farming and ranching area and is the distribution and market centre for a large area. Climatic data for the area is given in Appendix B. 1.

3 Dodd, J.D., Rennie, D.A., and Coupland, R.T., 1964. The nature and distribu­ tion of salts in uncultivated saline soils in Saskatchewan. Can. J. Soil Sci. 44:165-175. 4 Rennie, D.A., 1976. Conserving our soils. SARM Land Use Conference. The Rural Councillor 11, No. 9:30-38. PRECIPITATION l J J ' t ' ' '

;{,

MARKER BED_

C) I'J

LEA PARK FORMATION~UPPER COLORADO GROUP

Exaggerat1on 40 X

FIGURE 4.4 STRATIGRAPHY AND GROUNDWATER HYDROlOGY IN THE VICINITY OF THE UNIVERSITY GOODALE FARM, (RENNIE, 1977) 83

231 (144) LUNCH STOP at Swift Current Research Station. In the afternoon, a conducted tour of the station will be taken. Agriculture Canada personnel will explain the various research being carried on here.

Swift Current Research Station

The Research Station at Swift Current was established in 1921 to investigate the agricultural problems associated with drought in southwestern Saskatchewan. Research now centers around cereals, grasses, legumes, poultry, soil, climate, and design of equipment. Research workers continue to study local problems, but have also developed research programs that assist in solving the problems caused by drought and cold in other areas.

Cereal Production And Utilization Section

This section is responsible for breeding new varieties, developing improved practices for managing the major cereal crops produced in the region, improving equipment for handling cereal crops, and developing more efficient methods of utilizing cereal grains, primarily by turkeys.

Breeding programs with hard red spring wheat, durum wheat, and fall rye are designed to develop better-adapted, more stable varieties. Te.sting programs with these and other cereal and oilseed crops continually monitor crops and varieties grown elsewhere to determine whether or not they will be useful in the area. Studies of nutrient requirements, methods of seedbed preparation, and methods of harvesting are directed toward improving the economy of production of the most suitable varieties. The research is supported by special studies in genetics, cytogenetics, breeding methods, physiology of development, and physiology of response to extremes of environment.

Research on the nutrition and management of turkeys is concerned primarily with the effect of environment on rate of gain and feed efficiency and with supplementing \vheat to make it a more efficient feed for growing and finishing turkeys.

Forage Production and Utilization Section

This section is responsible for developing better-adapted varieties of grasses and legumes, improved management practices for cultivated forage on dry land and under irrigation, and improved methods of managing native rangeland, and for improving the efficiency of utilization of forage by animals.

Breeding programs are designed to improve and stabilize the forage and seed yields, persistence, and quality of alfalfa, Russian wild ryegrass, inter­ mediate wheatgrass, tall wheatgrass, and Altai wild ryegrass. Many varieties of other species are tested to determine their adaptability to the region. Mixtures of grasses and legumes are grown in trials to assess their suitability for irrigated and dryland pasture and hay production and to establish the management practices required for the most economical animal gains.

Special studies are conducted in genetics, cytogenetics, breeding methods, physiology of development, and physiology of response to extremes of environ­ ment. Research is also supported by basic studies in laboratory analysis of and cultivated ts, tion cs the conversion of native pastures

Soil and ro Sect

is concerned relation­ on these, es major crops

Fertility tudies are concerned with the response of cereal and forage crops to fertilizers on different soil types and under varying climates and c conditions. ture studies tab moi ture ts for crops, estima the amounts of moisture conserved from snow and rain, and determining the effects of various methods, rotations, and crops on conservation of moisture. Wind and water erosion are studied and methods esta­ blished for their controL

research on the effects of organic matter, , moisture, and soil temperature on plant practices; research to determine the effects of climatic factors on crop , soil fertility, erosion, and optimum utilization of moisture, and studies on the rate of tion of crop residues. Research is also conducted to methods, determine the significance of microclimatic characteristics, statistical procedures, and establish relative economic advan systems.

Equipment Design Section

This section is concerned with estab mechanical tems for assist- field research on cereal and crops. Particular attention is glven to the seeding and harves of cereal and plots hut design of laboratory equipment is also undertaken. Consideration is given to the potential for commercial tion of or plot use. 85

DAY 5 . PRAIRIE PINE, I MEDICINE HAT START: END: DISTANCE: DATE:

Km ( le)

0 ( 0) on #4 climbing slowly from the oor of eroded Valley slopes to the surroundi Plateau c ls have developed on loam tex- tured morainal mate 1 capability is 4M.

9 (5) VE ICAL evation of 822 m (2740 ft) ASL where to Dark Brown soils. These Chernozemic ls loessial materials. For the next 35 km (22 les) route traverses some of the most aes- thetic and productive l landscapes occuring on loam textured parent materials in the Dark Brown l zone. The undulating loessial blanket has simplified the pattern of the underl ng morai rial forming long simple externally drained slopes wh lar eld patterns unbroken by potholes or deep ravines. less and soil capability is 3M.

Swift Current Loess

The area 1 extent of Swift Current loess is in 4.1 (see DAY 1\., km 157), the southward extent is still unknown. The probable source is tn the Great Sand Hills to the Nortlwest. the Swift Current loess is a thin deposit from which the carbonates have been largely dissolved as a result of soil development, it still exhibits many of the characteristic properties of typical loess: the buff color of the lower B horizon, the silt loam to silty clay loam texture, the abundance of root channels and pores spaces, the low densities, the presence of grains of quartz, and the lack of laminations (Wascher et al., 19712). Also, the contact with the underlying till is clearly evident.

The different structures of unweathered loess and lacustrine materials serve as ion of loess and lacustrine deposits for soil mapp purposes. photographs of lacustrine parent materials (Souster, 1973) showed horizontal resulting from differen- tial of silts and in water. No evidence of stratification was found in the loessial and close observation of the loessial photographs reveals a porous, homogeneous sed structure with an abundance of root channels characteristic of loessial its.

ter, W.E. 1973. Characteristics of thin loess its in the Swift Current Map Area (72J). M.Sc. Thesis, Univ. of Sask. Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, , H.L., , B.W., Alexander, J.D., Fehrenbacher, J.B. Beavers, A.H., and Jones, R.L. 1971. Loess its of northwest Illionois. Illinois Agric . . Stn Bull. 739. 112 p. Loessial Swift Current Plateau have been studied by Souster et _?1. (1977 3 are summarized follows:

1. Thickness trend ths range from approximately lm close to the source to about 0. 3m at 48 kin distance, The loess became gradually thinner along a southeas transect accord to function.

2. Particle size data showed that 70 to 75% of the loess samples taken at varying distance from the source fall into silt and very fine sand fractions, 20-25% fall into the fraction and less than 10% are coarser than very fine sand.

3. Wind blown separates trend fine silt fraction (2-20 increased signi- ficantly and the very fine sand (50-125 decreased significantly with distance from source. Coarse silt 20-50 showed little change with distance.

4. Mineralogy - marked variations in the composition of various sized fractions clearly indicate that a sorting of potassium bearing minerals occurred during deposition of the loess. The micaceous minerals, because of their platy habit are carried further than other minerals of similar size. As a result of this, the micas increase in the coarser fractions as a function of distance and are depleted in the finer fractions.

5. Soil Mapping - differences in particle size parameters and mineralogical properties described above served to justify a field separation of soils developed from loessial and lacustrine deposits on the Swift Current Plateau.

13 ( 8) RH I NELANO m ft) ASL.

20 (13) WYMARK TURN- ft) ASL

29 (18) BLUMENOF - These last ree llages were settled by Men- nonites who are excellent farmers. They were colonized in fairly large settlements and some exemptions to civil laws were given to them. St p farming, th lf fallow half crop, is practised in this area. To west of lac Pelletier Regional Park, an oasis in is area - n irties to show children water. 44 (28) SMALL PLATEAU m (2900 ft) ASL. From this plateau we see a characte stic of Southern Saskatchewan.

In contrast stic of the ick morai na 1 d ft ) the tour will traverse area sed on a rolling bed- rock surface. stic of more weakly glaciated areas of sou rn inner morainal deposits have not com­ pletely obliterated rock surface.

, W.E., St. Arnaud, , P.U. 1977. Variation in physical properties and mineral compos of thin loess it in the Swift Current area of Saskat~hewan. Can. Sc L In press) . 87

Upon descent from this plateau the tour leaves most of the loessial blanket behind and also passes from the Dark Brown soil zone down to a transitional area of Brown and Dark Brown Chernozemic soils.

52 (32) UNNAMED CREEK, th Regosolic soils (saline phase) developed on recent fluvial materials which form its flood plain. Elevation 750 m ( 2500 ft) ASL.

61 (38) CADILLAC, named after Antoine Lamothe Cadillac (1658-1725) famous fur trader and governor of New France. eva on 769 (2564 ft) ASL. Turni west at the junction of #4 3 the route begins to rise in ele- vation toward the lower benches of the eastern thrust of the Cypress Hills Upland. The transitional Brown to Da Brown Chernozemic soils are developed on loam to clay 1oam morainal materials. Landforms to the north are undulating while those occupying a small area to the south are cky; slopes range from 3-10%. Soil capability is 3M. The Cypress Hills Upland extends from east of Swift Current in Saskatchewan to southwest of Medicine Hat in Alberta. This upland forms a gently to strongly rolling, thinly glaciated plateau (unglaciated above 1260 m) with elevations ranging from 810 m to 1440 m (2700 to 4800 ft) ASL. It comprises till plains, aeolian plains, loessial plains, and dissected escarpments and valleys with ex­ tensive bedrock exposures of Tertiary and Upper Cretaceous formations. In Saskatchewan it forms the divide between the Saskatchewan River drainage to the north, the Wood River internal drainage to the east, and the Frenchman River (Missouri drainage) to the south. Because of its elevation and consequent cooler season and higher precipitation, it forms an area of vertical zonation within the main area of arid brown soils. 71 (44) CRICHTON, elevation 791 m (2638 ft) ASL, named after James Crichton, commonly called Admiral chton. We can now note a perceptible darkening of surface soil colors as the tour route continues to rise steadily reaching 822 m (2739 ft) at Admiral, 855 m (2850 ft) at Scotsguard, and 889 m (2964 ft) at Instow. 79 (50) ADMIRAL, the soils are still mapped as mixtures of Brown and Dark Brown Chernozemic developed on loamy morainal material. Note the reappearance of shrubs and willows around the pothole sloughs. Near Instow more shelter belts can be observed. Strip cropping practices become noticeable now. Again the strips are ori­ entated perpendicular to the prevailing winds. However, the widths are variable. Occasionally farmers, forge the tremendous forces of Mother Nature, become careless and make their strips too wide only to suffer the consequences of severe wind erosion. After passing the llage of Scotsguard, some soil salinity becomes apparent. 100 (62) INSTOW, named after a small town in England. 8<3

110 (69) OF #13 a 37 turning on #37. Still within the Brown- Da transi on, the Chernozemic soils are developed on undulat ng cl loam morainal materials. il capability is 3M. This soil- landscape persists along the route to Dollard. Towards the west we can see the main face" of the ress Hills rising to over 1051 m (3500 ft) ASL.

SITE 8: IC DARK CHERNOZHHC 113 (71) Soil descrip on ra ana yses and micromorphology are given in Appendix A.5.8. Mr. d Girodat, the owner, will discuss his agronomic practices.

m around proceed 10 (6 les) sou to unavon traversing an area of gently clay loam soils. Soil capability is 3M. 125.9 (78. 7) SHAUNAVON, elevation 903 m (3010 ft) ASL, named after Lord Shaughnes 's home in the old country. Turning west on #13, the tour now travels southwest skirting the Cypress Plateau to the no as it traverses the most a d portion of the Brown soil zone enroute to Robsart. Meteorological data from some stations in southwest Saskatchewan are given in Table 5.1. Aneroid is 80 km to the east in the Old Wives Plain, intonel is 37 km northwest in the Cypress Hills Upland, and Nashlyn about 88 km southwest in the Frenchman River Plain. The latter has the lowest recorded average annual rai ll in the ag cultural area of the province. Table 5.1 Climatic data for selected stations in southwest Saskatchewan Elev. July Annual t'1ay to m ASL Temp. ppt. Sept. ppt.

Aneroid 734 3. l9.5°C 32.5crn 21 . l em Kl in tone l 110 2.6°C l6.4°C 41 . 1em 26.3cm Nashlyn 930 3. l°C 19.0°C .4cm l7.0crn The River Plain th 1445 665 degree days above 5.6°C and with a calcul moisture ficiency 30 em in the upper l.2m of soil together with the lley-Medi ne Hat area immediately north of the Cypress Hills, are representative of the most arid areas of the Prairie provinces. Crop yields in these regions are severely li ted on is account. Travelling to Dollard the tour immediately en­ counters Regosolic soils (saline ng on level areas of recent fluvial mate al (Alluvium). tinuing, the route encounters a drumlin eld of interest is world Pleistocene enthusiast and also a small t si i cant the more "money minded" geologist. ickness of ice in this area was

The mechanical monsters see p ing oil from the Upper Jurassic for­ mations 1351 to 1411 ), beneath the present surface of the drumlin eld, bri (6000 .) difference in strata and a 32 year di n ical time. ng

ocene. west. clay s 1es

160 ( 100) in of

is

rt 90

Avena Community Pasture

197 (123) It might be of interest to compare some rates charged on various community pastures operated in Saskatchewan.

P.F.R.A. PASTURE- Federal operation (1977 rates).

Rates - adult 12¢/head/day for approximately 130 days $15.60 calf (born after January lst of current year) 5.50 fee 13.00 TOTAL .10

Insurance Pol

- run as a producer pool with no outside support or administration. - voluntary. - remit $1.00/head/season.

Payout is $135.00 adult death or $100.00 for a dead calf.

Taxes - paid to the Rural Municipality in which the pasture is located on the basis of 1¢/adult head/day for the season.

CARRYING CAPACITY IN THE SOUTH\vEST PASTURES.

6 to 7.2 ha/per animal unit depending on the ratio of seeded grass to native grass in the pasture.

Try to rotate cattle so that they are pastured on seeded pasture in spring and fall and on native pasture in summer.

(B) A.R.D.A. PASTURE - Provincial operation (1976 rates).

Rates - adult - 10¢/head/day x 130 days $13.00 calves 5.00 breeding 12.00 TOTAL .00

volun - administered Saskatchewan tmenl of Agriculture (S.D.A.). -~ rates adults - $2.00 premium; $200.00 coverage calves delivered .25; $100.00 coverage calves born - $1 premium; $50.00 coverage based on 1% losB of adults.

Taxes paid to Rural Municipality in which pasture is located. to producers on fol basis per head 91

charge total bill based on no. of adults The average tax is $2.50, but varl s from $1.50 to $4 00 depending on the Assessment of each pasture.

similar to P.F.R.A.

Some pastures the services at the indicated charges per head. $2.00 Dehorning $1.00 Castration $4.00 for adults, variable for baby calves Vaccination .15 per head

The producers outlay for pasturing a cow and spring born calf for a full season in the breeding field will l!Sually cost an average of $35.40 plus trans­ portation to and from pasture.

) Co-op Pastures

is formed and leases the land from Saskatchewan !culture - Older pastures - Co-op manages and operates the pasture and is responsil.Jho for paying lease to S.D.A. and taxes to R.M. 206 (1 ) ROBSART, elevation 947 m (3157 ft) ASL, named after the heroine of Scott's "Kenil ",Annie Robsa The route now traverses an area of Solonetzic soils which extend to the southern and western boundaries of the province. These soils are veloped on undulating clay loam textured morainal mat­ erials modified by the incorporation of Upper Cretaceous. Bearpaw, and Eastend formations. Soil parent als developed from this modified morainal material are frequently dominated li salts. Consequently, the soils exhibit various degrees of Solonetzic devel Solodized Solonetz are the dominant soils with significant inclusions of il capabili is 40.

Yi d data ral Muni palities tour route from Shaunavon to Robsart are iven in Table 5.2. Results show that wheat and ba ey in Robsart Municipali nated lonetzic soils (40) elded 240-250 kg/ha (4-5 bu/acre) less than that in unavon Muni pality dominated by Brown Chernozemic soils ( ).

1e 5. 2 Ave crop el for Rural Muni palities in the Shaunavon- Robsart , 1964-73

i c i l i eld wheat Bu/ac kg/ha Bu/ac

(Shaunavon) 3M 1351 . 7 20.1 1694.7 31.5 49 1 . 7 18.3 1651.7 30.7 51 (Robsart) 40 1096 2 16.3 1447.2 26.9

Source: ual Report of rke cs Branch, 't of k.' 1974 214 ( 134) I OF 3 AND #21. Turn Proceeding for the tour descends i valley of the Frenchman River. To the west is the dam at the Cypress Lake Reservoir at an elevation of 960 m. is reservoir is utilized as a P.F.R.A. storage project for downstream gation.

After l ng River Valley, elevations increase steadily th distance northward to the Cypress lls Park. The tour immediately passes from agro-climatic subzone 3A-l to subzone 2H-2 which commences at an elevation of approximately 1100 m (3665 ft.) above sea level. This latter subzone receives more preci tat ion as reflected by the change from Bro~m to Da Brown soi 1s but receives heat units. The soil-landscape encountered is commonly referred to in Saskatchewan as Dissected Plateau characteristic of the Cypress Hills Upland and which is utilized extensively for ranching. Texas gates are common and ranch homes are frequently located in the smaller coulees often surrounded by smaller i gated fields of tame hay. Note the beds of quartzites and gravels in the road cuts. The soils get progressively darker with increased elevation where a range from Dark to Black surface horizons may be observed. Small clumps of trees also become more evident. Lodgepole pine commonly invade the shaded valley slopes and finally cover the highest elevations. 248 (155) CYPRESS HILLS PARK ENTRANCE, elevation of 1155 m (3850 ft.) ASL. This entrance is located at the northern edge of the Cypress Pla- teau on the north facing slopes a high crest. Here we can view the Maple Creek Plains lying 405 m below us. The town of Maple Creek which we passed yes­ terday lies 28.8 km to the north.

252 (157) PARK GATE. The route now enters the provincial park, a former forest reserve which has been developed as a popular recreational area. You may notice the development of Gray Luvisol soils on the thinly mantled quartzite beds adjacent to the Park Lodge.

On proceeding to the top of the escarpment at about 1200 m black soils are encountered i Dr. J. Thorp, many years ago, thought were very similar to the prai e soils U.S.A. There are no more scheduled soil stops for the rest of the day. 1 General Description of the Cypress Hills Area

Early Canadian hunters and traders called all evergreens Cypres . Nat- urally they called these pine-covered hills the Montagne de Cypress. The name was later anglicized to the Cypress Hills. These hills straddle the Alberta- Saskatchewan in thr: southwest corner of Saskatchewan. The hills rise brnpll on !r west side and gently eastward. An n'a f 622 (240

1 Westgate, J.A. 1965. The surfi ial geology of the Cypress Hills area, Alberta Research Council. Prelim. L 65-2. square t) ASL. western extremity rises This is 90 m 300 t) than Banff towns Hountains and is the point in Canada between the Mountains and Labrador. The hills form a continental '"ater divide with streams on the north into the Saskatchewan River to Hudson and on the south side flow into the Milk River and thence to the Gulf of Mexico via the Hissouri and His iss Rivers

Bedrock

and shales with some coal part of the area. Ter- t and cobbles) and sandstone cap are to have been years in gigantic piedmont fans streams flow- ing from the Mountains 320 km (200 miles) to the west. This Hills the less resistant formations from erosion which has lowered the surround some 480-600 2000 ft).

Surficial

The Hills have in t ia his There is little evi- deuce to suggest that the upper portions were covered Wisconsin ice. At the time of the extensive Laurent ion, the Hills formed a nunatak 311 (120 square miles) area and about 60 m (200 f nunatak was one of the few areas in Canada that iation Well periglacial features test to rous climate that once this region.

The northern t of 1350 m ft) ASL, but the southern 1200 (4000 ft). North of the Hills, the south southeastwards the stretch low land tween the Hills and the Sweet Grass Hills situated to the southwest in Montana. ft sheets

Glaciofluvial its terraced landforms melt f the Hills. io-

Loess occurs on Hills to the south. thickness from overlies the weathered, the Hills It con- tains numerous quart:zitic elevated into it frost , the loess is coarse. in to t south. 94

Physiographically, the Cypress Hills area consists of elevated plateaus, cut up or dissected by valleys and coulees. The true plateaux occur on the igher elevations and are characterist level to undulat The hummocky landform associated with morainic areas is not a feature of the true plateau surface. These areas are usual small and separated by the eroded coulees and , or else are broken rougher upland areas composed of eroded tertiary sediments.

The st point is at the \..rest end of the Hills reach an elevation of 3452 m 840 ft) ASL. Elevations decline as you go eastward.

Climate

Weather data from Cypress Hills Park in Saskatchewan, elevation 1350 m 4500 ft), is given in ix B. L This area is an agroclimatic subregion 2HA because of lack of heat units and moisture.

Vegetation

The dominant grass is bluebunch fescue tucca ), other grasses include rough fescue Z , western porcupine grass var~ ta), June grass cristata) and various and Poa.

Trees occurring on the north facing slopes and upper reaches of the coulees include lodge pole pine contorta)1 , white spruce , aspen poplar (PopuluB tremulo-l:des j, and balsam poplar Very little tree growth is found below the 1372 m level. Associated with the dense tree growth are such woody shrubs as Saskatoon (!JJneZanchier a , choke- cherry (Prunus v-irginiana), j (Junipe-x•us communis species), bearberry (Arctostaphy urdursi), and berry canadensis). In the open areas where only scattered trees occur, shrubby cinquefoil Ua ) a small 1voody shrub is a serious pest and re- duces the grazing value of a large portion of the area.

Wildlife

Moose, deer, and elk may be seen. Wild turkeys have been introduced into the area but are very difficult to observe

Most of the lakes have been stocked with fish.

Soil s

In the Saskatchewan of the Hills the soil are referred to as the Dissected Plateau Complex which consists of various zonal soils. Soil moisture efficiency increases from the base of the plateau land up to the highest elevations. Thus in the above order there is a range of

only stand of lodgepole pine in Saskatchewan is found in the Cypress Hills Park. 95

semi-arid imat 1 1ons, shu t grass prairie, mixed prairie, sub montaine, and forest vegetation with Brown, Dark Brown, and Black Chernozemic, and Luvisol soils. The sequence of these soil in ascending order is an interest loeal example of vertical zonation.

The above zonal soils occur chief on well drained noneroded sites where soil is possible. Soils of slopes, hills and escarp- ments consist of eroded truncated) iles. Soils of the valley bot- toms are on recent fluvial Inaterial with local areas of

Eroded soils consist thin truncated, and immature iles on steep ected to considerable natural (geologic) era- sion. The upper are marked bare eroded slips and the lower deposition of eroded material from above. Eroded morainal deposits of Tert and Cretaceous sediments are characteristic of eroded soil areas. WAL Walsh, ich was founded It became rs of li played a settl after S r- lsh so r·ess Hi 11 s sacre site.

314 ( 196) 110° west long tude. 11 discuss on 323 (202) is stream was on purposes.

326 (204) ERVATION PO I north the s grass prai e area can be seen; looki ees and esca ; and looking west the level treeless

331 7) IC -Bull trail. vell ng across the top little culti on. Most the area is rese as

342 (214) I From this escarpment the Tertiary sediments can be seen in s u. s site we scend 180 m down the no face the escarpment to

( 213) onal s i i all we gradually d in ele­ va on. of soils goi g from Black c soils. on 1ower level to un- 2 to l . 96

at is n some Soi capability in Black Chernozemic soils in Dark Brown and Brown Cherno- zemic soils is

(240) west proceed to Medicine route previous day. 415 (259) MEDICI 97

DAY 6. BROWN AND

START: Medicine END: Lethbridge DISTANCE: 184 (115 les) stops DATE: Wedne June 14; July 3

Km (Mile) 0 (0) MEDICI ng west on #3 (Fig. 6.0) the route passes through the most on of the St. Mary and Milk vers I gation Development ( ) Th s area was opened for i ga on in 1955 and i gation farmers are lly becoming established here. The main crops being grown are cereals, forages, some garden crops. Sugar beets are not being grown here because of distance to the sugar refinery. The soils are primarily Brown Chernozemic developed on a level to undulating blanket of loam textured lacus ne material overlying glacial 11.

Soil capability under land ag culture is 4M. Soil capability under irrigation is l, 25, 3T. 22 (14) SEVEN PERSONS, a hamlet. the and east of Seven Persons lies a large level area clayey ne material which is part of a glacial spillway. The soils are Solonetz and Brown Chernozemic. Flood i gation by use dikes is practiced here. Soil capability under irrigation and dryland ag culture is 40. On the zon to the east can be seen the western edge of the Cypress Hills ich we toured on DAY 5. Leaving Seven Persons we enter an area of and farming. The soils are Brown Chernozemic developed on lating morainal material. In some places there is a veneer of lac ne mate al. 1 capabili agriculture is 4M.

(20) WHITLA, locality named after a merchant of nnipeg who visited the area. 43 (27) WI IFRED, locality, named after a relative of an English shareholder of the Alberta Rail and I gation Company. 50 ( 31) MAIN IRRIGATION CANAL supplies water to this area and the Medicine Hat area.

54 (34) BOW ISLAND, named an isl Bow River. We are back in SMRD I gation been sed re since 1955. Sugar beets, cereals, and forages are the main crops. soils are Brown Chernozemic de- veloped on a blanket medium textured lacus ne materi 66 ( 41) BURDETT, village, o, Baroness Burdett-Coutts. We turn south s road. /~

River

Oldman River .------:_-;;_:___

~~ c~

3A~ 1 '~ ~ 0 10 mi

0 10 15 km

FIGURE 6.0 TOUR ROUTE FOR DAY 6 Bow River, Oldman ~ ;::: River

'-£) <..:,.,

FIGURE 6.0 TOUR ROUTE FOR DAY 6 {continued)

0 10 mi

0 10 15 km 100

74 (46) FORTY-MILE COULEE - an old spillway which is now utilized as stor­ age for irrigation water. SITE 9: ORTHIC BROWN CHERNOZEMIC

83 (52) Mr. A. Smith, the owner. will discuss the farming operation on both irrigated and dry land. Field description, laboratory analyses, and micromorphology are given in Appendix A.6.9. On leaving Site 9 we travel 6.4 km (4 miles) west and turn north to reach #3 at Grassy Lake.

102 (64) GRASSY LAKE, village.

116 (73) PURPLE SPRINGS, locality, named after a spring in a coulee nearby where purple flowers grow. From Grassy Lake to this area we have passed through Brown Chernozemic soils developed on a level to undulating blanket of sandy textured fluvial material. Soil capability under irrigation is 3M.

126 (79) FINCASTLE, locality, named after Viscount Fincastle. The tour has now entered the most intensively irrigated district in Alberta. Crops grown are sweet corn, peas, potatoes, beans, cucumbers, sugar beets, carrots, onions, cereals, and alfalfa. Most farmers use sprinkler irrigation systems. The soils are Brown Chernozemic developed on sandy textured fluvial mater­ ial. Soil capability under irrigation is Class l.

134 (84) TABER, LUNCH WILL BE SERVED This town was named after the first part of the word Tabernacle out of consideration for Mormon settlers in the area. There is a large sugar refinery here that services the sugar beet industry in the area. In 1975 there were 16 000 ha (39 500 acres) planted to sugar beets with an average yield of 27.69 tons per ha. Also, there are several vegetable canning factories located here. The aver­ age size of farm under irrigation in this area is 28-96 hectares (70-240 acres). There are also several coal mines in the area and oil wells are common. Departing Taber we travel west on #3. 142 (89) BARNWELL, hamlet, named after R. Barnwell, the general tie agent for the Canadian Pacific Railway at Winnipeg.

156 (97) CHIN, locality, named after a Blackfoot Indian word 11 mistoamo 11 mean­ ing beard from the shape of the hill to the south when seen from a distance resembles a beard. The soils are Brown Chernozemic developed on a level to undulating loam lacustrine material. 1S7 (98) CHIN COULEE. This is a spillway utilized as a reservoir for irri­ gation water. 168 (105) COALDALE, town. As coal was found in the area it was named this to d stinguish it from Coal Banks (now Lethbridge). i-' ,__,c~

FIGURE 6.1 FIGURE 6.2 FIGURE 6.3 RAIMfAlliSOHYETAlliNES (CM) FOR ISOUNES SHOW~NG HOURS WITH WIND NUMBER OF DAYS IN JANUARY AND SOUTHERN ALBERT A VElOCmES GREAlU THAN 51 KM PER FEBRUARY WITH MAXIMUM TEMPERA­ HOUR, SOUTHERN AlBERT A TURE OF 4.4" C OR GREATER, SOUTHERN ALBERT A 102

subject to serious wind ero:o.ion

Red

'

\ \

\ \

Medicine Hat )

------

AREA Of SOUTHERN AlBERTA SUBJECT TO SERIOUS WIND EROSION WHERE STRIP-CROPPING IS PRACTICED. 103

We are ls are developed on loam to cl 1oam ls in this area present a less permeable than the sur­ rounding soils. is often fficult to culti- vate them at the moisture holding capacity. They are also col until they warm up. (115) LETHBRIDGE, after William Lethbridge, rs t pres gation Company Ltd. ior to 1885 t was of i ga on in berta ng a man centre. SITE 10: REGO IC-CARBONATED PHASE SITE 11: BROWN CHERNOZEMIC We 11 be visiting culture Resea ion on the eastern out- skirts of Le where sites 10 11 are prepared See Appendix A.6.10 and A.6.ll.

Lethbridge Research Station

The Research Station had its as a Dominion Experimental Station, established in 1906. In 1959, it amalgamated with the Science Service Labora­ tories to become the Research Station. In 1964 the administration of the Experimental Farm at Manyberries was transferred to Lethbridge; the Farm became a substation for tudies on livestock and range management. The Station admini­ sters two other substations, one at Stavely to s the management of foothills rangeland, and one at Vauxhall for irrigation and drainage studies.

The Station is located at the eastern boundary of Lethbridge on 436 ha (1077 of dry and land. It serves an area of great ecological varia- bility, from the Black soils and rather rainfall of the foothills to the Brown soils and low rainfall of the in the southeast. The area in- cludes highly productive and 400 000 ha (1 million acres) of irrigable land.

The of the research program has been associated with that of the During the settlement years, the need was for information on methods of sod breaking, land preparation, se- lection of varieties, and rates and dates of New crops and improved varieties were introduced and research was devoted to of soil fertility, weeds, and insect and disease control.

farmers have benefited from for the control of soil drifting and the reclamation of eroded land and from the development of sawf wheats and winter wheats. Farmers on irri­ gated land have been advised on the most efficient use of water and fertilizers. varieties of and grasses have increased hay and improved irrigated pastures in the area. Suitable varieties of oilseed crops, canning crops, and sugar beets were introduced.

Methods have been devised for cutworms, grasshoppers, wheat stem sawflies, and other insect pests, nematodes, wheat streak mosaic, smuts, root rots, and other diseases. 104

methods and rations for cattle, sheep, and poultry, along with of control measures for insect pests, have contributed greatly to the thriving livestock industry.

The present objectives of research at the Station are to develop varieties of crops and breeds of animals suited to the irrigated and dryland areas of the region and to the methods of crop and animal production. The research is organized into six sections divided among 30 programs, which are further subdivided into about 150 research ects.

The Soil Science conducts research for predicting water requirements of irrigated crops, efficiency of water use, and for preventing and correcting soil Methods are being investigated to improve tillage and seeding , conserve moisture, prevent erosion, control weeds, and ensure uniform seedling emergence. Management systems are being sought to im­ prove the physical, chemical, and microbial conditions of the soil. Studies are made to determine the kind and amount of fertilizer needed to satisfy the nutrient requirements of crops grown in the region. Complimentary studies are being conducted to ensure that such practices do not cause pollution of water and soil. Certain aspects of soil organic matter composition, soil microbiology, and bio- magnetism are also being investigated. tems are being developed to manage fertilizer, and crop and animal wastes to permit their use and disposal without contamination of soil, water, or crops.

Dr. Steve Dubetz will be discussing the irrigated soils on the Station and Mr. Urban Pittman will be discussing the dryland agriculture work connected with the Station.

DAY 7. REST DAY is be a rest day. Opportunity 11 be given to those who wish to travel onal Park, visit the Research Station at Lethbridge, sight seei in or stop and rest. 5H-4 ~y~ lS'II 4M7M0 "3M7M ~l;r- J-5r ((

2H-3

1--' L (.;1 ~

T J

0 10 mi

0 10 JS km

FIGURE 8.0 TOUR ROUTE FOR DAY 8 lOG

5 0 10

FIGURE 8.0 TOUR ROUTE FOR DAY 8 107

DAY 8. LAND USE PANORAMA FROM THE PLAINS TO THE FOOTHILLS START: Lethbridge END: Calgary DISTANCE: 357 km (220 Miles) with 2 stops DATE: day June 16; W,ednesday,,July 5

Km (Mile)

5 ( 3) DEPART LETHBRIDGE for Claresholm and Calgary (Fig. 8.0). OLDMAN RIVER. At the point where the Oldman River flows from the mountains are three cairns, the first is a wide mound about eight feet high, composed of stones and small boulders and evidently very old, the two others are smaller. As they are of no use as landmarks, they have probably been formed in the course of years by the addition of a stone, by each Indian 11 11 entering the mountains by this route for luck • On a narrow, level, open area a short distance further on are the obscure remains of a couple of rectangles formed by larger stones. This place is well known to all the Indians, and named 11 11 by them The Old Mans Playing Ground • It is from this spot that the Oldman River derives its name.

10 {6) COALHURST, hamlet. Coal is mined here. 13 (8) KIPP, locality, named after Fort Kipp located at the junction of the Oldman and Belly rivers. It was built by Joseph Kipp who came to Canada to sell whiskey to the Indians in exchange for buffalo robes. We are now in the Lethbridge Northern Irrigation District. This district was formed in 1919 and financed by a bond issue guaranteed by the Provincial Government. A flood on the Oldman river in 1923 destroyed the irrigation works. However, by 1924 the works had been repaired and irrigation in this area has been practiced since then. This district is an irregular tract of land on the north side of the Oldman river between Fort Macleod on the west and Turin on the east. In all, the district contains about 92 000 ha (230 000 acres) of which about 38 000 ha (95 000 acres) are irrigated. There has been considerable seepage experienced in this area from the canals resulting in the closing of some lateral canals and the removal of some land from irrigation. There is a sugar beet factory at Picture Butte near the east end of the project. The soils are Dark Brown Chernozemic developed on level to undulating lacustrine materials of loam texture. The soils are similar to the one examined under irrigation at the Research Station, Lethbridge. 24 (15) MONARCH, a hamlet. 26 (16) OLDMAN RIVER. About 6.4 downstream the Belly River, which has its headwaters in the United States, joins the Oldman river.

Wind Erosion

Soil erosion by wind occurred on the Interior Great Plains soon after the land was brought under cultivation. Severe and widespread drifting during the 108

period from 1931 to 1938 led to intensive efforts to adopt practices that pro- vided a measure of control. isolated outbreaks of soil drifting have oc- curred since that , the mas recent being the spring of 1977 vlhen some fields were eroded.

Hazard

Soil drif is ly associated with the practices of summerfallow but is not necessari confined to fallowed fields. It may occur the sp when the soil is only protected seedlings. It also occurs on irrigated land when annual crops have been harvested and the land lies unprotected unt the next crop has attained some

Cause

Soil drift is due to wind blowing across an unprotected soil surface that is and loose. It starts on exposed knolls, tracks in which implement wheels have pulverized the cloddy surface and on corners of fields that have been ect to excessive cultural operations. From these focal points, the abrasive action of wind-blown soil becomes cumulative and soon changes a resistant surface to one susceptible to drifting. Winds of lower velocity than that necessary to initiate drift can then continue the erosion process. Soil particles are de- ted behind clumps of residue, along fence lines, or are carried off the field. , tJ:-te surface becomes dotted with small hummocks of sand.

Damage 1 Damage caused soil drj ting takes many forms (Agriculture Canada, 1966) . Erosion over a period of years fertility, reduces rop yields, and re- sults in a gradual change in the texture of the cultivated Drift soil in farmstead shelterbelts can ruin plantings and is cost to remove. be "blown or their yield reduced the sand blasting drifting soil; reseeding is expensive.

Probabil

Probabil of wind erosion damage is determined by soil moisture, wind velocity, and the soil structure of the plow layer. The resistance to breakdown of soil structure is influenced by texture and organic matter. Breakdown of is also influenced by and thawing or wett and drying oc- the winter months. Erodab by wind is also influenced by vegetative cover, field size, and landform.

Preventative Measures

Preventative measures for wind are of two types. consists of routine cultural every year to prevent drif , s of cover crops, and producing shelter- ' there are emergency measures to stop or control drifting after chiseling, str list , or ridging.

1 . Agriculture Canada, 1966. Soil Erosion by Wind. Publication No. 1266 109

Data compiled recently for the area covered most of this tour route focuses on the area of Alberta subject to serious wind erosion (Toogood, 1977). 2 Fig. 6.1 shows that the rainfall isohyetal lines decrease from 45 em at Edmonton and Calgary to 35 em at Medicine Hat. In contrast, isolines the hours per year with wind velocities than 50 km per hour showed a striking increase from less than 50 hrs at Edmonton to more than 500 hrs at Lethbridge (Fig. 6.2). Similar trends were exhibited isolines showing the number of days in January and February with a maximum temperatures greater than 4.4°C which increased from fewer than 10 at Edmonton to more than 30 at Lethbridge (Fig. 6.3). The latter serves to illustrate the effect of chinook winds on the southern area. These warm, high winds remove snow cover and out the bare soil thereby adding to the risk of wind erosion. 2 By superimposing Figs. 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3 Toogood (197 was able to outline the area of southern Alberta subject to serious wind erosion. However, it is strongly apparent that the area where farmers practice strip cropping is small in relation to that where wind erosion is a real hazard . 6. The reasons why strip cropping is not more practiced include the following:

) Indifference of farmers Conservation Officers, and general public.

(2) The "big machinery", operator" complex -·- farmers with this attitude find strips inconvenient and to take a chance that their land "won't blow this year"

( Soil Conservation Officers and Council members who are all members of the don't want to rock the boat by enforcing the law, which says, person who owns, , or controls land shall take active measures to prevent soil deterioration by wind ac ? that the Soil Conservation Officer, "shall serve notice directing a farmer to take action to prevent soil deterioration where are being followed or soil deter

It was concluded that wind erosion control in Alberta was neglectful, that Soil Conservation Officers are not enforcing the law, and that soils are contin­ uing to deteriorate because of mismanagement.

29 ( 18) I STOP. A p This type cultivation was started in ea to erosion. It is of great value in controlling soil el imi hazard entirely,

(23) of surveys in now travels over a arge ver. The surface is covered with 1 capability is 3m.

2 Toogood, J.A. 1977. Wind and Water erosion problems in Alberta. Presented at the Soil Conservation Workshop, Red Deer Feb. 1, 1977. 110

The best kno~ Alberta wind the the land, par­ t southwestern portion of the winter nomenon, ical cloud tern in warm "Chinook". It to from the game and since the for domestic live- stock. enables tlemen to ir livestock on the open range for out of 10.

jump.

( 44) H J years son j ump ng i n

jump was

b son were gathered miles) away. A compli­ movement cairns. its ki

t buffalo jump we to Granum below the escarpment of l s.

98 (62) are now passing a veneer of c. l 111

Average crop yield data from Dark Brown soils developed on l~custrine mat­ erials (Lethbridge soils), shallow lacustrine overlying morainal material within 1 m (Whitney soils), or from soils on morainal materials (Pulternay soils) are given in Table 8. 1. It is of interest that the highest yields were obtained from soils developed on shallow lacustrine over morainal materials (Whitney soils). This is possibly due to the fact the underlying glacial till re- tains moisture near the contact of the two depositions and that the crops can utilize this extra moisture. Throughout this area are numerous areas groundwater seepage. This ap- pears to be a regional scharge area in some years the salts can be quite detrimental to crop growth. Cereal production is the main land use with beef cattle production in the Porcupine Hills. Average size of farm is 304-448 ha (760-1120 acres). Table 8.1 Average crop elds for some Dark Brown Chernozemic soils from Municipal District No. 26, 1968-74 Soil Name Wheat Oats Barley kg/ha bu/ac kg/ha bu/ac kg/ha bu/ac

Lethbridge 1 876 28 2 159 57 2 550 47 Whitney 2 144 32 2 394 63 2 754 51 Pultef!'oay l 809 27 1 900 50 2 114 39

106 (66) WOODHOUSE, locality, named after a superintendent of the Canadian Pacific Railway.

114 (72) CLARESHOLM, town, or1g1n of name uncertain. One is that a motherly lady whose name was Clare ran a boarding house at this point when the branch line of the C.P.R. from Calgary to Fort Macleod was being built. 11 11 Many workers lived there and spoke of going to Clare's home • So the present name came into being. LUNCH WILL BE SERVED HERE. Proceeding from Claresholm into the Porcupine Hills the route passes over Willow Creek. These lls are the eastern extension of the Rocky Mountains dis­ turbed belt. The hills are capped by the youngest formation of Tertiary age. The formation is called Porcupine Hills and consists of nonmarine soft gray clayey sandstone and ays. Farther it is called the Willow Creek for- mation which is nonmarine. soft sandstones, shales, and clays commonly red. mauve, and gray in color. The hills se to an elevation of approximately 1723 m (5750 ft) ASL. The rentide glaciation reached a height of 1200 m (4000 ft) ASL in this area so most of the hills were unaffected by the eastern glaci- ation. The ne re tower is 1 on a nonglaciated height of land. Ranching is the primary industry in this area as the climate is unsuitable for most cereals due to the short t free season. The vegetation is forest and sland. The main trees being white spruce (P,icea glauca), lodgepole pine (p1:nus contoY'ta), Douglas fir (Pseu.dotsuga men­ ziesii var-glauca Funco), Juniper species, and aspen poplar (Populus tY'emuloides) and Salix s es. ng is ed out in certain areas of the hills. 112

27 ( 4.

i

an l is , and

dge

208 ~south s te only

2 ( 1 Clares

258 (l on is only sui

276 (173) The tour s now at southern re oil was discove 1913. 294 ( was rst i entire area is characteri l eys th lacus- trine or t

ing

il- 113

336 (210) MIDNAPORE. Along Sheep Creek the first irrigation was practiced in Alberta. 357 (220) CALGARY, city, population approximately 450 000 is the second largest city in Alberta. It is the financial centre of the pro­ vince. Most of the large oil companies have their headquarters here. It is also the home of the famous Calgary Stampede. Calgary is situated on the junction of the Bow and Elbow rivers. It takes its name from the ancestral estate of Colonel Macleod on the Isle of Mull in the Hebrides, Scotland. Colonel Macleod was the assistant commissioner of the 11 Northwest Mounted Police. Calgary is a Gaelic word meaning ~'clear running water • The Glenbow Foundation is here. This organization has been collecting arti­ facts and Indian relics and has the largest collection of canadiana in the west. 114

9. IC ILS, EIR YI

E: 1 7; I) 6

Km 1e)

0 r to n Nose c va

14.4 (9 dian, the soils are Black skapoo for- and silts nes of hummocky moraine. In knolls is exposed due Bl Chernozemic on the they have less an 15 900 acres) of is soil 1-3, average crop in hummocky areas C ass Appendix

Table 9' 1 Average elds on thin Black Chernozemic soils, 1 Crop Yield kg/ha Bu/ac Wheat 2286.5 34.0 Oats 2 1.1 62.4 Ba ey .5 49.6

Al ng is the mary l use, acreages are now taking up a consi area vicinity of Calgary.

21 (13) de Balzac noted French novelist. 1 , where exposures of Paskapoo formation 30 ( 19) AI IE, llage, named after Airdrie, Scotland.

45 I , named a the chief surveyor of the Canadian c

Between Cross d and Carstairs we pass through numerous interglacial stream channels 1 drain into the Red r ver near Drumheller. 61 (38) CARSTAIRS, town, named after Carstairs, Lanarkshire, Scotland. 1-4

]UlM I Olds 1.:] ~ '"").5T\\

2H-4 1-3

2H-3

JV 0 10 mi .,:)

3H-3 \ 1-3

0 10 15 km

FIGURE 9.0 TOUR ROUTE FOR DAY 9 16

DAY 9 117

FIGURE 9.0 TOUR ROUTE FOR DAY 9 (continued} 118

From are a of B1 a c k , so l s are morainal productive. so has a or 1 use.

86 c

size is cattle. rated as ds. are given in area o cereals in the n ack Chernozemic 9.1 and 9.2. on Chernozemic soils . 17' -74 Yi d ac

2 . 5 . 1 2 • 1 .9 2 . 3 .8

102 (64) 1 near chester, England.

112 from which some Moun ns. We now enter Red Deer River. The amounts of Gleysols and

1 e but has since been The centre for

Red Deer ver. numerous frequenting i west on #2.

142 ) lating loam to lacus ne materials~

153 ( ) se a war hunting in the area 119

155 (97) TURN EAST on a district road to Blackfalds. 157 (98) BLACKFALDS, llage, after a hamlet in Scotland. We are now in a preglacial valley connects the Red Deer River and the Battle River to the north. There is only an intermittent creek flowing through the valley now. The valley is filled with medium to coarse textured sediments and the soils are primarily Black Chernozemic with local areas of Solonetzic soils. Turning north on #2A the tour travels through an undulating to hummocky area of coarse textured Black Chernozemic soils developed in lacustrine material.

166 (104) LACOMBE, town, named after Father Lacombe, a Roman Catholic mission­ ary, spent the greater of his life here in evangelical work among the I ans. It is the site research station. We will be visiting a soil site here and also the station. LUNCH WILL BE SERVED HERE SITE 13: GLEYED ELUVIATED BLACK CHERNOZEMIC The field description, laboratory analyses, and micromorphology for Site 13 are given in Appendix A.9.13.

Lacombe Research Station

The Lacombe Research Station was founded in 1907, the seventh in a network of experimental farms then being established across the country by the Canada Department of Agriculture. Its original ective was to assist the increasing population of settlers in developing their farms in the newly settled areas of central Alberta. Its responsibilities extended from Calgary north to Lesser Slave Lake, and from the Saskatchewan border to the Rocky Mountains.

In the early days emphasis was placed on the testing and demonstration of farm practices, livestock breeds, grain, forage, vegetable, and fruit varieties, which had been developed in other parts of Canada and the United States. As the years passed it was recognized that varieties and practices developed elsewhere were not always suitable for the soil and climatic conditions of this region, so new programs of research, breeding, and development were initiated to develop crop varieties and farming practices to meet the specific needs of the short grow­ ing season in central Alberta. The primary objective of the station today is to conduct research for the solution of problems related to the production of crops and livestock in central Alberta.

Contributions to Agriculture in Central Alberta

Long term crop rotation and soil management studies demonstrated that the inclusion of grass-legume mixtures in crop rotations resulted in higher yields, maintenance of soil fertility, better weed control, and more equal distribution of labor throughout the year. These studies also showed that summerfallowing in central Alberta was necessary once in 7 or 8 years and then only to assist in weed control. More recent investigations of moisture storage in the soil, and the development of selective herbicide for weed control, have proven summer­ fallow to be unnecessary in this region. 120

Early with chemical fertilizers showed that fertilizer drilled into the moiE::t seed-bed with the seed promoted faster growth and higher yields. It also demonstrated that crops seeded on fallow responded only to phosphorus while those on stubble to both nitrogen and phosphorus. The Luvisolic soils were discovered to be sulfur deficient, especially for legume tion , it was established that a combination of sulfur fer- tilization with suitable crop rotations, including legumes, was necessary for increased tion and the maintenance of soil fertility.

Newly developed weed control chemicals have been continuously evaluated and recommendations for their effective use on crops in central Alberta have been formulated. Surveys of weed infestations throughout Alberta have been conducted and the economic losses in crop production have been established for certain weeds in competition with growing crops.

Efforts to develop varieties of grain and other crops which are more produc­ tive and better adapted to the short, cool growing season of central Alberta have culminated in the release of several varieties of different crops: Larain, Random, and Cavelle oats, Wolfe barley, Park wheat, Norlac red clover, Ganus potato, and Rocket and Booster tomatoes.

Small fruits and apples were evaluated for their adaptability and productivity in the climate of central Alberta. A nursery of ornamental shrubs and trees was established in 1908 and in subsequent years many of the trees, shrubs, and other plants that now decorate the station grounds, were set out. This resulted in the transformation of a treeless piece of prairie land into a park which is an exce­ llent example of the beauty that can be added to the countryside and has served to inspire many farmers in the region to beautify their own farmsteads.

Herds of swine, dairy, and beef cattle were established for comparisons of breeds and for studies of feeding and management. From these herds large numbers of good breeding stock were distributed to farmers in the early days. Horses were a vital source of power in the early farming operations, so a stud of Clydesdale was established in 1912, and thousands of foals sired by these stallions provided the power on many farms in the region for many years.

Intensive breeding work with swine was initiated in 1947 and culminated in the development and release of the "Lacombe Breed" in 1957. This new breed, the first to be developed in Canada, has achieved wide acceptance within Canada and has also been to numerous foreign countries.

The development and Canada-wide introduction in 1968 of a new grading system for marketed swine was the direct result of swine carcass composition studies which began earlier at Lacombe.

Climate

A summary of meteorogical data collected at the Lacombe Research Station during a period of 30 years is presented in Appendix B.l. These data show that the rr~jor limitation to crop production is the short growing season. On an ave­ rage, there are only 90 frost-free days, and only 120 days between spring and fall killing frosts. In addition, the mean minimum temperature throughout the growing season is less than 9°C. Unlike most of the rest of western Canada, 121

Lacombe does not have a climate suitable for the production of wheat. The grow­ ing season is sufficiently long for the production of barley, but short-duration varieties are necessary to escape the risk of frost.

The amount of precipitation is also a limitation to crop production, although the distribution of precipitation during the growing season is very favourable with the largest amounts falling during the months of June, July, and August.

In addition to these two major limitations to production, there is the risk of partial or complete loss of crops, especially grain crops due to hail. Lacombe is situated in the hail belt of central Alberta and risk of hail damage is pre­ valent during the months of June, July, and part of August.

Land Use

Because of the short growing season, farming systems based on wheat produc­ tion have not developed in the Lacombe area, as has been the case in much of the rest of western Canada. Barley, with a shorter growing season requirement, has been the main grain crop and considerable amounts of forage crops are also produced. This has resulted in the development of "mixed farming" systems with large pop­ ulations of livestock (especially beef cattle and swine) on most farms to utilize the feed grains and forage produced. Approximately 45% of the cultivated land in the region is seeded to barley and 25% to cultivated forage crops. Only about 12% of the land is fallowed in any year. Wheat occupies less than 3% of the cul­ tivated land, oats slightly more than 5%, and rapeseed has recently developed as a crop in the region to the extent that it occupies almost 10%.

Typical yields of the various crops grown in the region are as follows:

Barley 2.5 tonnes/ha Oats 2.2 tonnes/ha Wheat 2.2 tonnes/ha Rapeseed 1.0 tonnes/ha Forage 3. 7 tonnes/ha

Continuous cropping to barley for several years in a row is a common practice in the region, although some rotation among barley, rapeseed, and oats is done also. The major forage species grown are bromegrass and alfalfa, usually grown as a mixture. Seedings of forage crops usually have a lifetime of from 4 to 7 years before being plowed up and seeded to grain. This usually occurs when the percentage of alfalfa in the mixture has been seriously reduced.

Barley, oats, and rapeseed are generally responsive to applications of both N and P fertilizers. Typically, about 40 to 50 kg N and 10 to 20 kg P are applied per ha. These crops do not generally respond to K, although isolated responses to K have been observed in some experiments in the region. Manganese deficiency occurs in oats (Grey-speck disease) in most years but is not considered to be a serious problem. Boron deficiency has been noted on alfalfa, but only during very dry years and in extremely rare instances. Alfalfa is not grown for seed in the region so boron deficiency is not considered a major problem.

Forage crops, especially the brome-alfalfa mixture commonly grown in the region, do not appear to be as responsive to fertilization as is barley, hence 122

fertilizer applications, P per ha.

to oats, and rapeseed is applied in the or a~~onium nitrate. The availability of am- while more more urea is becoming available, and source of N fertilizer. These fertilizers are applied of a crop and during the fall cultivation of to the of a new crop. Phosphorus wi the seed

at the Lacombe Research Station is aimed at fertilizers for the economic pro­ duction of Fertilizer responses of these soil analyses as a means of im- and increas the efficiency of fertilizer use.

The responses grasses and to fertilizers are being studied in pure rather than in mixtures, the objective being a better understanding the of the individual species for higher yields.

Relationsh s between soil and the effectiveness of certain her- bicides in controll weeds are lnvestigated, with most of this work being done on wild the most troublesome and costly weed in Western Canada. Work is also be on the use of urea fertilizer as a carrier for the soil-applied herbicides and trHluralin.

1 75 ( l are still in the preglacial valley in an c ls developed on level to undulating coarse

'183 ( 114) et, named after a suburb of Edinburgh, Scotland.

192 ( l

194 ( 21) , (Blackfoot Indian name for c developed on undulating oam

l ( l soils on to und ating coarse textured

2 3. now enter a large level area of thin 11. soil is rated as class l for ag use.

an area where the overl ng till in. is at a depth 1 m. rnozemic. 123

256 (159) Turn northeast towards Leduc. We are now entering an area where the local bedrock is quite close to the surface. It influences the type of Solonetzic development. These soils with bedrock at or near the surface are Black Solonetzic. They are quite difficult to farm and only the best ones are devoted to cereals. Soil capability is 40. Due to the close proximity of the Solonetzic Bnt to the surface, the crops grown on these soils will suffer during dry seasons although if moisture comes at the right time they will produce fairly good crops. Table 9.3 Crop yields on Black Solodized Solonetz Soils Developed on Residual Material, 1967-74 Crop Yie1d kg/ha Bu/ac Wheat 1 876.3 27.9 Oats 1 607.2 42.3 Barley 1 791 . 6 33.3 264 (164) LEDUC, town, named after Reverend leduc (1842-1918) who served in this area. It gained fame in 1947 as an oil center when Imperial Leduc No. l came into production setting off the Alberta oil boom.

272 (169) NISKU, hamlet, Cree name for 11 Wild goose". We have just passed the Edmonton International Airport on our left. We are in an area of Black Solonetz soils developed on glacial till derived from the Edmonton formation. There is an industrial park developed here. 277 (172) BLACKMUD CREEK. This is an old spillway, the southern end of it drains into the Battle river. Road cuts show exposures of the Edmonton formation. 282 (175) ELLERSLIE, locality. Named after one of the manors of Sir William Wallace (1270-1305) the Scottish insurgent against Edward 1 of England. To the left at a distance of 3.2 km is the University Soils farm. We have now entered the Edmonton 1acustrine basin. The soils are Black Chernozemic de­ veloped on clayey lacustrine material. Soil capability is Class l. 287 (178) EDMONTON CITY LIMITS. As we enter Edmonton we will see the old Imperia 1 leduc No. 1 oil rig wh·i ch was moved here. 124

REFERENCES Bowser, W.E., earsgaard, A.A., Peters, T.W., and Wells, R.E. 1962. Soil Survey Edmonton Sheet (83H). Dept. of Ext. University of Alberta. Bull. SS-4. Bowser, W.E., ters, T.W., and Newton, J.D. 1951. Soil Survey of the Red Deer Dept. of Ext. iversity of Alberta. Bull. No. 51. Bowser, W.E., Peters, T.W., and Kjearsgaard, A.A. 1963. Soil Survey of eastern portion of St. Mary and Milk Rivers Development Irrigation Project. Dept. of Ext. iversity of Alberta. Bull. SS-5. Bowser, W.E. 1967. land Capability for Wheat. In Proc., Can. Cent. Wheat Symp. Western Co-op rtilizers ltd. Calgary, Alberta. Budd, A.C. and Best, K.F. 1964. Wild Plants of the Canadian Prairies. Res. Br. Can. Dept. Agr. Ottawa, Canada. Canada land Inventory. 1970. Report No. 1 Second Edition Department of Regional Economic Expansion. Ottawa. Holmgren, E.J. and Holmgren, P.M. 1972. 2000 place-names in Alberta. Modern Press, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. Kerr, D.G.G. 1966. A Historical Atlas of Canada. Second Edition. Thomas Nelson and Sons (Canada) ltd. 81 Curlew Drive, Don Mills, Ontario. Mitchell, J., Moss, J.C., and Clayton, J.S. 1944. Soil Survey of Southern Sask­ atchewan. Report No. 12. University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon. Land Capability for Agriculture. 1976. Canada Land Inventory. A Preliminary Report. Environment Canada. Ottawa. Oilseed and Pulse Crops in Western Canada. 1975. Chapter 4. Western Co-operative Fertilizers limited. Calgary. Peters, T.W. and Bowser, W.E. 1960. Soil Survey of the Rocky Mountain House Sheet. Dept. of Ext. University of Alberta. Bull. SS-1. Richards, J.H. and Fung, K.I. 1969. Atlas of Saskatchewan, University of Saskatchewan. Saskatoon. Schuchert, Charles and Dunbar, 0. 1950. Outlines of Historical Geology. Fourth Edition. John Wiley and Sons Inc. New York. Shields, J.A. and Nowland, J.l. 1975. Additional Land for Crop Production in Canada. Proc. 30th ann. meeting of Soil Cons. Soc. of America. San Antonio, Texas, U.S.A. Smith, E.J. 1970. The Prairie Provinces. University of Toronto Press. 1972. Stalker, A. MacS. 1956. The Erratics Train Foothills of Alberta. Can. Oep. of Mines and Tech. surveys. G.S.C. Ottawa, Canada. 125

Stalker, A. MacS. 1961. Buried Valleys in Central and Southern Alberta. Paper 60-32. Dept. of Mines and Tech. Surveys. G.S.C. Ottawa, Canada. The National Atlas of Canada. 1974. Fourth Edition. Department of Energy, Mines and Resources and Information. Ottawa, Canada.

Thomson, D.W. 1967. Men and Meridians. Volume 2. Queen 1 s Printer, Ottawa. Toogood, J.A. and Cairns, R.R. 1973. Solonetzic Soils Technology and Management. Dept. of Ext. University of Alberta. Bull. B-73-1. Wyatt, F.A. and Newton, J.D. 1942. Soil Survey of Blackfoot and Calgary Sheets. Dept. of Ext. University of Alberta. Bull. 39. Wyatt, F.A. and Newton, J.D. 1943. Soil Survey of Rosebud and Banff Sheets. Dept. of Ext. University of Alberta. Bull. 40. 126

Appendix A: Field description laboratory analyses and micromorphological ion of soi1 sites.

Field description and analysis of a Black Solodized Solonetz soi at Site 1 ) Soil Name: ack Solodized Solonetz developed on morainal material series) location SE 4-48-2l-W4 Elevation 755 m ASL (2476 ft) Climate: Reference Camrose 675 m ASL. Appendix B.l. East .facing Forest Slopes 1ow relief Parent material: Stoniness: stony Drainage. moderate; external, well drained Agrocl imate: Soil Capability for Agriculture: 3D land Use: - field (managed) Classification: Canada Black Solodized Solonetz U.S.A. Natric Cryoboroll F.A.O. Mollie Solonetz

Horizon Depth (em) Ah 0-6.5 dark brown (10YR 2/2 d) clay loam; moderate, fine, gran- ular; soft; roots abundant; clear somewhat wavy boundary; 4.5 to 8.5 em thick; strongly acid. Ahe 6.5-11.5 Dark grayish brown (lOYR 4/2 d) loam to clay loam; weak, fine, slightly hard; roots abundant; clear somewhat wavy 4 to 6 em thick; strongly acid. Ae 11.5-16.5 brown (lOYR 5/2 d) loam; moderate, fine, platy; hard; mottles, common, fine to medium, faint to roots abundant; abrupt wavy boundary; 3 to 7 em acid. Bnt1 16.5-25.5 dark sh brown {10YR 3/2 m) clay loam; strong, me- dium, columnar; very hard; roots exped compressed abundant; clear sn~oth boundary; 7 to 11 em thick; strongly acid. Surface of columns stained. Bnt2 25.5-38.0 dark brown (lOYR 2/2 m) silt loam; strong, medium to ar bl ; very hard; roots exped plentiful boundary; 10 to 15 em thick; medium

BC 38.0-61.0 to dark brown (10YR 4/3 m) silt loam; moderate, fine, hard; roots plentiful; clear· smooth boundary; 16 to ck· neutral. Ck 61.0-79.0 sh brown to dark brown (lOYR 4/2-4/3 m) silt loam; , medium, blocky; hard; roots plentiful; clear smooth very weakly effervescent; moderately alkaline. liCks 79.0+ dark grayish brown (2.54 3/2 m) silty clay to clay; mod- erate, coarse, angular blocky, till; hard; contains coal flecks, ironstones, carbonates, salts, and stones; roots few; effervescent moderately alkaline; some gravel stones e. APPENDIX A.l .l. ANALYSES OF A BLACK SOLODIZED SOLONETZ AT SITE l (ARMENA) ANALYSES DU SOLONETZ SOLODISEE NOIR A SITE. l

Exchangeable Cations Conduc- Water Soluble Salts Cations echangeables t i vit,~ Sels ~olub!e en eau Con due- Buffered ti vite ~H Total CaC0 3 Total Tameonee NHaAc (eH7) Horizon R 1T cac1 c Equ. N C/N Total Ca Mg Na K Ca+Mg Na K Cl so SAR 2 2 O/ OJ O' 4 Ia /o Ia (meq/lOOg) mmhos/cm (me/1)

Ah 5.2 4.6 7.59 0.58 l 3 29.7 9.34 3.33 0.69 0.92 Ahe 5.4 4.3 2.52 0.21 12 12.3 2. 19 l . 02 0.78 0.2J Ae 5.4 4.4 1. 27 0.11 12 10.8 3.131.18 2. 04 0.15 Bntl 5.3 5. l 1.24 0.09 14 23.7 9.47 3.69 8.92 0.28 Bnt2 5.6 5.5 1. 25 0.08 16 26.7 13.19 4.66 10.41 0.42 0.64 2.0 12.8 0.18 0.2 14.0 12.8 BC 6.7 6.6 0.5 2. 72 13.0 29.4 0.15 0.2 35.0 11 . 53 Ck 7.9 7.9 1.2 2.46 3.0 23.1 0.070.1 22.0 18.86 IIC ks 7.9 8.0 3.7 2.98 5.0 33.4 0.12 0.1 32.0 21.12 >-' N '-l

~ Organic Matter Ph.i:sical Moisture ~at1ere organique Physique Hum1d1te Horizon Extracted Cha/ FA HA Part size dist. 1I 3 atm. 15 a tm Cfa E4/E6 E4/E6 Sand Si 1t F-Cla.i: (' BEL v N Sable Limon Argile Argile F. % % %< 2 mm % ---·· Ah 40.1 44.7 2.03 11.4 10.9 29 35 36 19 38.50 27.04 Ahe 53.1 60.0 0.92 9.6 10.9 37 36 27 16 Ae 51.1 35.6 0.56 10.7 9.5 50 39 11 6 14.51 7. 72 Bntl 44.6 46.7 0.50 13.5 9.0 30 38 32 16 35.85 17.63 Bnt2 43.9 37.5 0.67 15.8 15.3 20 61 19 7 BC 21 64 15 8 Ck 19 69 12 3 ucks 9, 40 51 27 128

Field description, analysis, and micromorphology of an Orthic Dark Brown Chernozemic soil at Site 2 (Rowley)

Soi Na:ne: Orthic Dark Brown Chernozemic soil Location: Se 26-32-20-H4 Elevation: 862 m (2830 ft.) ASL Reference Drumheller. Appendix B.l South faci Medi grass rie S1 opes of lO- Parent Material: Ora drained Stoniness: stony

5T Land Ranching, mostly native pasture Classification: Canada Orthi c Dark Brovm Chernozemi c U.S.A. Udic Ustochrept F.A.O. Haplic Kastanozem

Horilon Depth (em)

Ah 0-6 dark grayish brown (2.5Y 3/2 d, lOY 3/2 m) loam; moder­ ate, fine, angular blocky to fine granular; slightly hard; clear i ar boundary; roots fine abundant 4 to 8 em thick; mil alkaline. Bm 6-12 Dark grayish brown (2.5Y 4/2 d, 2.5Y 4/2-3/2 m) sandy clay loam; strong, medium, prismatic to medium subangular blocky; hard; abrupt boundary; roots fine plentiful; 4 to 8 em thick; mildly al ine. Ck 12-42 li gray (lOYR 7/2 d, 2.5Y 5/4 m) clay loam; strong, medi- um, prismatic breaking down to subangular blocky; hard; abrupt smooth boundary; roots fine to very fine, plentiful; 20 to 36 em thick moderately effervescent; moderately alkaline. Cca 42-57 Olive brown (2.5Y 4/4 d) silt loam; strong, medium, prismatic breaking down to fine, subangular blocky; hard; abrupt smooth boundary; roots fine, plentiful; strongly effervescent; moderately a l ka 1 i ne. Some sand.

Csk 1 57-179 Olive brown (2.5Y 4/4 d) loam; massive; mottled dark grayish brown (2.5Y 4/2 d); roots medium, few; moderately efferve­ scent; moderately alkaline. Csk2 at 6 m Olive brown (2.5Y 4/4 d) loam; massive; mottled dark grayish brovm (2.5Y 4/2 d) roots medium, few. Till has coal flecks, ironstones, carbonates, salts, and siltstones. This profile sampled on the top of a hummock in the oromor­ position. Gravel stones may be found throughout profile. Tops of hum­ mocks usually have large granite boulders. Con due- Water Soluble Salts tivit.z: Sels soluble en eau pH C CaCO N C/ Dithionite Oxalate Pyrophos. Conduc- Horizon H CaC1 Total Equ. 3 Total N Fe Al Mn Fe Al Fe Al tivite Ca+Mg Na K HC0 Cl SAR 2o 2 3 so % % % % % % % % % % mmhos/cm me/1 4

Ah 7.7 7.2 4.00 0.0 0.37 11 Bm 7.5 7.5 2.12 0.5 0.27 10 10.5 0.08 0.04 0.16 0.10 0.14 0.08 Ck 8.0 8.0 6.6 Cca 8.2 8.2 11.9 .4 2.0 2.8 • 31 2.8 Cskl 7.9 7.9 5.0 5.6 5.3 38.0 . 79 1. 6 .7 85.5 7.4 Csk2 8.5 8.5 6.8 .7 2.5 6.0 .26 5.9

Available nutrients Organic Matter Mineralogy Part size dist. Assimilable Mati~re organique Mineralogie Anal. Gran. ~ ~ Extracted S.: .E ....; !:t ~ Cl.l c: ~,!! ~~ Bu1 k D. Moisture '-0 E~tr:~i_t_ Cha/ FA HA ~·.:! 0 ~ ~ ~ -g:;;;::. ~ m·c; G'c; Dens. Humidit~ Horizon N · P-Bray K S c N Cfa E4/E6 E4/E6 i: .45 5- ,J!. :;; :; G J.. App. 1/3 atm 15 atm % % ~ ~ • ~~~• ~ ~ 1 % < 2J-Im clay;..argile % < 2 mm g/cm3 % %

Ah 1 16 365 7 28.1 27.2 1.12 12.3 5.6 2 tr tr 2 1 44 30 26 15 24 16 Bm <1 3 283 4 33.3 31.7 0.65 15.3 3.3 tr tr tr 2 1 50 24 26 17 1.46 19 12 Ck <1 0 280 3 43 29 28 13 1.55 Cca 30 65 5 2 Cskl tr tr tr 2 2 tr 30 34 26 16 1.70 Csk2 43 32 25 16 1.90

1Amount estimated from x-ray diffractograms. Estimation par diffractions des rayons x: tr =trace, 1 = 2-20%, 2 = 20-40%, 3 = 40-60%, 4 = 60-80%, 5 = 80-100%. 130

Appendix A.l.2. Micromorphology of anOrthic Chernozemic soil at Site 2 ( ey)

a.plane light b.plane light

Bm This horizon is moderately packed brown material whi consists strongly coalesced aggregates (

AQpendix A. 1.3. Field description, analysis, and micromorphology of a Rego Dark Brown Chernozemic soil at Site 3 (Munson) Soil Name: Rego Dark Brown Chernozemic soil developed on heavy clay lacustrine material Location: NW 2-30-20-W4 Elevation: 829 m ASL (2720 ft) Climate: Reference Drumhel1er. Appendix B. 1. Aspect: Level Topography: Nearly level Landform: Level Stoniness: Stone free Parent Material: Lacustrine Drainage: Well drained Agroclimate: 2A Soil Capability for Agriculture: 2C Land Use: crops - field (managed) Classification: Canada Rego Dark Brown Chernozemic U.S.A. Entic Haploboroll F.A.O. Haplic Kastanozem

Pedon Description Horizon Depth (em) Ap 0-15 Very dark grayish brown (lOYR 3/2 m) heavy clay; moderate, fine, granular; abrupt smooth boundary; firm; few medium roots, most roots destroyed by cultivation; 10 to 20 em thick; moderately alka1ine. Ckl 15-76 Very dark grayish brown (2.5Y 3/2 m) heavy clay; moderate, fine, granular; friable; clear smooth boundary; roots, few, fine to medium; moderately effervescent; mildly alkaline. Faces of structure very shiny. Ck2 76-120 Very dark grayish brown (2.5Y 3/2 m) heavy clay; moderate, medium, subangular blocky; friable; moderate effervescent; mildly alkaline. zon 7:""~'C~"-;:-~~" N

N K s c N Cj OJ % /0 /o % %

Ap 7. 7 7.4 3.17 0.3 10 3 7 4 , 8 29.3 1 . 14.0 4.6 0. Ckl 7.8 7.5 6.3 23 0 6 k2 7.6 7.8 8.6.

' _). _. ' ..... ""' """' ...... '""""""'" '-.Y""' • '"

Ap 2 28 70 50 • 89 47 27 2 tr tr 2 1 tr Ckl l 76 51 . 87 tr tr tr 2 1 Ck2 1 28 31 l. 24 tr tr tr 2 2 tr

1Amount estimated from x- diffractograms. Estimation par di tions des rayons x: tr =trace, 1 = 20%, 2 = 20-40%, 3 = 40- • 4 = 60-80%, 5 = 80-100%. 133

Appendix A.l.3. a Chernozemic soil at Site 3

a. plane light b.plane light c.X polarizers

Ap This horizon is dense to moderately packed light to medium brown ay mat- erial with some silt and very li e (Fig. a). S planes and channels are (0) and small (<250~m) irregular are (C). Organic material is (F) and occurs mainly as well humified bl material (<150~m) embedded in the matrix (1 in Fig. a). Larger. moderately humifi material occurs in channels and occa- sionally in the matrix. Ferruginous les (50-200~m) are (VR) and mostly sharp. -1- ma-mosepic porphyroskelic Ckl This horizon is moderately medium brown ay material with some silt and very little sand. There are accommodated peds (200-4000~m with most 500-2000~m) (Fig. b) that in many areas are strongly fused. Both tend to dense material with tC) 1rregular vughs (1 500~m) and some thin skew anes and channels. Organic material is (CJ and occurs mainly as well humi ed ack material (<150~m) embedded in the matrix. Larger (l 500~m) material is nd in channels and occasionally in the matrix. Ferruginous les (40-200~m) are (VR) and mostly sharp. -1- skel-ma-mosepic porphyroskelic -2- matrifragmic//matrigranoidic//matrigranoidic porphyroskelic Ck2 This horizon consists of li to ium brown cl material with no sand and very little silt (Fig. c). The major part of this material is dense, has (F) thin skew planes and (C) ( lOOO~m), and the ay exhibits weak to moderate orientation. Minor areas consist partiall accommodated peds (0.5-2mm) many of which are fused and ay bits s orientation. Diffuse moderately oriented clay nodules (l ) are ( ) throughout this horizon. Small diffuse sesqui die les \ 150~m) and sharp manganiferous nodules are both tVR). -1- mosepic porphyroskelic matrifragmic-matrigranoidic//matrigranoidic porphyros lie 134

Field description, analysis, and micromorphology of a Brown Solo­ dized Solonetz soil at Site 4 (Brooks) Soil Name: Brown Solodized Solonetz developed on medium textured glacial till location: SE 6-20-l5-W4 Elevation: 762 m ASL ( 2501 ft) Climate: Reference Brooks. Appendix B.l. Aspect: Level Topography: Nearly level with slopes of 0.5-2% landform: Nearly level Stoniness: Slightly stony Parent Material: Glacial till Agroclimate: 3A Soil Capability for Agriculture: 4D Land Use: Native range Classification: Canada Brown Solodized Solonetz U.S.A. Aridic Natriboroll F.A.O. Solodic Planosol

Horizon Depth (em) Ah 0-3 Brown to dark brown (lOYR 4/3 d) loam; weak, fine, granular; loose; roots abundant fine; abrupt smooth boundary; 2 to 4 em thick; neutral. Ae 3-7.5 Grayish brown (lOYR 5/2 d) loam; moderate, fine, platy; soft; roots abundant fine and medium; abrupt smooth boundary; 2 to 5.5 em thick; neutral. Bntl 7.5-17.5 Dark grayish brown (2.5Y 4/2 m) clay loam; strong, medium, columnar; extremely hard; roots plentiful fine ,1nd medium, often compressed; abrupt smooth boundary; 8 to 12 em thick; neutral. Bnt2 17.5-25.5 Brown to dark brown (lOYR 4/3 d) clay; strong, medium to coarse, angular blocky; very hard; roots plentiful fine and medium; clear smooth boundary; 6 to 10 em thick; mildly alkaline. Cca 25.5-40.5 Light olive brown (2.5Y 5/4 d) clay loam; moderate, medium, subangular blocky, very hard; roots plentiful fine and me­ dium; clear smooth boundary; 12 to 18 em thick; moderately effervescent; moderately alkaline. Ckl 40.5-60.5 Dark grayish brown (2.5Y 4/2 d) loam; moderate, coarse, ang­ ular blocky; very hard; roots plentiful fine and medium; clear smooth boundary, 16 to 24 em thick; weakly effervescent; moderately alkaline.

Ck2 60.5-78.5 Dark grayish brown (2.5Y 4/2 d) clay loam; weak, medium to coarse, angular blocky; very hard; roots few fine; abrupt smooth boundary; 16 to 20 em thick; weakly effervescent; mod­ erately alkaline.

liCk 78.5-94 Yellowish brown (lOYR 5/4 d) sandy loam; single grain; loose; no roots; abrupt smooth boundary; 14 to 17 em thick, weakly effervescent; strongly alkaline.

IIICk 94+ Dark grayish brown (2.5Y ~.2 d) clay loam; massive glacial till; very hard; some stones, soils, coal flecks, ironstones; weakly effervescent; moderately alkaline. APPENDIX A.3.4. ANALYSES OF A BROWN SOLODIZED SOLONETZ SOIL AT SITE 4 BROOKS) ANALYSES DU SOLONETZ SOLODISE BRUN A SITE 4 BROOKS

Horizon pH Total CaC0 3 Total C/N Exchangeable cations Organic matter H 0 CaCl C Equ. N Cations echangeables mati~re organique 2 2 Buffered NH 0Ac(pH) Extracted Cha/ Tamponee 4 Extrait Cfa FA HA Total Ca Mg Na K C N E4/E6 E4/E6 % % % me/lOOg % %

Ah 6.8 6.4 2.65 0.24 11 15.3 9.49 3.46 0.68 0.92 31.1 28.8 0. 72 6.9 5.3 Ae 6.8 6.0 1.62 0.15 11 11 . 4" 6. 25 2. 31 1. 99 0. 52 37.3 33. 1 0.64 9.0 5. l Bntl 7.2 6.8 l. 31 0.4 0.13 10 ~).7 14.22 4.82 4.16 0.95 30.6 25.8 0.67 11.5 5.0 Bnt2 7.9 7.7 1.34 1.1 0.13 9 31.7 25.47 9.02 8.51 1.35 23.0 20.0 0.60 22.0 5.2 Cca 8. 1 8.0 7.9 27.1 23.4 0.57 18.0 5.4 Ckl 8.3 8.1 3.5 44.6 24.0 1.19 10.0 5.2 Ck2 8.4 8. l 4.5 liCk 8.6 8.1 2.9 I IICk ...... 8.0 8.0 2.0 C0 (J1

-- -~ Horizon Part Size Dist Moisture Anal. gran. Humidite Sand Silt C1a~ F-C1a~ 1/3 15 Sable Limon Argile Argile f atm atm % < 2mTil % %

Ah 42 44 14 l1 23.54 12.32 Ae 44 45 11 8 Bntl 32 36 32 24 Bnt2 29 29 4? 34 39.25 27.44 Cca 32 35 33 23 Ckl 39 35 26 16 Ck2 34 36 30 16 I1Ck 61 22 17 10 I liCk 44 22 34 22 1

s, and micromorphology of a Brown ) on medium textured glacial till

X B. 1. 0.5-2%

ve range

zon Ah 0-10 OYR 4/3 d) cl oam, weak, ne, gran­ abundant fine, ear smooth boundar-y; 8 sli acid. ·

Ahe 10-19 OYR 5/2 d) clay, weak, fine, granular to ; soft; roots fine; clear smooth em ck; sli d Ae 19-28 ne, pl soft, ; 7 to em thick;

AB 28-34 lOYR 6/2 d) crushed, surface of brown 4/3 ) te, um bl ; hard; em

Bnt 34-40 to brown (lOYR 4/2-4/3 d) silty clay loam; columnar breaking to moderate, medium, entiful; ear smooth boundary; 4 to y alkaline 40-68 loam; moderate, coarse, pris- fine smooth boundary; 24 to 32 effervescent moderately alkal ne. 68-91 ; blotched with salts ; roots few fine; clear effervescent, moderately

IICsk2 91+ cl clay ca tos, iron- weakly APPENDIX A.3.5. ANALYSES OF A BROWN SOLOD SOIL AT SITE 5 (BROOKS) j-//}LJ. ;PAf ANALYSES DU SOLDO BRUN A SITE 5 (BROOKS) -- -- _____.

Horizon ~H Total CaC0 Total C/N Exchangeable cations Conduc- Water Soluble Salts CaCl Equ. 3 N Cations echangeables Sels solubles en eau H20 2 c ti viti: ( ) Conduc- Buffered NH40Ac pH7 tivite Tamponee Total Ca Mg K Ca+Mg Na Cl S0 SAR Na K HC0 3 4 % % % mmhos/cm me/1

Ah 6.5 5.6 2.99 0.22 14 14.6 6.88 2.43 0.01 1.47 Ahe 8.1 5.2 1.14 0.10 11 11.4 5.31 2.66 0. 78 0.40 Ae 7.5 6.6 0.57 0.2 0.05 11 6.8 2.97 1.84 2.53 0.41 AB 7.6 7.4 0.66 0.3 0.08 8 26. 7 9. 69 11 . 0 11 . 9 2. 31 Bnt 7.9 7.9 0.69 0.2 0.08 8 31 . 7 11 . 3 1 3. 3 12. 3 2. 84 1. 47 2.0 15.3 0.21 8.1 4.7 0.4 15.3 BCk 8.2 8.2 1.6 2.20 4.5 33.8 0.54 6.5 11.9 20.0 22.53 I ICskl 8.0 8.0 1.6 6.73 42.0 65.6 1.31 4.5 7. 8 87. 0 14. 31 IICsk2 7.8 7.9 0.8 6.13 32. 5 52. 5 l . 11 2. 4 4.4 73.0 12.95 f-' w -....J Horizon Organic Matter Part Size Dist. mati~re organiques Anal. gran. Extracted Cha/ FA HA Sand Silt C1ai: F-C1ai: Moisture Extra it Cfa E4/E6 E4/E6 sable Limon Argile Argile-f Humidite c N l/3 15 % % % <2 mm atm atm % %

Ah 30.2 35.6 l. 16 14.0 5.6 23 37 40 23 26.14 10.97 Ahe 49.2 48.1 0.89 18.0 5.2 18 36 46 20 Ae 49.7 35.4 l. 19 7.0 4. 1 26 46 28 14 19.92 5.83 AB 39. 7 21 . 3 0.87 4.4 24 46 30 16 Bnt 39.1 17.0 1. 37 4.3 16 56 28 13 51 . 29 26. 19 BCk 42.1 27.2 1. l 0 11.0 4.7 21 51 28 12 IICskl 10 47 43. 29 IICsk2 20 43 37 23 138

e d an ic Regosol s ine phase so·i at

developed on uvial mate al.

ix 8, l.

less 2~0

ity: 6N on: ne phase

zon Depth (em)

Apsk 10 3 m) sil ay loam· massive breaking to lar bloc ; so s clear smoo ldly

ACsk 10-34 3/3 m) sil loam; massive breaking ular bl soft; l smooth em thick; weakly effervescent, ldly

Csk 34+ Dark m) silty clay loam; massive; of salts carbon- rvescent; moderately APPENDIX A.4.6. ANALYSES OF AN ORTHIC REGOSOL SALINE PHASE AT SITE 6 (BENALLACK FARM) ANALYSES DU REGOSOL ORTHIQUE {PHASE SALIN) A SITE 6 {BENALLACK FARM)

Horizon Q!:i_ Total CaC03 Total Exchangeab1es cations Con due- Satu- Water Soluble Salts H20 c Equ. N Cations echangeab1es tivit~ ration Sels soluble en eau Buffered NH 0Ac( pH7) Conduc- Tamponee 4 tivite Ca Mg Na K H20 Ca+Mg Na K Cl % % % me/lOOg mmhos/cm % me/l

Apsk 7.5 1. 99 5.41 0.20 28.8 7.2 6.9 1.5 12. 1 66 43.9 126.0 1 . 7 3.2 ACsk 7.8 1.40 4.17 0.16 31.7 10.410.71.1 34.9 75 176.9 497.7 1. 7 3.2 Csk 8.1 0.53 9.33 0.07 95.5 12.8 8.9 0.7 33.6 78 383.7 361.6 .9 3.7

Horizon Available Nutrients Part Size Oist. Ass1milab1e Anal. gran. Sand Silt Cla~ F-C1a~ >-' sable Limon Argile Argil e-f w N P-Bray K lO ppm % < 2 mm

Apsk 2 22 420 11 58 31 17 ACsk 1 15 270 12 60 28 6 Csk 1 8 160 7 53 40 90 140

eld Des on analysis of an ic Brown Chernozemic soil at Site 7 {Benall Farm) Soil Chernozemic soil developed on glaciolacustrine 18-W3 Appendix B.l.

y drained (cereals) 2A

c Chernozemic U.S.A. Aridic roll F.A.O. Haplic

Horizon Depth (em)

Ap 0-10 sh brown (1 5/2 d) silt loam; strong, coarse, su lar ocky breaking to moderate ne subangular blocky; ; clear boundary; 8 to 12 em thi ; very weakly effervescent; mildly ine.

Btj 30 Dark brown (lOYR 3/3 m) silty clay loam; moderate to strong, medium to coarse~ prismatic breaking to strong, medium to coarse, subangular bl ; soft; clear smooth dary; very weakly e rvescent; occasional salt crystal, ldly alkaline.

Ckl 30-54 Yellowish brown (lOYR 5/4 m) silty clay loam; moderate, coarse, sma c breaking to medium and coarse, subangular bl • soft; clear smooth boundary; 22 to 26 em ck; mod- to s effervescent; mildly alkaline.

Ck2 54+ Brown 4/3 m) silt loam to sil clay loam; mass ve , coarse, prismatic breaking to um coarse, ar ; moderate effervescent; ldly kaline. ~~~~~-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~)

izon Total Caco 3 1 C/N C Equ. N NH 0Ac (pH?) H 0 4 ti vite 2 Ca Mg Na K /em K Cl % % Jo me/lOOg %

7.4 0.18 10 20.3 3.7 0.1 1.4 0.8 53 5.3 .6 . 7 . 2 7.4 L 0. 0. 2 8.3 _:23.0 6.9 0.1 0.7 0.6 55 4.9 . 5 .2 .2 7.6 0.67 11. 0. 20.0 LO 0.3 0.5 0.6 56 4.4 .0 .2 .4 7.8 8. 16.2 15.6 1.2 0.5 1.9 9.8 11.6 • 2 1.8 rizon ts

N K, --·~---- .. _...... ~ % < mm

10 52 27 12 1 23 5 17 8 53 27 16 142

62£~_n d i X 5 . 8. Fi e l d on, analysis, and cromorphology of an Orthic Brown Brown Chernozemic soil at Site 8 (Girodat Farm) Soil Name: ic Brown to Dark Brown Chernozemic soil developed on lacustrine mate a ove ng glacial till ation: 29- 18-W3 Elevation: 911 m (2990 ) Climate: Reference Shaunavon. Appendix B. l. Aspect: South Topography: Slopes of 2-3% i ness: Drainage: 1 drai Land Use: Cropped (ce s) Agroclimate: 2A Soil Capa l ity for Ag culture: 3M Classification: Canada Orthic Grown to Dark Brown Chernozemic U.S.A. Aridic Haploboroll F.A.O. Aridic stanozem

Pedon Description Horizon Depth (em)

Ap 0-10 Very dark grayish to dark grayish brown (lOYR 3/2-4/2 m) loam; moderate, medium to coarse, prismatic breaking to weak medium platy; soft; contains some B; 8-12 em thick; neutra 1. Gml 10-20 Dark grayish brown (lOYR 4/2 m) loam; moderate to strong, medium, prismatic breaking to fine, granular; soft; 8 to 12 em thick; neutral.

Bm2 20-34 Dark yellowish brown (lOYR 4/4 m) clay loam; moderate to strong, urn to coarse, prismatic breaking to moderate, ium and coarse, subangular blocky; soft; 12 to 16 em ick; moderately to strongly effervescent; neutral.

Ck 34-80 Yellowish brown (lOYR 5/4 m) silt loam; moderate to strong, medium to coarse, prismatic breaking to moderate, medium to coarse, subangular blocky; soft; 12 to 20 em thick; mod- erately e neutral. liCk 80-120 Very dark (lOYR 3/2 m) clay loam; massive breaking to to strong, medium to coarse, subangular blocky 11; contains shale fragments, CaS04, iron • stones; weakly effervescent; mildly alkaline .

IICks 120+ Very dark grayish brown (lOYR 3/2 m) clay loam; massive breaking to rate to strong, coarse, subangular blocky glacial 11; contains shale fragments, CaS04 crystals, iron flecks; weakly effervescent, neutral. APPENDIX A.5.8.

Caco Total Exchangeable cations Conduc- Horizon £!j_ Total 3 C/N Satu- Water Soluble Salts H20 c Equ. N Cations echangeables tivitJ-: ration Sels soluble en eau Conduc- Buffered ~OAc(pH7) Tamponee tivite Ca Mg Na K Ca+Mg Na K Cl % % % me/lOOg mmhos/cm Ht me/1

Ap 7. -z 1. 78 0.17 11 14.4 4.5 o.T -0.8 0.5 44 4.0 .4 .4 .4 Bml 6.8 1. 75 0.17 10 12.8 4.5 0.1 0.5 0.6 50 5.2 .4 . 2 .4 Bm2 6.9 1.05 0.05 17.8 5.7 0.1 0.5 0.7 49 6.7 . 61 . 2 .2 Ck 7.2 0.37 16.66 21.4 5.3 0. 1 0.3 0.6 49 4.0 . 61 . 2 . 2 liCk 7.5 9.83 16.0 14.4 1.0 0.6 1.8 46 10.3 10.2 .43 2.6 liCks 7.3 9.16 75.0 11.5 1.3 0.6 7.2 47 85.7 31.7 1. 06 6.8

-- ' Horizon Available Nutrients Part size Dist. >-' ~nal. gran. +:> Assimilable w N P-Bray Sand Silt ClaJ-: F-Clay Sable Limon Argile Argile fine ppm % < 2 mm

Ap 13 270 34 40 25 17 Bml 8 155 31 44 25 1 7 8m2 4 125 21 51 28 20 Ck 2 90 29 50 21 1 3 IICk 2 180 36 32 32 18 liCks 5 220 32 30 35 18 144

Appendix A.5.8. Micromorphology of an ic Brown to Brown soil at Site 8 (Girodat rm)

a.plane light b.X polarizers c.plane light d.plane light

Ap The fabric consists of moderately to densely packed, angular silt and very fine sand grains, with scattered fine and medium sand grains (Fig. a). Most grains (70%) are clean, but approximately 10-155{, have very thin (Z-611ml free grain argillans. Interstitial material is composed of fine silt grains, including plant opal, and dark brown organic particles. This interstitial material partially coats some 30% of the skeletal grains and determines the colour of the horizon. Channels are the main coarse pores. Partially decomposed plant fragments are widespread. -1- granular to intertextic -2- matrichlamydic//phyto-orthogranic Bml The fabric consists of moderately packed silt and very fine sand grains and aggregates of fine silt, organic matter and clay. Darker areas contain more silt size organic particles and lighter areas have mor·e clay, but less organic matter. Approximately 60% of the grains in lighter coloured areas are partly coated by very thin (2-lOum) argillans. Plant opal is conspicuous in the fine silt fraction. -1- intertextic with granular areas -2- separated and mixed complex fabric. phyto-mull-matrigranoidic/matrichlamydic Bm2 The fabric consists of moderately to densely packed angular silt and very fine sand grains (Fig. b). Most grains are clean, but about 15% are partially coated by very thin free grain argillans (2-6um). Channels are the principal form of coarse pore. -1- granular -2- orthogranic Ck The fabric consists of moderately to densely packed angular silt and very fine sand grains, 80% of which are clean (Fig. c). Fine silt and organic matter occupies some interstitial spaces. Local areas have interstitial pores filled with microcrystallene calcium carbonate. Channels are rare. -1- granular with crystic areas -2- orthogranic I!Ck The fabric consists of moderately to loosely packed aggregates (0.2-2.0mm) with a dense matrix of silt and clay, containing very fine to medium sand grains (Fig. d). A thin zone of oriented plasma occurs around some of the larger skeletal grains and some exposed grains have thin (5-lOum) free grain argillans. Com­ pound packing voids are the main coarse pores. Calcium carbonate occurs both as skeletal grains and as a matrix constituent. Porosity appears greater than the over­ lying horizon. -1- weak skelsepic porphyroskelic -2- metamatrigranoidic IIICksa The fabric consists of a dense matrix of silt and clay with occasional fine and medium sand grains. Porosity is divided among planar voids, vughs and channels. Clusters of sesquioxide deposits are widely scattered. -1- argillasepic porphyroskelic with skelsepic areas 5 Fi d on, anal is, and mic ogy of an Orthic Brown c 1 at Site 9 (Burdett

Soil Name: c Chernozemic 1 developed on fluvial material Location: sw 21 l Elevation: 823 m ASL Climate: Reference Appendix B. 1. Aspect: Nearly level Topography: Slopes of 0. Landform: Blanket material overlyi undulating acial 11 iness: Sli y Parent Material: Loam textured lacus ne mate inage: 1 d ned imate: 3A il Capabi1i for Agriculture: 4~1; irri on 2T Land Use: Cropped eld (managed) assification: Canada Orthic c U.S.A. die F.A.O. Hap lie

Pedon Description Ho zon Depth (em)

Ap 0-10 lowish brown (1 d) cl loam; weak, ar blocky; sli hard; roots destroyed by on; abrupt smoo 7 to 13 em thick; i ne.

Bm l 0-20 ive brown (2.5Y m) loam to ay loam; weak, coarse, subangular blocky; e; roots fine to very fine plenti- ful; abrupt smooth boundary; 8 12 em thick; mildly alkaline.

Ck 20-56 Grayish brown to ive brown (2.5Y 4/4 m) loam; massive; e; roots ne and very ne entiful; clear ; 30 to em thick; moderately effervescent, erately alkaline.

Cca 56-112 5/4 m) nly l ne ve few; clear 62 em thi rate y effervescent;

IICsk n 2-122 loam; very thin laminations; ; clear boundary; ine. liCk 122-200 loam; massive; ly effer-

I liCk 2 m massive;

• rvescent; line. C/N

y Ol /o /o %

0.63 0. 0. 0.10 0 0 0.0 0. 8.0

. 7 .8

que . N • -!-) -!-) s... -~ 0 >- u ,...... s:'"" .-- u l/3 N K s c N E4/E6 ru > atm tm % % l 1e 1 ~b <

--~-----~ --~"--'-,~~~,---'~ ----~--

l F) 4 349 4 1. 41 • I 0.95 lL 3 5.2 tr tr tr L 16 24 10 ') 18 3 19 l. 28 • 1 l. 12 10.0 5.4 l tr L 2 tr 27 12 1. Ck 6 0 3 47 23 11 l. 51 Cca 1 7 72 11 6 1. I ICsk 32 28 40 13 liCk 37 36 27 17 l. 86 I IICk 37 36 27 15

nt estima x-ray diffractograms. Estimation par diffractions des rayons x: tr = l = 2- , 2 = 20-40%, 3 = 40- , 4 , 5 = 100%. a rno- se 1 Name: loped

Elevation: Climate.

ture

i c ture )

Ho zon Depth (em) Apk 0-20

Ckl 20-53 5.4 m) loam, roots ne effervescent;

Ck2 53-94 oam; massi ent l

Ck3 94-163 thin e; roots rate1y mately NO I X A. 6 . 10 •

C/N

Buffered NH OAc( pH 7) Tamponee 4 Ca Mg K K 0/ /o % % 100g mmhos/cm

7.8 7. 2. 12 3.6 0.18 10 38.97 6.15 . 35 2. 02 2.6 3.0 2.4 4.4 . 3 . 7 -, 7. 8 7.7 16.8 4.9 13.8 .4 2.6 ' f 68 2.3 8.0 7.8 17 0 5.0 14.7 . 3 2 4 . 7 68 2.6 8.2 7.9 14.6 1.8 13 8.4 .L" 3.2

Minef~L. zon IWa 1 1 aD e Nutn ents Mineralogie ,_. s... +> +> ,(!) ..J:o. 1'0 0 u >- (X) Cha/ FA HA u r- 1'0 .,... 1M ::J N P-8 K s c N Cfa E4/E6 E4/E6 ::E Vl CY VliVl Vll-1 u I<.:C LL I<.:C LL 0/ 3 % /0 <2~m clay-argilel %<2mm g/cm

~------~~--,-~------~-----~------Apk 17 641 100+ 1.71 0.172 0.42 7.0 5.3 1 tr tr l l 48 27 25 13 l. Ckl 50+ 0 122 100+ 41 33 26 12 2.84 Ck2 tr tr tr 2 l 46 29 25 10 2.07 Ck3 57 19 24 9 1Amount estimated by diffractograms: tr trace, 1 2-20~, 2 20-40%, 3 40-60%, 4 60-80 , 5 = 80-100 Estimation par diffraction des rayons X: = = = = = 149 Appendix A. 6. ll . Field description, anal is and micromorphology of a Calcareous Dark Brown Chernozemic soil at Site ll (Lethbridge) Soil Name: Calcareous Dark Brown Chernozemic soil developed on loam textured lacustrine material Location: Dryland plots at Research Station, Lethbridge Elevatibn: 726 m ASL (2383 ft) Climate: Reference Lethbridge. Appendix B. 1. Topography: Slopes of 0.5 to 2% Landform: Veneer of lacustrine material overlying undulating glacial ti 11 Stoniness: Slightly stony Parent Material : Medium textured lacustrine material overlying glacial till Drainage: Well drained Agrocl imate: 2A Soil Capability for Agriculture: 2C Land Use: Crops field (managed) Classification: Canada Calcareous Dark Brown Chernozemic U.S.A. Typic Haploboroll F.A.O. Haplic K.astanozem

Pedon Description Horizon Depth (em) Ap 0-20 Very dark grayish brown (lOYR 3/2 m) silt loam; moderate, fine, subangular blocky; friable; appears to be compacted by tillage; most of the roots destroyed by cultivation; 16 to 24 em thick; very weakly effervescent; moderately alkaline. Bmk 20-30 Brown to dark yellowish brown (lOYR 4/3-4/4 m) silty clay loam; weak, fine, subangular blocky; some indication of vertical cleavage; very friable; roots fine plentiful; clear smooth boundary; 15 to 20 em thick; weakly effervescent; mildly alkaline. Cca 30-53 Light olive brown (2.5Y 5/4 m) loam; weak, coarse, subangular blocky appearing massive; friable; few fine roots; gradual smooth boundary; 20 to 43 em thick; moderately effervescent; moderately alkaline. IICkl 53-71 Light olive brown (2.5Y 5/4 m) loam to clay loam; fine, weak, subangular blocky; glacial till; common, medium, light yellow­ ish brown (2.5Y 6/3 m) mottles; friable; very few fine roots; some small stones; gradual smooth boundary; moderately effervescent; mildly alkaline. IICk2 71-142 Dark grayish brown (lOYR 4/2 m-2.5Y 4/2 m) clay loam; mod­ erate, medium, subangular blocky; friable; very few fine roots; some small stones; weakly effervescent; mildly al ka 1 i ne.

IICsk 142+ Dark grayish brown (2.5Y 4/2 m) loam; weak fine subangular blocky; very friable; coal flecks, ironstones, carbonates appear as blotches or streaks, some small stones; moderately effervescent; mildly alkaline. ) Total f"' ~ I. N K Al Mn Fe Al Fe vv. 'l'j C/N 'e Al 3 "!a % % % % % % % %

10 20 8 8.81 3.48 .03 .03 8 19. .22 3 89 .04 0 .05 o. c. l 0.04 4 4 .4 . 6 .l 2.9 2

que

Cha/ FA HI\ N P-3r·ay c N E4/E6 Chlor n Smect Venn Qua ds >--' 0/ U1 /!J < 2 \lm cl 1 % C)

9 LHl 1 7 4 8 tr tr tr 2 tr 8 . 81 10.5 5.2 tr tr tr 4 1 1 11 1 .Bl 23 t:r tr tr 2 1 1 J3 25 14 36 J7 27 14 37 34 29 16 . 17 tr tr tr 3 2 tr 44 32 24 15 .25 151

Appendix A.6.ll. Micromorp lcareous Dark Brown Chernozemic soil at Site ll

a. plane light b. partly X c. X polarizers Ap This horizon is moderately packed medium brown material consisting of ske- leton grains (<250~m) and fine matrix material as poorly formed aggregates (20-2000~m), weak bridging, and loose to almost complete intergranular fillings (Fig. a). Brown to black organic material (<2mm) is common and most brown material shows little humification. Primary carbonate is present as occasional fine sand and coarse silt. -1- intertextic grading to skel-insepic porphyroskelic -2- matrigranoidic//gefuric//gefuric porphyroskelic

Bmk This horizon is dense medium brown material with (C) metavughs (100-lOOO~m), (0) channels, and (R-0) short joint and skew planes. Carbonates are very abundant and occur as primary sand and silt grains, some secondary nodules, and as fine matrix material with some areas practically all carbonates. There are some areas of moderately packed to coalesced aggregates (20-200~m) and skeleton grains. Gypsum crystals are (VR) and occur as clusters in some of the channels. -1- weak skelsepic porphyroskelic with some intertextic areas -2- matrigranoidic//matrigranoidic porphyroskelic Cca This horizon consists of moderately packed medium brown material that con- tains carbonate rich matrix material that partially to completely fills the intergranular spaces between the skeleton grains. Carbonate is very common as silt and fine sand grains. Vugh neocalcans are (R-0), and diffuse ferruginous nodules (50-lOOO~m) are (R). -1- skelsepic porphyroskelic with some intertextic areas IICkl This horizon consists of moderately packed coarse silty and very fine sandy material with (0) joint planes and vughs, and carbonate rich fine matrix material that occurs as thin (

Appendix A.8. 12. Fie1d description, analysis, and micromorphology of Orthic Black Chernozemic soil at Site 12 (Porcupine) Soil Name: Orthic Black Chernozemic soil developed on glacial till overlying sandstone Location: NW 3-l2-l-W5 Elevation: 1493 m ASL (4900 ft) Climate: Reference Porcupine Tower. Appendix B.l. Aspect: South Vegetation: Grassy slopes with clumps of lodgepole pine and aspen poplar Topography: Slopes of 15-30% Landform: Rolling; dissected Stoniness: Moderately stony Parent Mater i a l : Glacial till overlying bedrock (sandstone) Drainage: Rapidly drained Agroclimate: 5H Soil Capability for Agriculture: 6T Land Use: Native pasture (ranching) Classification: Canada Orthic Black Chernozemic U.S.A. Udic Haploboroll F.A.O. Haplic Chernozem

Pedon Description Horizon Depth (em) Ah 0-14 Black to very dark brown (lOYR 2/l-2/2 d) clay loam; mod­ erate, fine, prismatic to granular; slightly hard; roots fine to medium abundant; clear smooth boundary; 10 to 18 em thick; mildly alkaline. AB 14-25 Very dark grayish brown (lOYR 3/2 d) loam; weak, fine, subangular blocky; slightly hard; roots fine to medium abun­ dant; clear smooth boundary; 8 to 14 em thick; neutral. Bm 25-63 Brown to dark brown (lOYR 4/3 d) loam; moderate, fine, sub­ angular blocky; hard; roots fine to medium abundant; abrupt smooth boundary; 20 to 58 em thick; neutral. IICk at 63+ Dark grayish brown to olive brown (2.5Y 4/2-4/4 m) soft weathered sandstone (Porcupine formation); interstitial material between fragments is silt loam; few, fine to medium roots; strongly effervescent; mildly alkaline. APPENDIX A.8.12. ANALYSES OF ANORTHIC BLACK CHERNOZEMIC SOIL AT SITE 12 PORCUPINE) ANALYSES DU CHERNOZEMIQUE NOIR ORTHIQUE A SITE 12 PORCUPINE

Horizon ~H Total CaC0 Total C/N Exchangeable cations Dith ion ite Oxalate Pyrophos. H 0 CaC1 Equ. 3 N Cations echangeables 2 2 c Buffered ~QAc(pH_Z) Tamponee Total Ca Mg Na K Fe A1 Mg Fe Al Fe Al % % % me/100g ?b % % % % % ~;

Ah 7.8 7.2 5.26 1.4 0. 50 10 32.2 33.21 4.90 0.01 1.10 AB 7.8 7.2 2.26 1.0 0. 20 11 20.8 20.16 2.92 0.00 0.84 Bm 7. 7 7. l 0.80 .6 0. 08 10 14.3 12.72 2.72 0.05 0.55 1.05 0.12 0.03 0.20 0.07 0.07 0.03 liCk 7.9 7.4 28.0

Horizon Available Nutrients Mineralogy Part size dist. Bulk Moisture Assimilable Mineralogie Anal. gran D. Humidite Sand Silt ~ F-ClJ!t 1/3 15 N P-Bray K S Mica Chlor Kaolin Sme Verm Quartz Sable Limon Argile Arille atm atrn 1 3 Oj C/ ppm < 2\lm clay -argile %< 2mm fine gjcrn ,o /0 1-' U1 w Ah 2 4 5 tr tr tr 1 1 29 41 30 16 1.23 32 21 AB

1Amount estimated from x-ray diffractograms. Estimation par diffractions des rayons x: tr =trace, 1 = 2-20%, 2 = 20-40%, 3 = 40-60%, 4 = 60-80%, 5 = 80-100%. 154

Appendix A.8.12. Micromorphol an ic Black Chernozemic soil at Site 12 (Porcupine)

a. plane light b.partly X c.plane light c.X polarizers

Ah is horizon is loosely packed dark brown material consisting of ske- leton grains (30%) (<300~m) and brown to black organo-mineral aggre- gates (20-250~m) (Fig. a). These aggregates occur as partial matrans (l0-40~m) on most grains, bridging between grains, and as loose intergranular llings. Pale yellow to black organic fragments (l00-4000~m) are common and show various stages of humification. Nodules (200-2000~m) are (0) and consist of silty-cl material with and without mineral grains. -1- silasepic agglomero plasmic -2- matrigranoidic//phyto-ortho-mullgranic AB This horizon is moderately pac medium to dark brown material consisting of skeleton grains (500~m) brown aggregates (40-250~m) which occur as partial matrans (l0-50vm) on most grains, bridges between grains and partial to most complete intergranular fillings (Fig. b). In the latter areas the smaller aggregates appear to be fused together to form areas that are dense with (C) vughs. There appears to be more sand in this horizon than in the Ah. Organic fragments are (0). -1- intertextic with some in-skelsepic porphyroskelic areas granoidic porphyroskelic//matrigranic//matrigranoidic Bm This horizon is moderately packed medium brown material in which the major part is dense with (C) vughs while the rest consists of skeleton grains and aggregates {40-250vm) that occur as partial matrans, bridges between grains and loose intergranular fillings (Fig. c). The matrans are sepic and occur on most grains. There is more clay in the s-matrix than in the AB. Thin moderately oriented vugh argillans (l0-30vm) are (R) (1 in Fig. c) and irregular manganiferous nodules (l00-250vm} are (VR). -1- s -mosepic porphyroskelic wi common intertextic areas -2- matripl c//granoidic porphyroskelic liCk This horizon consists y gravel (

Appendix A.9. 13. Field description, analysis, and micromorphology of a Gleyed Eluviated Black Chernozemic soil at Site 13 (lacombe) Soil Name: Gleyed Eluviated Black Chernozemic soil developed on fluvial materia 1 location: Research Station, lacombe Elevation: 848 m ASl (2783 ft) Climate: Reference Lacombe. Appendix B. 1. Aspect: level Topography: Slopes of 0.5 to 2% landform: level Stoniness: No stones Parent Material: Sandy loam textured fluvial material Agroclimate: 2H Soi 1 Capability for Agriculture: 2C land Use: Hay (cultivated) Classification: Canada Gleyed Eluviated Black Chernozemic U.S.A. Typic Cryoboroll F.A.O. Haplic Chernozem

Pedon Description Horizon Depth (em) Ap 0-15 Very dark brown (lOYR 2/2 d) sandy loam; weak, medium, granular to single grain; slightly hard; abundant medium and fine random roots; abrupt smooth boundary; l 0 to 20 em thick; slightly acid. Ah 15-35 Very dark brown (10YR 2/2 d) loamy sand; weak, medium, gran­ ular to single grain; very friable; plentiful fine oblique roots; numerous krotovinas; clear wavy boundary; 15 to 30 em thick; slightly acid.

Ahe 35-40 Brown to dark brown (lOYR 4/3 d) loamy sand; weak, coarse, subangular blocky to single grain; soft; few to plentiful fine and coarse vertical roots; clear broken boundary; 0 to 5 em thick; slightly acid. Ae 35-40 Yellowish brown to brown (lOYR 5/4-5/3 d) loamy sand; weak, fine, platy to granular; soft; few to plentiful fine and coarse vertical roots; clear broken boundary; 0 to 5 em thick; slightly acid. Btjgj 40-75 Dark grayish brown (lOYR 4/2 m) sandy loam; many coarse distinct dark grayish brown (2.5Y 4/2 m) mottles; weak, medium to fine subangular blocky friable; very fipe and medium, vertical roots; gradual smooth boundary; 30 to 40 em thick; neutral. BCgj 75-235 Dark grayish brown (lOYR 4/2 m) sandy loam; many coarse distinct dark grayish brown (2.5Y 4/2 m) mottles; very weak medium subangular blocky to blocky; friable; few medium vertical roots; gradual smooth boundary; 120 to 200 em thick; slightly acid.

Ckg 235+ Dark grayish brovm to olive brown (2.5Y 4/2-4/4 m) sandy loam; many coarse distinct gray (5Y 5/l m) mottles; weak aminated; firm; very few medium roots; weakly to moderately effervescent; mildly alkaline. DONNEES ANALYTIQUES DU CHERNOZEMIC NOIR ELUV!E GLEY!FIE A SITE 13 (LACOMBE)

----~~-~---~~--~ '#··-"~~--·--~-...,_._-----~~~--~-

Conduc-

Buffered !~~r\'... \tJIIi tiviti' Total Total Tampont~e Horizon H~O CaCl, c Eov. N C/N Total Ca Mg Na K Na K SAR % rr.e/lOOg n:1rhos/cn me/1

6.3 5.6 2.9 0.26 11 13. 3 12.5 2.4 0.2 0.2 Ahe 6 3 5. 7 1.0 0.09 9 .9 6.4 1.7 0.4 0 2 Ae 6. 5.7 0.5 0 05 11 5.9 5.3 1.7 0.2 0.2 6.6 6.1 0.3 0.03 11 lL5 8.5 2.9 0.3 0.3 6. l 5.6 0.4 .02 12 1 .8 12.2 3.7 0.3 0.5 Ckg . 5 7.1 6.2 0.3 2.8 0.6 0.12 0.5

nrralor e ,_, (J1 m Chat FA HA 15 Horizon N P-Gray K s lf Cfa E4/E6 E4/E6 Mica Chl Ol' 1 Smect .. , Verm. Quartz a ppm •- an)11e ' ·--·~ - Ap , Ah 14 7 78 4 51.8 46.1 2.10 12.5 4.5 tr tr tt l tr 1 77 16 7 5 16.0 9.0 Ahe 80 15 5 4 7.7 3.6 Ae 3 5 79 2 7 .6 55.0 1. 21 11.0 4.7 tr tr tr 2 1 83 10 7 4 12.0 5.8 Btj gj 3 2 107 9 53.3 55.7 0. 70 8.5 5.4 tr tr tr 4 1 2 67 20 3 8 BCgj tr tr tr 3 1 2 63 14 23 11 Ckg tr tr tr 3 2

1 Amount estimated from x-ray di Estimation par diffractions des rayons x: tr =trace, l 2-20%, 2 = 20-40%, 3 = 40-60%, 4 = 60-80~, 5 = 80-100%. 157

Appendix A.9. 13 of a eyed Eluviated Black Chernozemic soil at ) .

a. partly X b.plane li c.plane light d.plane light Ap The fabric consists of almost equal amounts of loosely packed sand grains (<0.5 ~m) and dark brown to black, organic ch material that occurs as rounded aggregates (10-125 ~m) partially filling intergranular spaces, as discontinuous coatings (5-40 ~m) on grains, and as bridges between grains (Figure a). The dark material includes organic and inorganic material. 1- intertextic with isotic intergranular mate al separated and mixed complex fabric: phyto-mull-orthogranic-matrichlamydic// mullgranoidic Ae The fabric consists of moderately packed sand grains uncoated (30%) and partially (50%) to completely (20%) coated, with few dark aggregates in the intergranular spaces (Figure b). The thin coatings (5-20 ~m) are anisotropic, contain silt grains, and sometimes link grains. -1- granular with thin free grain matrans -2- separated complex fabric: mullg dic//matrichlamydic Btjgj The fabric consists of sand grains and abundant fine matrix material. This ne material occurs as sepic matrans (10-40 ~m) commonly linking grains and as porous to fairly dense intergranular material (Figure c). Porosity is moderate th vughs and packing voids. Manganiferous and sesquioxidic nodules are occasional. -1- skelsepic vughy porphyroskelic with intertextic areas and thin matrans (1 40 ~m) gefuric porphyroskelic. Ckg c consists ne silty, calcareous material (Figure d) occasional as clusters and i ated grains. The colour is mottled gray and brown with the gray areas apparently reduced. Some gray areas are carbonate Voi are common th j nt and skew planes. Manganiferous and sesqui die deposits, mixtures of the two are very common occur as cutans neocutans (1 in gure d), and nodules that range up to 2 ~m in size. -1- weak vosepic porp ic with common nodules. APPENDIX B.l. Selected weather stations along the tour route showing temperature (°C), precipitation (em), and days without frost for the period 1941-70.

EDMONTON: Elevation 665.7 m (2~219 ft) Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Ju1 Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Year ~~an daily temperature -14.7 -10.5 - 5.4- 4.0 10.9 14.7 17.5 15.9 10.9 5.4- 4.2 -10.7 2.8 Mean daily maximum temperature -10.1 - 5.6- .6 9.6 17.0 20.4 23.4 21.7 16.7 11.1 .1 - 6.4 8.1 Mean daily minimum temperature -19.4 -15.5 -10.3- 1.7 4.7 8.9 11.510.1 5.0- 2. -8.4-15.0-2.5

No of days without frost 0 0 1 10 27 30 31 31 26 15 3 0 173 No. of days with measurable precipitation 12 10 10 8 9 12 1 3 12 9 6 9 11 121 Mean total precipitation 2.51 2.01 1.68 2.34 3.73 7.47 8.33 7.16 l .58 1.85 l. 85 2. 13 44.65 CAMROSE: Elevation 664.5 m (2,215 ft) Jan Feb Mar A2L ~ ----June Ju1 fu!.g_ Sept Oct Nov Dec_ Year Mean daily temrature -17.3 -12.9- 7.1 3.1 10.5 14.2 16.9 15.4 10.3 4.2- 5.0 -12.1 1.7 Mean daily maximum temperature -12.0- 6.7- .8 9.4 17.4 20.7 23.4 21.9 16.9 10.9 . l - 6. 9 7.8 Mean daily minimum temperature -22.7 -19.2 -13.5- 3.3 3.6 7.8 10.4 8.8 3.6- 2.4 -10.1 -17.3- 4.5

No. of days without frost 0 0 0 25 30 31 31 24 8 1 0 155 No. days with measurable precipitation 9 6 6 8 10 12 9 8 4 5 6 88 Mean total precipitation l. 78 l. 75 l. 27 3.68 6.88 7.57 6.57 3.45 1.47 1.52 l. 55 39.01 ...... STETTLER: Elevation 900 m (2,700 ft) coU"1 Jan Feb Mar Apr ~ June Ju1_ Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Year Mean daily temperature -14.3 -10.3 - 5.8 3.6 10.3 14.4 17.4 15.8 10.6 5.1-4.2-10.1 2.7 Mean daily maximum temperature - 9.5- 4.7- .4 9.6 17.0 20.9 24.7 22.9 17.4 11.5 .6 - 5.3 8.7 Mean daily minimum temperature -19.2 -15.9 -11.3- 2.5 3.6 7.8 10.2 8.7 3.8- 1.3 9.0 -14.9 - 3.3 No. of days without frost 0 0 1 8 25 30 31 31 25 12 l 0 164 No. of days with measurable precipitation 6 5 5 4 7 10 10 9 7 4 5 4 76 Mean total precipitation 2.08 2.01 1. 88 1. 95 3. 58 7. 92 7. 77 6. 10 3. 76 l. 65 1. 68 l. 68 42.01 DRUMHELLER: Elevation 7998 m (2,660 ft)

No. of days without frost 4 4 4 4 7 9 8 7 6 3 3 4 63 Mean total precipitation l .62 1.65 2.44 1.93 38.3 2.24 6.40 5.38 3.45 1.78 1.52 1.62 38.89 BROOKS: Elevation 746.1 m (2467 ft) Jan Feb Mar Apr ~ ----June Ju1 Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Year Mean daily temperature -13.2- 9.9- 5.1 4.7 11.1 15. 1 18.9 17.4 11.9 - 6.4- 3.3- 9.3 3.7 Mean daily maximum temperature -7.0-3.1 1.3 12.2 18.7 22. 1 26.8 25.3 19.7 14.4 3.1 - 3.1 10.9 Mean daily minimum temperature -19.3 -16.6 -11.3- 2.7 3.5 7.9 10.9 9.6 4.0 - 1.5- 9.8 -15.6- 3.4

No. of days without frost 0 0 1 7 24 30 31 31 24 11 12 0 160 No. of days with measurable precipitation 4 4 4 5 6 10 7 8 6 4 4 4 68 Mean total precipitation l. 80 1.85 1. 78 2.08 3.94 6.53 4.09 53.3 3.33 1.57 1. 50 1 • 50 35. 31 MEDICINE HAT: Elevation 709.5 m (2,365 ft) Jan Feb Mar Apr May --June ---Ju1 ~ Sept Oct Nov Dec Year Mean daily temperature -12.1 - 8.1 - 3.2 5.9 12.1 16. 1 20.2 18.9 13.2 7.6 - 1.6 - 7.6 5. 1 Mean daily maximum temperature - 6.4 - 2.4 2.4 12.9 19.0 22.7 27.9 26.6 20.3 14.5 4.2- 2.1 11.6 Mean daily minimum temperature -17.8 -13.9 - 8.9 - .7 5.2 9.5 12.5 11.3 5.9 6- 7.4 -13.1 - 1.4 No. of days without frost 1 1 2 13 27 30 30 31 27 17 4 1 176 No. of days with measurable precipitation 9 8 7 6 8 10 8 7 7 5 6 8 89 Mean total precipitation 2.26 l. 83 l. 93 2.51 3.61 6.35 3. 86 3. 94 3. 30 1. 70 l. 63 l. 65 34.77

f-.' GULL LAKE: Elevation 945 m (3~150 ft) <..n Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Jul ~ ~ Oct Nov Dec Year 1..0 Mean daily temperature -13.3 -10.2 - 5.6 3.5 9.8 14.1 17.8 16.8 11.0 5.6- 3.6- 9.4 3.1 Mean daily maximum temperature - 8.1 - 4.7- .3 9.9 17.1 20.9 25.7 25.2 18.6 12.6 2.2- 4.1 9.6 Mean daily minimum temperature -18.7 -15.8 -10.8- 2.9 2.5 7.3 9.9 8.4 3.4 - 1.4 - 9.3 -14.7 - 3.5 No. of days without frost l 0 2 6 23 29 31 31 23 12 1 0 159 No. of days with measurable precipitation 7 6 5 6 7 12 7 6 7 5 4 5 77 Mean total precipitation 2 . 31 1 . 40 2 . 0 l 2 . 44 3 . 81 7.92 4.80 3.66 3.91 2.34 1.62 1.35 37.57 SWIFT CURRENT: Elevation 808 m (2,677 ft) Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Jul ~ Sept Oct Nov Dec Year Mean daily temperature -13.9 -10.6 - 5.9 - 3.7 10.3 14.8 18.7 17.7 11.8 6.1 - 3.7- 9.7 3.3 Mean daily maximum temperature - 8.9- 5.6- 1.1 - 9.4 16.8 21.1 25.7 24.8 18.2 12.0 1.1 - 4.9 9.1 Mean daily minimum temperature -19.0 -15.7 -10.7- 2.1 3.7 8.5 11.7 19.5 5.3 • 1 - 8.5 -14.4- 2.6 No. of days without frost 0 0 2 9 25 30 31 31 26 15 2 0 171 No. of days with measurable precipitation 12 10 10 8 9 12 9 8 8 6 9 11 112 Mean total precipitation 2.21 1.73 1.83 2.62 3.61 7.80 5.18 4.60 3.50 2.06 1.93 1.90 38.96 ~HAUNAVO~: Elevation 903 m (3,010 ft) JaQ_ Feb t1ar ~ ~ ~une Jul ~ Sept Oct Nov _Qec Year Mean daily temperature -12.3-9.1-4.7 4.2 10.5 14.8 18.8 17.6 11.8 6.6-2.7-8.3 3.9 Mean daily maximum temperature - 7.2- 3.8 .4 10.2 17.2 24.2 26.3 25.3 18.7 12.7 2.2- 3.4 10.0 Mean daily minimum temperatur·e -17.3 -14.3- 9.8 1.9 3.7 8.3 11.2 9.8 4.9 .3- 7.6 -13.3- 2.2 No. of days without frost 0 0 7 9 24 30 31 31 26 16 4 1 172 No. of days with measurable precipitation 7 6 4 5 8 11 8 7 7 4 4 4 75 Mean total precipitation 2.61 1.95 1.50 2.34 3.33 7.99 5.08 3.96 2.95 1.47 1.45 1.55 35.79 EASTEND: Elevation 900 m (3,000 ft) Jan Feb Mar Apr ~ June ~~l Au_g_ Sept Oct No~ Dec Y r No. of days with measurable precipitation 5 4 3 5 5 7 5 3 4 2 2 2 47 Mean total precipitation 2.48 2.01 1.47 2.08 2.67 6.78 4.85 3.45 2.95 1.19 1.27 .91 32.13

CYPRESS HILLS PARK: Elevation 1350 m (4~500 ft) ---Jan Feb Mar Apr ~ June Jul ~ Sept Oct Nov Dec Year Mean daily temperature -11.3-8.9-5.4 2.2 8.8 13.0 17.1 16.1 10.1 5.1-3.7-8.2 2.9 Mean daily maximum temperature - 5.3 - 2.8 0.0 8.2 14.9 18.8 23.8 22.8 16.6 17.1 1.4- 2.9 9.4 Mean daily minimum temperature -17.2 -15.1 -10.9- 3.7 2.7 7.1 10.4 9.4 3.6- .8- 8.5 -13.6- 3.1 ,.__. No. of days without frost 1 0 1 5 23 29 31 31 24 12 1 0 158 8 No. of days with measurable precipitation 9 6 8 7 7 11 8 6 9 4 5 5 85 Mean total precipitation 2.87 2.59 3.68 4.24 4.32 9.40 4.11 4.27 5.82 3.30 2.46 2.31 49 38 FOREMOST: Elevation 870 m (7,900 ft) --Jan Feb Mar iPI_ ~ June Ju1 Aug Sept Oct------Nov Dec Year Mean daily temperature -10.8- 6.8- 3. 1 5. 1 11.2 15.2 19.2 18.3 12.6 7.4 -1.4-6.9 5.0 Mean daily maximum temperature -5.2-1.2 2.6 11.8 18. 1 22.1 27.4 26.5 20.0 14.6 4.1 - 1.6 11.6 Mean daily minimum temperature -16.4 -12.4- 8.8-1.6 4.2 8.3 11.0 10.1 5. 1 .3- 7.0 -12.3 -1.6 No. of days without frost 1 .1 4 10 25 30 31 31 27 16 2 1 l 78 No. of days with measurable precipitation 7 5 6 6 7 10 6 6 6 4 4 7 74 Mean total precipitation 18.3 1.63 1.78 2.67 3.94 7.09 3.35 3.35 2.64 l. 75 l. 40 l. 29 32. 71 LETHBRIDGE: Elevation 905 m l3,016 ft} ---Jan feb Mar Apr May June Jul ~ Sept Oct Nov Dec Year Mean daily temperature - 9.4 - 5.6 - 2.4 5.3 10.9 14.9 18.8 17.6 12.7 7.6 - .7- 5.5 5.3 Mean daily maximum temperature - 3. 8 . 2 3.3 11.6 17.6 21.2 26.4 25.2 19.6 14. 1 5.1 .l 11.7 Mean daily minimum temperature -15.1 -11.3- 8.3 - 1.2 4.2 8.6 11.2 10.0 5. 7 1.1 - 6.4 -11.1 -1.1 ---Jan Feb Mar Apr ~ June Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Year No. of days without frost 3 2 4 11 24 30 31 31 26 18 6 3 190 No. of days with measurable precipitation 10 9 9 8 10 ll 8 7 7 6 7 9 101 Mean total precipitation 2.29 2.23 2.56 3.58 5.1 8.94 4.50 3.94 3.73 2. 29 2. 31 2.13 43.6 : Elevation 1002 m (3,340 ft) J Ju·l --Jan Feb Mar Apr ~ Aug_ Oct Nov Dec Year Mean daily temperature - 9.4 - 5.6 - 2.8 5.0 10.6 14.2 18.3 16.9 12.2 7.7 .9- 5.7 5.1 Mean daily maximum temperature - 3.6 .2 2.9 11.2 17.2 20.6 25.7 .6 19.3 14.3 4.9 .1 1L4 Mean daily minimum temperature -15.3 -11.3 - 8.6 1.2 3.8 7.8 10.8 9. 3 5.1 LO - 6.8 -11.6- 1.4 No. of days without frost 3 3 3 9 24 29 31 31 24 17 5 3 182 No. of days with measurable precipitation 6 4 5 6 10 9 6 6 6 4 4 5 71 Mean total precipitation 2.06 2.29 2.67 4.27 6.25 9. 85 4.11 4.6 3.78 2.41 1 . 83 2. 08 46. 2

LYNDON: Elevation 1230 m (4,100 ft) JanFebMarAprMayJuneJu1Aug Oct Nov Dec Year Mean daily temperature - 9.3 - 5.6 - 3.6 3.4 8.6 11.9 15.7 14.8 10.5 6.4 - 1.4 5.6 3.8 Mean daily maximum temperature - 3.1 .2 1.8 9.3 15.2 18.5 23.4 .6 17.4 12.9 4.3 .2 10.2 Mean daily minimum temperature -15.5 -11.4- 9.0- 2.4 2.1 5.2 7.9 7.0 3.5- .2 - 7.1 -11.4- 2.6 ~ ,_. No. of days without frost 2 2 3 6 19 28 31 20 15 3 2 162 No. of days with measurable precipitation 7 8 9 9 11 12 9 9 8 5 6 7 100 Mean total prec pitation 2.03 3.10 3.10 4.70 7.24 10.90 5.56 5.56 4.70 2.51 2.56 2.34 54.30

SKYLINE R.S.: Elevation 1635 m (5,450 ft) Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Ju1 Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Year Mean daily temperature 6.4 10. 1 14.4 13.5 8.7 3.7 Mean daily maximum temperature 12.2 15.7 21 . 1 19.8 15.1 9.3 Mean daily minimum temperature .6 4.4 7.7 7.2 2.3 1.8 No. of days without frost 18 27 31 30 21 15 No. of days with measurable precipitation 11 9 8 8 3 Mean total precipitation 10.36 4.62 5.76 5.03 3.43 PEKISKO: Elevation 1416.3 m (4, l ft) Jan Feb r r June Jul v c ea -10.1 - 7.0- 5.4 1.4 6.6 10.2 13.3 12.3 8.4 4.3 2.8 - 6.9 2. 1 7 rat re - 3.4 - . 2 1.3 7.8 13.7 17.2 2L8 • 6 6.2 11.4 6 - • I 9.1 rat re -16.7 -13.8 -12.1 - 5.1 - .4 3.2 4.9 4.1 . 7 2.7- 9.2 1 3. 1 5.0 2 1 1 4 13 29 28 16 9 3 ip tation 7 8 9 10 10 3 8 10 8 6 6 3. l 0 4.11 4. 6. 8. 13. 18 5. 6.35 5. 3. 3 Elevation 1 ( ft) ---Feb r NOV -10.9- 7.4- 4.3 3.3 9.3 15.2 5.7 2.6- 7.0 .4 rature - 5.3 - 1.6 1.3 9. 15.9 1 . L7 9. Q rature -16.7 -13.3 9.8 .9 2.8 8.2 3.9-1.0 8. 13.4 .u 1 1 1 7 30 31 31 24 13 2 1 le recipitation 9 9 11 9 ll 3 11 11 8 6 7 g l l. 70 1.98 2.03 2. 4.98 9.17 6. 5. 3.53 1. L L47 . 71

Elevation .9 m (3, '-1 3 ' Feb - r r J lJ

~· O'l ily rature -12.3 8.6- 5.1 3.1 9.2 12.9 16.0 14.8 10.4 8.4 N ily maximum - 6.7- 2.4 . 5 9.3 15.9 19' 3 22.8 l. 17.2 lL .8 . 1 i ly nimurn -18.0 -14.6 10.7 3. 1 2.5 6.6 9.2 7.8 3. 5 -1. 9. 1 14.6 - 3.4 . of 0 0 1 6 22 31 ll l 0 1 No. days with rneas e pi tat ion 7 7 7 7 10 l 3 11 11 9 5 5 6 an total precipitation 1. 70 l. 73 2.03 2.64 4.85 8.94 7. 77 6. 3. 2. L l. LACOMBE: Elevation 835 m (2, ft) Jan Feb Mar Apr June Jul c r - - - ~ ------~ Mean daily temperature 14.8 -10.6 5.8 3.3 9.8 13.7 16.6 15.1 10.3 4.8- 4.4 -10.9 2.3 n daily max mum temperature - 8.7 - 3.9 .6 9.9 1 7. l . 4 .0 22 . 17.7 12.2 l.5 5.1 9. 1 Mean daily nimum rature -20.9 -17.4 -12.3 - 3.3 2.6 6.8 9.2 7.7 2. 9 - . 6 10.3 -16.7 . of days without frost 0 0 0 5 22 29 31 31 23 8 2 0 150 No. of days with measurable precipitation 9 8 7 7 9 13 12 11 9 6 6 7 104 Mean total precipitation 2.06 2.16 2.08 2. 4.67 8.51 7.64 6.53 3.86 2. 1. 50 1. 75 .54 Appendix C.l.l. Yields from different cropping practises on soil capability areas 20 and 30 in agro-climatic subregion 1, 1966-74. ·

Stubble Fallow Wheat Stubble Fall ow fertilized fertilized Average 20 1526.6* (22.7)+ 1990.6 (29.6) 1620.8 (24.1) 2098.2 (31.2) 2051.2 (30.5) 30 1519.9 (22.6) 1930.1 (28. 7) 1553.5 (23.1) 2071.3 ( 30. 8) 1977.2 (29.4)

Oats 20 1714.0 (45.0) 2432.0 (64.0) 1872.2 (49.4) 2515.6 (66.2) 2071.0 (54.5) 30 1634.0 (43.0) 1972.2 (51.9) 1717.6 (45.2) 2200.2 (57.9) 1839. 0 ( 48. 4)

Bar1e,t 20 1748.5 ( 32. 5) 2878.3 (53.5) 1996.0 (37.1) 2630.9 (48.9) 2232.7 (41.5) 30 1802.3 (33.4) 2281.2 (42.4) 1931.5 (35.9) 2614. 7 ( 48. 6) 2076.7 (38.6)

f-' 0> w

* Yield kg/ha + Yield bu/acre Source: Hail and Crop Insurance Corporation No. of fields: Minimum number per practise was 100 dix C.l.2. ly on at from il to r ( l ) and crop y e 1 on areas 20 and 30.

Pre oitation (em)

5 1 968 l 9 19 3. 12 1. .74 l. 75 1.45 . 61 . 02 2 . 6. 1.93 2.03 9.91 3.12 l. 88 l. 17 2.23 5.00 . 74 4 . 3.50 4. 2.84 June 13. 4.93 6.63 3.17 3. 11. 7. 9. 10. 9. 7 July 5. 6.45 3.78 6. 9. 7.01 1L 5. W.31 8. 7. August 7. 16.43 4.60 5.18 6.07 2. . 8. 15. 2. 6. . 2. 77 . 13 6.45 8. 1.24 1. 47 3. 2.41 .45 3.12 October .02 .53 3.15 2.16 1.80 2.79 .30 . 1.85 . 41 1.40 Tot a 1 ppt. 44.21 . 06 20.91 26.43 30.21 . 16 34 . 60.84 .90 .98 31 . 12 Black Solodized Sol ti l1 Agroc1imate 1, Soil pabil i 20 {Yields kg/ha)

Wheat 21 .2 2071.3 995.3 1809.1 2246.2 2582.4 2441.2 14 . 5 1 8.7 1.2 >--' C'> Oats 18 . 3 1588.7 1208.7 1782.6 31.8 2220.2 2395.9 2259.6 1441.9 1954.8 _p, ey 1807.7 1 355. 8 1355. 8 2421 . 0 2878.3 2399.5 2474.8 2248.9 1441.9 32.7 Thin Black Solodized Solonetz/till Agroclimate 1; Soil Capability 30 (Yields kg/ha) Wheat 1936.8 968.4 1587. 1 2037.7 2172.2 2300.2 2306.7 1775.4 1977.2 Oats 1592.5 1219.5 1423.9 2055.2 1793.4 1911 . 7 2080.3 1635.5 1736.0 Barley 1662.4 989.9 2087.5 2383.4 2447.9 2641 .6 2022. 9 1581 . 7 1076.7

------~- 165

Appendix C.l.3. Summerfallow CO?~~-f9~_Warner District Summerfallow CRD CRD #117 JUNE, 1976 110,-14.1 BASED ON: 1. 900 acres summerfallow 2. 1800 acre farm 3. labor - $4.00/hour

Costs per acre Materials Total Equipment Operator Hired Fuel & & Cost Hours/acre Labor Labor Repairs Services per acre CASH COSTS: Cultural: Cultivate .082 $ . 36 $ $ .60 $ $ .60 Blade .118 . 51 .82 .82 Rodweed .057 . 25 . 34 . 34 Blade . 130 .56 .90 .90 Cash cultural costs (excluding labor) 2.66 Other cash costs: Taxes 1.00 Interest on operating capital .22 Miscellaneous . 39 Total other cash costs l. 61 Total Cash Costs Per Acre 4.27 Expected cash returns/acre Return over cash costs -4.27 NON-CASH COSTS: Depreciation/acre Interest/acre Land $ -­ $12.25 12.25 Buildings .87 l. 75 2.62 Total .87 14.00 Equip. fixed costs, dep. & Interest on investment 3.39 Operator's labor 1.68 Total non-cash costs 19.94 Total Costs Per Acre 24.21 Return to operator's labor, management & land -10.28 Return to operator 1 S labor & management -22.53 Return to management -24.21

NOTE: Investment: Land $175.00/acre Buildings 25.00/acre Equipment 27.33/acre Total $227.33/acre

SOURCE: Production Economics Branch, ADA \ I ix C.1.4. ly precipitation at Drumheller from Ap 1 to tober (196 I c yiel on soil ility areas 1 and 2C.

i pita t i on ( em) e 1965 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 --1 1973 1 196 1 .63 L l. 2.26 1.17 1. 65 1.19 1 2. 9.32 2. May 4 14 4 2.03 5.54 1 42 3. 15 2. 2.29 L .66 3.02 3.25 ') June 12.70 7.11 L' 8.30 3.81 16.03 4. 5. 12.70 4. 77 7. 5. July 9 96 10. 2.03 8.00 5.46 2. 5.41 4. 2. 2.23 5. .00 August 2. 13 7.95 l. 24 4.49 l. 63 1.04 2. 4. 9.63 3.30 3. 4. September 6. l. .94 8.15 10.08 l. 78 3.25 3.86 2. 31 .50 4.22 2. October .74 .99 1.85 2. 72 2.29 5.03 .66 .86 .25 .74 1. 1. 65

Tota 1 ppt. 36.93 33.90 12.03 39.46 25.86 31.30 20.31 22.73 31.65 27.52 27. .68 Dark Brown Chernozemic/lacustrine Agroclimate 1; Soil Capability 1 (Yields kg/ha) Wheat 3.7 2145.3 2676.6 2797.6 2555.5 2589.2 26 .6 2743.8 2542. l 25 . 7 Oats 39.4 1578.2 2378.0 2317.0 2564.5 2363.7 70.3 2421.0 2109.0 . 3 >-' Barley 37.5 1888.4 2765.4 2883.7 2985.9 2969.8 69.8 2657.8 2587.8 2749.2 01 01 Dark Brown Chernozemic/lacustrine Agrocl imate 2A; Soil Capability 2C (Yields kg/ha) Wheat 2636.2 1829.2 2360.5 2118.4 2454.7 2447.9 2414.3 2521 . 9 2145.3 2246.2 Oats 2690.0 1495.7 2535.8 1739.6 2227.4 2690.0 2629.1 2474.8 2044.4 2166.4 Barley 2959.0 1452.6 2566.3 2647.0 2873.0 2819.2 2 .3 2873.0 68.5 2636.2

Source: Alberta Hail and Crop Insurance Corporation 167

Appendix C. l . 5. Average c y el di cropping practises on soil capabi i ty areas

Area 1-1 1 Pract se Stubble Fallow rt 1 i zed le Fertilized Fallow Average Wheat 1990+ (29.6)* 2582 . 4) l (29.2) 2670 ( 39. 7) 2515 (37.4) Oats 1951 (51.2) 2603 (68.3) 5 (46.3) 2816 (73.9) 2317 (60.8)

Barley 2060 (38.3) 3018 (56 .l) l (41.1) 20 (58.0) 2712 (50.4)

Area 2-2C 2

Wheat 1870 (27 .8) 2428 ( 36 .1) 1741 (25.4) 2414 (35.9) 2246 (33.4)

Oats 1780 ( 46. 7) 2120 (55. 7) 1875 (49.2) 2675 . 2) 2300 (60.4) Barley 2190 ( 40. 7) 2948 (54.8) 2217 (41.2) 3034 (56 .4) 2630 (48.9)

~ Class l soils within s ion l Class 2 soils within subregion 2C + kg/ha * bu/ac Source: Alberta Hail and Crop Insurance Corporation 168

ix C.2.1 Cost of ~iheat Production n the flussar District

2) y d 30 4) Labour 55 DO/hour

i·~TER TCT.!l.L EQUI & & COST HOURS/ACRF SERV' PER ACRE $

. Ol .03 .03 .04 .07 1.86 1.86 . 04 .11 .18 .29 .06 ;6 .16 40 .56 .06 6 6 .32 .48 .20 .20 .63 83 9.00 .00 s.oo :i.OO .01 .01 .01 .03 08 08 .12 .20 .04 .10 .10 . 15 25 .48 48 02 06 .06 .08 . 3

19.18

. 04 .l' • 1? .?0 .32 HER 04 12 12 .14 .26 l 4 .38 .3B 1. 32 1. ;o TRL:Cr; ( 3 35 .35 .48 .83 I TRUCK \ 09 .25 ,JCJ~' • 3"J 60 ( l .29 .29 . 21 .50 AUGf.RS .08 .20 .20 .01 .22 CASH HAHVEST COSTS I. 4.43 OTHER CASH COSTS TAXES 1.50 lNTlREST ON OPERATING CAPITAL 1.42 .60 CROP INSURANCE $2.50 3.10 .18 MISCELLANEOUS .05 COSTS 29.86 105 00 75.14 DEPRECIATION/ACRE INTf.REST /Jl.CRE $ - $30.00 30.00 1 Q . 14 • •v .32 1.03 2.28 14. 75

------·------·--· 57 79 27.79 ?5. 15

~AND $300.00/acre EQUIPMENT $ 53.80/acre SUPPLIES 1.76/acre RUllDINGS 12.54/acre TOTAL $373.10/acre

SOURCE: PRODUCTION ECONOMICS BRANCH, ADA 169

i C.4. P ant it es t d

rn and P. ies.

1 Rutter Quaterna logy nternat . 1 170

t\ppend x D cromo cal descri ions begin a raph suma r­ in general terms. at ve features such as voids ules are ind cated feature descr bed. The ical name of the fab c 1n (2) Brewer's uk's (1975) ogy ra h some occasions only is

-1-. I na "'1 on In these de ions abbreviati s are to correct used in one direc on arizers polar zers

s a t large peds b units and more ion c features.

a) cutans frequent (F) of the area common (C) 5- occa s ion a l ( 0) 0. ( R) rare t easily located and identi ed rare ( ) on must be searched to positively identify them. b) nodules

Using greater than 25~m in diameter se - moderately porous or moderately packed - h y porous or loosely packed y porous or very loosely packed

Note: t consists of well packed fine sand and silt at low ni- ic porphyroskel c while at higher magni cation ~ 1s some occasions, cs ll be stated along with the i ca on.

1 I • 171

References Brewer' R. 1964. Fabric and mineral analysis of soils. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y. Brewer, R. and Pawluk, S. 1975. Investigations of some soils developed in hum­ mocks of the Canadian Sub-Arctic and Southern-Arctic regions. 1 Morphology and micromorphology. Can. J. Soil Sci. 55: 301-319. Dumanski, J. and St. Arnaud, R.J. 1966. A micropedological study of eluvial soil horizons. Can. J. Soil Sci. 46: 287-292. Stace, H.C.T., Hubble, G. D., Brewer, R., Northcote, K.H., Sleeman, J.R., Mulcahy, M.J., and Hallsworth, E.G. 1968, A Handbook of Australian Soils. Rellim Technical Publications, Glenside, Australia. t