Behind the Veils of Modern Tropical Architecture’, Docomomo International, No 63, 2020 / 2, Pp

Pedro Guedes 2020, ‘Behind the Veils of Modern Tropical Architecture’, docomomo international, no 63, 2020 / 2, pp. 7-17.

ABSTRACT:

While orthodoxy was consolidating its hold on modern architecture in the 1930s, fresh new ideas from the periphery began to widen and question its limiting vocabulary. This study looks at projects emerging before the end of that decade that paralleled the much publicized work of Le Corbusier and Brazilian innovators in developing ideas for taming the sun in warm climates. The story focuses on a forgotten speech given in Rangoon which enthused about a soon to be forgotten but effective method of solar control and triggered a yearning for architecture widening its scope to engage with attributes of national identity.

CONTENTS:

Behind the Veils of Modern Tropical Architecture 1

Journal cover & front matter 13

NOTE:

The author was invited to deliver a shortened version of this paper to audiences at Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo, Universidade de São Paulo (FAU/USP) and at the School of Architecture at the University of Queensland – Video recordings of these presentations are lodged as separate items in this depository. ESS AYS

Behind the Veils of Modern Tropical Architecture

BY PEDRO GUEDES

At the Rangoon Rotary Club - January 1930 N

TheRangoon audience included the Burmese elite, British N 0 In early January 1930, Basil Ward ( 1902-1976) addressed the expatriates, colonial officialsand members of immigrant N I Rotary Club of Rangoon on the subject of "Architecture in communities. His lecture had an immediate effect: (V) Ba Pe, a leading political figure in colonial Burma,gave a -0 Burma". A New Zealander, recently appointed Managing 0 rousing speech in the Burma Legislative Council proposing E Partner with ThomasOliphant 1 Foster ( 1881-1942 ), the U 0 a design for the new City Hall by a Burmese architect that E Burmese Government's Consulting Architect, he was new combined Art minimalism with classical Burmese orna "0 0 to this Asian boom town. mentation. Along with examples from elsewhere, Ba Pe drew on His journey had been circuitous; the young architect Ward'slecture, Deco(. . .) to highlight Burmese architecture'scompati worked his passage to England as a stoker in 1924 with bility with modern, architecture, and won theU argument. 3 Amyas ConnellPavilion ( 1901-1980 de /'Esprit) in Nouveau search of wider hori- zons. From London they visited Paris in 1925, where Le civic Corbusier's firedtheir enthusiasm for the freshness of the Modern Movement. The CityHall project to which he referred, had been Inspired, they set their sights on the highest prizes avail designed by Arthur G. Bray in classically inspired,4 typically "' able in Britain to young architects embarking on their colonial style. It was interrupted by wwr, revived in 1925 Ill careers. They were both successful, with Amyas Connell andAll was the offices,well onwith its theway exception to completion of those facingby 1930: north, have taking the Rome Scholarship and Basil Ward the Jarvis trav verandahs on both sides(. . .)No concessions whatsoever appear elingBurma, studentship. to have been made to the native style of architecture, for this is the The RotaryClub speech, reported in extenso in The New 2 Classical style(. .. )Tbe columnar style(. .. )bas proved itself on was an exhortation for a new architecture with this occasion to be quite capable of being adapted for the archi quotations from Bruno Taut (1880-1938) and Le Corbusier. tecture of a tropical climate.5 Basil Ward made a plea for modern materials, better planning at various scales and an abandonment of "the amazing encrustations of Architectural motifs of a dozen Empire Exhibition dead styles." The onlypart of the talk referring to an actual However, U Tin (1890-1972), designer of the much-admired building was one being built under his direction, the New Burmese pavilion at the 1924 in London, Port Trusta Office: difficult problem in this city, when a f acade faces the proceeded to replace Arthur G. Bray's workaday classicalpyatbat monsoon weather verandahs take up most valuable space, they facades with a treatment inspired by the ancient buildings of mustThere be is eliminated where possible, the life of venetians louvres Pagan. In particular, he adapted traditional tiered roof not long. Tbe Port Trust Officebas a feature which forms to crown the prominent towers of his composition and appears to solve the problem admirably. A screen of terraor cotta dispensed with verandahs and colonnades. When completed jalisis of certain thicknessNew forms a honeycomb patternas a protec in 1935, U Tin's building was acclaimed as a "striking success tion against the sun and monsoon. Tbiswas designed to obviate ( ...) inaugurating a new era in secular Burmese architecture."6 the wasteful verandah space. BasilCountry Ward's Life Port Trust Officebuilding, also mentioned in his lecture, was considered important enough to be featured in under the title "An Architectural Innovation in the Tropics."

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Top row and corresponding diagrams below - from left: Luiz Nunes, Caixa D'Agua, Olinda, Pernambuco, Brazil, 1934: First use of cobog6s in a public building. Middle: Lucio Costa, Oscar Niemeyer et al., Ministry of Education and Health (MES), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1936: Horizontal adjustable external quebra-sol elements (brise-soleil). Right: Brothers Roberto, Brazilian Press Association (ABI), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1936: Vertical quebra-sol elements. Lower images with diagrams below, from left to right: Lllcio Costa, Parque Guinle housing, Rio de Janeiro, 1948: Ceramic Claustra elements as sun and privacy screening allowing free air movement. Middle: Di6genes Rebou<;as, Escola Polit8cnica - UFBA, Federrn;:Clo, Salvador da Bahia, 1953: honeycomb screens similar to those used in the 1939 Brazil Pavilion, New York World's Fair. Right, top and bottom: open concrete cobog6s and claustra used in popular building.

2 The innovation[. ..(is) ...] of the greatest importance to Europeans 4 in the tropics. Owing to the necessity of using the maximum floor space for offices, responsequebra-sol to building in thebrise-solei� tropics. There, an inventive the space that usually sacrificed for verandah on the western range of practical moveablecobog6, or claustra static, horizontal or vertical frontwas not available(. . .) the window surface bas been brought [Portuguese for shading devices as well almost flush withis the columns. It was here that invention was as smaller scale cellular and other elements called into play. in precast concrete, ceramics5 or other materials augmented The solution of this problem-of preventing the direct rays from modern architecture's austere facades with flexible arma penetrating to the interior while still assuring the maximum of light ments to temper the sun.' Combining these with imaginative -was found in the use of honeycomb porcelain jalis manufactured planning, openness and an expanded formal vocabulary, a by the Royal Daulton Potteries, Lambeth. A simple jali is made by small group of immensely talented architects supported by setting a number of convex tiles one above the other. These Daulton politicians such as the Minister of Education and Health, jalis are of stone terra-cotta,with a jade green glaze, and are nine Gustavo Capanema ( 1900-1985), matured a distinctive inches deep. The first experiment was made with the tiles only eight Brazilian architecture in a remarkably short time. First inches deep, but this was found insufficientto exclude all direct rays appearing outside Brazil at the 1939 New York World's Fair in and the depth was therefore increased. By this simple yet extremely the country's pavilion by Lucio Costa (1902-1998) and Oscar effectiveexpedient, the building the maximum of ventila Niemeyer ( 1907-20126 ), the solar control grille on its southern tion and lighting, but is kept cool.7 facade was misinterpretedBrazil by criticsBuilds as an enigmatic decora receives tive conceit.' Four years later, when the Museum of Modern Art's (Mo MA) exhibition brought Brazilian archi

tecture to worldwide17 attention, its catalog stated explicitly While Basil Ward was still8 in London in 1926, T. 0. Foster that a major focus demonstrated how Brazilian architects N and E. W. Armstrong exhibited a perspectiveThe Builder, of his design dealt with the sun. After great success in ArchitecturalNew York, parts N at the Royal Academy. By February9 1929, after details of of the exhibition went to London while Britain was still at 0 jali N I the Port Trust building appeared in use of terra war and a special celebratory issue of the Review M -0 cotta screens had been accepted. was published with8 extensive coverage, featuring many of 0 Back in Rangoon, in the same street as the Port Offices, Kidder Smith's ( 1913-1997) evocative photographs taken from E jalis: brise-soleil 0 the National Bank of India, probably built to Basil Ward's the MoMA show.' Brazil's9 Ministry of Education and Health E 0 design,a(.. .) usedbuilding the that same compels terracotta ones attention, by virtue of the building with its firstuse of a on a monumental 0 vigor of its composition(. . .) The columns, being fluted cylinders scale was highlighted.'20 Le Corbusier's role as consultant there without capitals bases, are in the "modernist" style.'0 probably helped him condense his ideas about sun control from the early 193os. or An architect developing similar thoughts on sun control

as Le Corbusier in his Barcelona and Algerian projects2 was 1 The Bank, a confident art deco composition, makes a clean Paul Nelson ( 1895-1979), an American trained in France, break with classical and gothic precedents. Basil Ward char who had established a reputation in hospital design. In

acterized in his Rotary Club lecture as "the amazing encrus 1933, based22 upon that work, he was commissioned by tations of Architectural motifs of a dozen dead styles."u the Suez Canal Company to design a surgery pavilion for Theterracotta screens at Rangoon's Portjalis, Authority and Ismailia. Thesealed and air conditioned accommoda- Bank buildings never entered the vocabulary of tropical tion was contained in a glazed volume surrounded by an building, Basil Ward described them as honoring "Enveloppe Parasolaire Mobile". Here, independent of the Indian precedent.th Similar terracotta forms were illustrated accommodation,Vertically,( the accommodation an insulated roofprotected) acted asby alouvre large blades, umbrella: in numerous 19 century architectural manuals to be 12 spaced away fromthe f acade. The louvres, held between vertical employed, as previously in Europe and China, for parapets guides are mobile that they canis be retracted to roof level to allow and garden wall screens. In textile drying sheds and other entry of sunlight during the temperate months. industries such ceramic elements were often used to facili The metal louvre bladesso are inclined and shaped not only to impede tate cross ventilation while excluding rain. reflection of solar rays on the f acade, but to encourage upward Basil Ward returned to London sometime before 1932, convectional air movement. They are smooth and white facing out joining his friend and brother-in-law Amyas Connell in a to reflect beat and darker on the building side to cut glare. 23 practice that added Colin Lucas (1906-1984) in 1934 to form And perhaps the most unique characteristic was the result Amyas Connell, Basil Ward and Colin Lucas. Their prac caused by this rising movement of warm air free of the f acade tice was acknowledged as a pioneer of England's Modern which would then draw(. . .)cooler air the facade, as would Movement. During the period until 1939 the firmflourished, the phenomenon of an exterior chimney. its work focused almost3 exclusively on domestic build- Whereas on the west side there are threeover screens per floor only ings for enlightened clients. Theoutbreak of wwn saw its 1 meter on the Canal side to the east the screen would be abrupt dissolution.'Taming the sun in the 1930s large (. . .) meters cm(. . .) brise-soleil (. . .)allowing wide, all patients to have an unimpeded of the Canal where majestic3 ships40 slide through the Arabian 24 Le Corbusier's claims in the development of the view are well known as is Brazil's contribution to a modern desert'.

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6N 0 N I (V) -0 01 0 E RangaanJalis. Top right: l 0. Faster, Port Trust Offices, Rangoon, Burma, 1926-1930 - described in Basil Ward's Rotary Club speech. First use in 1930 of innovative glazed 0 E terracotta sun-screening. left and bottom right: Basil Ward for l 0. Foster, National Bank of India, Rangoon, Burma, 1929-1932, probably designed and completed by 0 u Basil Ward. Photographs© Pedro Guedes. 0 "lJ

02 Architects'Journal. pyathat Rangoon City Hall. Bottom left: Arthur G. Bray's design for Municipal offices,Architects'Journal, Rangoon, Burma, 1928, plans and perspectives show the unbuilt classical scheme, published in the Top left and right: U Tin, Rangoon City Hall, 1930-1935, incorporating features of a Modern Burmese architecture with distinctive roof forms. Photographs© Pedro Guedes. Plans & perspectives - public domain: 68, 1928, 919.

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9 4 claustra 30

Paul Nelson's intricate descriptions of all parts of his to filterlight and encourage air movement. In building demonstrate a masterful understanding of intel Bombay (Mumbai), Tel-Aviv, Singapore, Asmara and many ligently crafted climate control for a hostile environment. South American capitals eager to convey their engagement He orchestratedCabiers his d'Art design to suit a particular place and with "progress," facile art-deco3 1 compositions emphasizing complex medical functions. In the firstpublication of the verticals, horizontalsCbantiers and Nord streamlined-Africains curves were some proposal in (1935), a seductive diagram encap times used to great advantage. sulated the essence of the idea which Paul Nelson later In 1936, Les published a design explainedThe painting had illustrated been triggered in the book by ancient showed anEgyptian outside columnarhouses: for a large tuberculosis sanatoriumbrise-soleils in Rivet near Algiers, by structure going without interruption fromthe ground to the the Algiers based architect Frarn;ois Bienvenu. Themodel nd clearly shows horizontal on its three-level high roof of the 2 floor terrace; behind these columns was the wall structure supporting the two floors and roof. The upper terrace elevations,To avoid excessive the idea insolation, was described the architect thus: developed a system of supported on a series of small columns was open on all sides as permanent screens that automatically into play depending to act as a protection from the sun'szenitbal beat. But in between on the season and the height of the sun.32 the columns standing free in front of the facade walls could beso come seen a screen partially lowered between the columns which then acted as guides. Yet nobody seems to have thought that this might I..:Arcbitecture constitute a parasolar envelope leaving the house itself on the d'Aujourd'buiA photograph of the completed building, with the screens 33 inside sheltered by this protective screen around the outside. This or louvers clearly shown, was published in experience proved to me that by such an approach of studying the in 1945 with little more than a laconic caption. basic climatic conditions of an environment, one can relate archi Certainly ahead of its time, it was being built while the N tectural design to genuine tradition.25 Ministry of Education in Rio was being planned. Frarn;ois N Bienvenu, a prominent architect in Algiers before the war, 0 N designed, schools, speculative34 housing and commercial proj I M ects as well as low-rise social housing for native Algerians -0 0 Perhaps his inductive reverie enabled Paul Nelson to respecting courtyard forms. E La Construction Moderne I..:Art 0 translate his interpretations of ancient Egyptian climatic Emmanuel de Thubert (1878-1947), a regular contrib E de France, 0 response and combine them with the most advanced utor to La Cite Moderneand former editor of 0 technologies of his time, unencumbered by formal had been impressed by Frarn;ois Bienvenu's preconceptions. work displayed at exhibition in Algiers In contrast, the orthodoxy that had taken hold by the in 1936 and paraphrased an ambition voiced in Frarn;ois early 1930s was best characterisedModernArchitecture by Alfred International H. Barr Bienvenu's speech about the architecture that would Jr'sExhibition ( 1902-1981) guiding principles for modern architects emerge in North Africa:"... 'Modern', based upon rational extracted from MoMA's ideas that seek to adapt to the African sun - an archi He thinksof in 1932: terms of volume- of space enclosed by planes or tecture gaining inspiration from France, but taking on a surf aces- as opposed to mass and solidity. This principle of regional character."Js volume leads him to make bis walls seem thin fiat surfaces by Also in 1936, Antonin Raymond (1888-1976) began eliminating mouldings and by making bis windows and doors developing the design for Golconda dormitory at the USASri flush with the surface.26 Aurobindo Ashram in Pondicherry on the East Coast of India. Antonin Raymond, a Czech, had moved to the in 1910 where he had worked for Cass Gilbert (1859-1934) before joining Frank Lloyd Wright ( 1867-1959) at Taliesin.

Such 2ideas7 held sway in metropolitan journals excluding In 1919, he went with Frank Lloyd Wright to work on the many devices developedCbantiers in the equally Nord-Africains, modern art-deco Imperial Hotel in Tokyo and stayed on until 1937 having style. Art-deco buildings from warmer climates made it sent his collaborator Nakashima ( 1905-1990) ahead to begin

into journals such as Les published28 work on site. Pondicherry, a French enclave in India was in Algiers in the 1930s with a more inclusive policy,Techniques never et relatively isolated and building skills and materials difficult Architecturelosing sight of more radical developments in Europe. to procure, particularly during the War, so building was Later, in their 194 3 special issue on "Le Soleil," slow with the dormitory only being finished in1948. provided illustrations of a maternity hospital A remarkable building in its unassuming austerity, it aban in Beirut by L. Cavro, deploying blinkers, hoods and other dons Western notions of closed rooms entirely. A thin elements, breaking with29 the planar strictures of more building on three floors and a semi-basement, its long eleva orthodox Modernism. tions face North and South. There areno windows in the Where their European colleagues might have deployed rooms and corridor, with both elevations entirely composed planes or curves of glass bricks, these adepts of art-deco of operable louvres, specially made for the project in tamed the sun by casting shade with an extensive vocabu asbestos cement. Sliding doors to each room are carefully lary of forms such as hoods, blinkers, broad overhangs and designed to facilitate ventilation across the building. Above balconies combined with smaller windows, deep reveals, the concrete slab of the third floor, a ventilated void is retractable blinds and "stores." They would alsouse pre-cast provided under curved concrete "tiles" spanning 1.5 meters.

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L'ARCH ITECTURE D'AUJOURD'HUI SANATORIUM D E RIVET . BIENVENU, ARCHITECTE >- "' _...... ___.�';"'"·-:-r, Ill"' l f. 0

03 Paul Nelson and Franyois Bienvenu. Top left: Paul Nelson, lsmailia surgery pavilion, Suez, Egypt, 1935. Diagram of "parasolar" idea for the pavilion based upon his interpretation (Cabiers d'Art, (LArcbitectureFran,aise of an ancient Egyptian tomb painting. Top right: Model of the pavilion showing horizontal sun screening with section below. Source, gallica.bnf.fr /brise-soleil Bibliotheque nationale de France 1935, 262 & 272). Section of hospital: Source, Bibliotheque !:Architectured'architecture d'Aujourd'bui, contemporaine / Cite de l'architecture et du patrimoine 1936.1943, 12). Bottom image: Fran,;ois Bienvenu, Sanatorium, Rivet, Algeria, 1936, published in 1945 clearly showing the system of horizontal screening. Source, Bibliotheque d'architecture contemporaine / Cite de I' architecture et du patrimoine: (September.October) 1945, 37

11 6 Latin American Architecture since 45 36 Great care was taken to reduce everything to essentials in Mo MA exhibition 1945. an extremely measuredPost 1945: response Decolonization to the hot-humid climate. Thesepublications communicated directly to architects and Tropical Architecture working in metropolitan practices or in relevant countries needing inspirationbrise-soleil for designs in tropical settings. They provided models for46 emulation. Needless to say articles Modern architecture, hatched in Europe in the 1920s and about the and other solar control devices were 1930s, was spread worldwide by talented individuals, often much sought after. In parallel, communiques and offi- refugees fleeing Europe's fascist regimes or the social and cial publications from training47 programs and establishing economic disasters following wwr as well as those in the Schools of Architecture in tropical, soon to be independent wake of Russia's revolutionary convulsions. France was countries, gathered pace. Theutility of these endeavors seen as a creative center with Paris as the avant-garde was attached to longer48 timescales and wider political melting-potEsprit Nouveau where exhibitionsExposition desand Arts publications Decoratifs. commu agendas and probably had lessArchitectural impact than the journals on nicated new ideas. Thecity, in 1925, hosted Le Corbusier's current building. at the It was However, by the 1950s, the Review began the major eye-opener for Basil Ward and Amyas Connell's to publish British architectural49 effortsin West Africajali- with visit, kindling their enthusiasm for the Modern Movement:37 Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew's work in the Gold Coast "It stood out in all its purity and strengthI.:Architecture of expressiond'Aujourd'hui in a (Ghana) and Togo. Several of the buildings have brise post-war rag-bag of resurrected 'movements' and styles." likesoleil. screens50 as verandah balustrades and only Prempeh In 1930 Andre Bloc's (1896-1966) College at Kumasi inaugurates the use of a gridded started with a print run of 1,600. By 1940, just before it inter In style the architecture followed a reticent embod N rupted publication because of the German occupation, it iment of "the new Architecturalempiricism" with little Brazilian verve 38 N was printing overI.:Architecture 10,000 copies,d'Aujourd'hui with 1,600 in Latin America and made only very minor concessions to local culture.51 0 N - "more than all the Argentinian and Brazilian journals Then,in 1960, the Review published a special I M combined." really caught up 39 issue on buildings across the "Tropical Commonwealth" -0 0 with English language publications when it produced a in which selected authors wrote articles on each terri- E 0 comprehensive review of Brazilian architecture in 1948. tory or region covering technical issues relating to warm E 0 Before 1945, neither EnglishBrazil Builds nor French journals had climates.52 TheEditorial was frank about the designers of 0 much coverageI.:Architecture of architectured'Aujourd'hui's in warm climates apart from theMost buildings of the buildings featured: illustrated here were either designed in the catalog of MoMA's exhibition of 194 3. A rare England by English architects (as in the case of many of those in exception was 1936 special on West Africa) or designed by architects of English origin, largely "L'Outremer" in which French colonial buildings in North40 trained in England or America, who practice locally.53 Africa and the Caribbean were featured together with La articlesFrance d'Outre-Mer on aspects ofdans design la Guerre appropriate I.:Architecture for hot climates.d'Aujo Onlyurd'hui in 1945, when a major Paris exhibition opened on did Inevitably, the results were more in tune with the expec produce another special issue, this time with wider tations of colleagues at "home" than with the contexts in coverage to include Sub-Saharan Africa, Madagascar and which they struggled. Descriptions and solutions in this Indochina. In addition to articles on climatologybrise-soleil.41 and indig publication concerned material problems at the expense of enous architectures,Techniques the et major Architecture focus was on planning, but engagement with subtler local demands. Maxwell Fry and the issue did include a feature on the In a similar Jane Drew produced54 two handbooks in 1956 and 1964, for vein, in 1952, published over 80 designers working in similar contexts to their West African pages on "Architecture Intertropicale" in the Francophone42 experience. By the mid-195os shading facades had entered sphere, covering I.:Architecturetechnical issuesd'Aujourd'hui related to building in the the architectural mainstream55 not only for buildings in the tropics together with articles on important projects. After tropics but elsewhere when architects were keen to deploy the war, in 1948, published a major large areas of glass. issue on Tunisia. There, retreating Germans and Italians had Some architects went beyond looking at Brazilian destroyed what they could on their way out and shortage solutions filteredthrough journals or handbooks. Barrie of materials stimulated architects and engineers to fall back Bierman (1924-1991) practicing in South Africa's sub-trop on traditional Maghrebian building techniques, resultingclaustra in ical region, in Durban, won a scholarship in 1950 to study inventive and photogenic buildings taking full advantage sun-shading in Brazil at first hand. In his report, it is clear of age-old vernacular devices43 such as courtyards, that personal observation gave him unique perspectives56 on screens and more open planning arrangements to aid venti screening and shading devices, many of which he applied lation and subdue the sun. in his own buildings and shared with colleagues. A similar For architectural solutions to life in warm climates44 most impulse motivated Stephen Trotter (1931-2015) practicing in European journals, up to and beyond 1950, continued Brisbane, a sub-tropical Australian city on the same latitude looking to Brazil for articles on new developments. After as Durban. He too,57 on a scholarship, traveled across four 1955 their focus widened to include a smattering of build continents to record diverse architectural solutions to life in ings in other Latin American countries prompted by the warm climates.

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6N 0 04 N I (V) Amyas Connell in Nairobi, Kenya. Top left: Amyas Connell, Crown Law Building (now State Law Office), Nairobi, Kenya, 1951-1955. Long view soon alter completion. Right: -0 detail of the building's delicate pre-cast concrete sun-screen.© Dennis Sharp. By kind permission of Yasmin Shariff, Dennis Sharp Architects. Bottom left: Tomb of l'timad-ud-Daulah, 0 1622-1628, near Agra, India. These jaali screens inspired the sun-screens on the long lacade of the Crown Law Building. Reproduced with grateful thanks to: Royroydeb / CC E 0 BY-SA I https://upload.wikimedia.o rg/wikipedia/commons/ 5 / 5d/Grills_of_the_masoleoum_of_ltmad-ud-Daulah%27s_tomb_2.jpg). E 0 u 0 "lJ 05

Geoffrey Bawa, Parliament, Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, ( 1979-1982). The building's prominent Kandyan roof form pays homage to Sri Lankan architectural traditions, such as those of the open Royal Audience Hall (Mogul Maduwa) in Kandy, the last capital of the ancient kings of Sri Lanka. By kind permission© Sebastian Posingis.

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13 8 Architectural

From 1955 several numbers of the Review those sentiments. But in the same city "neutral" modern featured the Engineering College of Rangoon University architectural solutions persisted, as demonstrated in designed by Raglan Squires ( 1912-2004), a British architect James Cubitt63 and Partners' design for a pharmaceutical and entrepreneur with offices in Londonand Singapore. company. The building broke from any expected mold to engage with During construction of Rangoon University's buildings, jalicolor and adventurous form. It had an open assembly hall Basil Ward's former partner and brother-in-law Amyas covered in a teak timber dome and a library with colorful Connell was designing64 important Government buildings This- like grille elevations: consists of precast hexagonal concrete units, each in Nairobi, Kenya. Thatcountry was still a British colony weighing hundredweight kg), fabricated on the site. The struggling, in the throes of Mau-Mau rebellion, towards interstices are filled in3,000 with coloured glass ply based on traditional independence. His work was divided into two65 phases, folk patterns3 of the ban States(152 of NorthernBurma. Permanent the first,built between 1951-1955 were Kenya's Legislative cross-ventilation provided by smaller unglazed openings. 58 Council Building and its Crown Law Office. At a later S stage, before independence in 1963, these were transformed is with substantial additions into Kenya's Parliament. In much the same way as Basil Ward's buildings in jali Thisproject was clearly beyond the expectations of Rangoon, the five-storiedCrown Law Office had itsupper officially endorsed tropical architectureArchitectural based on a sani four floors shaded onjalis both sides by intricately designed tized modernism.59 Its fate was to be excluded from the screens composed of delicate precast elements. Thedesign Commonwealth roundup in the Review'sissue horrorsthe 66 Mughal of the Tomb of I'timad-ud-Daulah of July 1960. Theeditors probably faulted Squires' engage near Agra. Exactly why Amyas Connell chose to base his N ment with monumentally scaled "decorative"60 elements and design on the high architecture of a different civilization N his attempts to incorporate ethnic ornament. has been debated, but it seems likely that, in the absence 0 N I Themomentum for acceptance of this style of building of an indigenous tradition of permanent monumental M -0 probably began when U Ba Pe, stimulated by Basil Ward's building and the fact that these government buildings were 0 1930 Rotary Club lecture, placed a motion before the constructed during a period of internal conflict, opting E 0 Burmese Legislative Council, demanding: "That this council for a solution from an architecture that had perfected67 sun E 0 recommends that the policy of Government should be control to a high art may have seemed reasonable. 0 to incorporate features of Burmese architecture61 in all Amyas Connell's ability to engage with such sensitive important public buildings in future." interpretations of precedent had been honed during He circulated a proposal for the Rangoon City Hall his early training and68 talent recognized by his Rome among the legislators, a design by U Tin, employing Scholarship award. Having skillfully deployed the abbre elements of Burmesepyatbat architecture. Theresulting discus viated language of modern architecture in his celebrated sion predictably centered on expense, including the likely domestic buildings of the 1930s, he found it unsuitable for

extravagance of roofs. When questioned, he monumental representative buildings,69 a problem taxing quoted from the letter of "a leading architect and Member contemporaries since the mid-194os. In the 1930s Amyas of the Royal Institute of British Architects," presumably Connell, in articulate debates, engaged established author Basil(. . .) Ward: to my question whether it would be possible to incorporate ities like Sir Reginald Blomfield ( 1856-1942) in well-pub features of Burmese architecture in modem buildings, and licized skirmishes as a vociferous defender of modern whether they could be incorporated to meet the scientific require architecture.7° However, when entering competitions for ments of modern times. The answer very encouraging. This civic buildings in Hereford and Newport,1 he could produce what be wrote to me: designs in the decorous modes of Public ArchitectureMARS as "My opinion that it possible to incorporateis features of is testament to his classical training.7 Thisfacility, irritating to Burmese architecture: hard-line, doctrinaire fellow2 members of the Group, may interestis you to ishave my reasons for saying this. The asser caused them to look suspiciously on Amyas Connell, Basil tion that Burmese architecture exists only in temples, kyaungs, Ward and Colin Lucas.7 Itpalaces, andtbe like; bas, no bearing on the matter. qualify In India the creation of3 Chandigarh, the new capital of my statement, have examples of modern architecture with the a divided Punjab, brought similar issues of style and repre Greek Doric order applied. This Greek order existedTo only sentation into question.7 As a new nation emerging from a in temples(. . .) weThere undoubted beauty in good examples of colonial past, India had a multifaceted architectural agenda Burmese architecture; the Bawdipaya andDoric Tbappyinnya, Pagan; needing deft navigation. Fortunately, Jawaharlal Nehru are, buildings, of extremeis beauty and character. ( 1889-1964), the country's astute firstPrime Minister, under 62 stood architecture's symbolic potential. He intended the city " to embody a break with a colonial past, represent a commit ment to a secular and democratic future and embrace the Following Burmese independence from Britain, Myanmar's promise of modernity. Creation of a complex architecture to new decision makers would have been proud of a prom exemplify all these ideas was given to Le Corbusier. inent City Hall, celebrating their national identity. Even In sharp contrast to the imagery portrayed in Lutyens and Squires did his best to make his university building horror Baker's Imperial Delhi, his Capitol grouping in Chandigarh

14 9 gives eloquent form to these ideas. None of the formulae who built for the future of their own country, these were for building in warm climates that had become ingrained in wandering expatriates or colonials. Often capable of finding India's colonial Public Works Department were followed. brilliant solutions to technical problems and sometimes also Something more uplifting was expected, something capable dreaming of regionally relevant architecture, they were not of holding identity. Eight years into the building program, the ones to create an architecture that holds meaning for a Jawaharlalbave Nehru welcomed reflected: very greatly one great experiment in India, particular culture. That taskis 8 most likely only possible for (. . .) Cbandigarb (. . .) I do not like every building in Cbandigarb. I those who work fromAcknowledgements within.7 Nowlike a I few very mucb, (. . .) but wbat like above all tbis creative I am indebted to Su Lin Lewis, who generously made photographs of New page available, from which transcripts were made. Errors in the The approach(. . .) but thinking out in new terms(. . .) not in terms spelling of the original have been corrected. I was alerted to the existence Burma of rules and regulations laid down byI our ancestors.is Therefore, of this article from a description in her book: Cbandigarb of enormous importance regardless of wbetber Su Lin Lewis, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2016, 89-91. something in it succeeds or something in it does not succeed(. . .) Cities in Motion: Urban Life and Cosmopolitanism in Southeast I am also indebted to Sally Rendel who with Dennis Sharp co-authored There no doubtis tbat Corbusier a man witb a powerful Asia, 1920-1940, 1929-139, creative type of mind(. . .) can produce extravaganza occa London, F ranees Lincoln, 2008. Connell, Ward and Lucas: Modern movement architects in England sionally,is but it betterLe to bave tbat tbanis to bave a swelled bead Yasmin Sharif, Dennis Sharp's partner as a Kenyan, clarified many issues witb no mind at all.74 He about Amyas Connell's work in Nairobi and gave me permission to use the is image of the State Law OfficeJaali Screen. Thanks also to Hugo Segawa whose insightful observations about the and Lucio Costa's Ceramic helped me understand Cobog6s, the Brazil's architectural engagement with the sun. He was also generous in quebra-sol Claustra Basil Ward's Rotary Club speech suggested that there were allowing me to use three of his images. alternatives to colonial verandahs when designing tropical N Notes architecture. One could learn fromjali the architectures of N in Dennis Sharp Archive, Paul Mellon Centre; Ben Bansal, 0 local people who had lived comfortably for centuries in the N Elliott Fox, Berlin, DOM, 2016, "Myanma I sun's heat. Solutions75 such as the screen demonstrated a Basil Ward (V) Port Authority"; L. W. Spate, 0. H.K., "Trueblood, Rangoon: A Study -0 reinterpretation that expanded the vocabulary of modern in Urban Geography",Architectural Guide: Yangon,Review, No. 32, 1942, 56-73. 0 E architecture. 2 Basil Ward, "Architecture in Burma", New Sunday, January 0 1930. Geographical E After wwn, as European powers retreated from their The Burma, "0 3 Su Lin Lewis, "Rotary lnternational's 'acid test': multi-ethnic associa 0 tropical colonies, architects in these emerging nations tional life in 1930s South east Asia", 2012, Vol. 7, searching for new forms to reflect a proud cultural identity, 302-324. Journal of Global History, have used genuine, imaginative interpretations from their 4 Arthur G. Bray, "Municipal Offices,Rangoon, Burma ...", pre-colonial past along with inventive responses to material No. 68, 1928, 919. 5 Arthur G. Bray, "New Municipal Officesat Rangoon", Architects' circumstances and aspirations. Geoffrey Bawa ( 1919-2003) Journal, No. 121, 1929, 864-866. Architect and in Sri Lanka and6 Vann Molyvann ( 1926-2017) in Cambodia 6 Su Lin Lewis, Building News, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2016, 89-91. come to mind.7 During that post-war period when new Cities in Motion: Urban Life and Cosmopolitanism in Southeast countries saw great prospects in Non-Aligned Movement 7 No. 68 ( 1930), 327. 8 Asia,1920-1940, No. 115 (1926), 556. "' Ill"' ( 1961) and were galvanized by the spirit of the Ban dung 9 Country Life,No. 136 (1929), 293. Conference and by promise of the the Organization 10 The Architect and Building News,No. 1929 ), 895. 11 BasilThe Builder, Ward, op. cit. of AfricanBuilding Unity of tbe( 1963), theWorld, Indonesian artist Basoeki Architect and Building News, Abdullah (1915-1993) was inspired to paint a monumental 12 Loudon, John Claudius, 121,( London, Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, work, New a vision for the future of Green and Longman, 1835,An 83. Encyclopedia of Cottage Farm and Villa Asia. In gigantic renderings of Asia's architecture of the 13 DennisArchitecture Sharp, and Sally Furniture Rendel,[... ], London, Frances Lincoln, 2008; A. F. future, he depicted a hub of industrial activity involved Connell, Ward and Lucas: Modern movement in the most advanced technologies of the time. This huge Shannon ( ed.), "Connell, Ward and Lucas 1927-1939", architects in England191956,29 -193994-115., This article contains essays by Henry painting was given7 to Singapore's Foreign Minister by his Russell Hitchcock, "England and the Outside World", Architectural96-97; Thomas Indonesian counterpart in 1965, soon after Singapore gained AssociationStevens, "Connell, Journal, Ward and Lucas 1927-1939", 112-115. independence.7 14 W. Boesiger, 0. Stonorov (eds.), Pierre By the 196o's Brazil had established its architectural and Pierre 1929-1934, Basle, Birkhauser,Le Corbusier 2013; Drawings et atJeanneret: Foundation identity through a bold expansion of modern architecture, LeOeuvre Corbusier complete catalogued 1910-1929 underLe Corbusier"Lotissement, et Barcelone,Jeanneret: Espagne, OEuvre adapting and extending its existing vocabularies to tame 1931"complete and "Lotissement Durand, Oued Ouchaia, Alger, Algerie, 1933"; the Southern sun and enhance lifestyles made possible in No. 10, 1933, 115. See also: a more benign climate. In doing so they freed buildings Hiver (1933), 55-56 and Autumn/Winter (1933), 56; !:ArchitectureVol.d'Aujourd'hui, 01-02 ( 1946), 25-28. Architecture Vivante, from the limitations of closed, contained spaces that char 15 Philip L. Goodwin, G. E.Kidder Smith, Techniques et acterized European precedents. Taking similar yet subtly Architecture, New York, MoMA, 1943, 81-89, 106-111, 112-115, 130-133, 136-139, 158 and 194-195; Yenny CampusanoBrazil Santos, Builds: architecture new different approaches for building in Africa and Asia's warm and old1652-1942, climates, the architects Paul Nelson, Frarn;ois Bienvenu and (Masters' Thesis), Universitat Politecnica De Catalunya, 2014, 16-17; El Cobog6 enReview, la Antonin Raymond were contemporaries of the Brazilians Rio,Arquitectura Vol. 108 Moderna:( 1950 ), 88-94. Evoluci6n, Materiales y Tecnologia Lucio Costa, Oscar Niemeyer, Affonso EduardoReidy, and Architectural the brothers Roberto. But, unlike their Brazilian colleagues

15 10 16 Vol. 86 (1939), 513. 33 Vol. 3 (1945), 37. 17 Philip L. Goodwin, G. E. Kidder Smith, op. cit.; Hugo Segawa, 34 Fran<;:ois Bienvenu: Born in Algiers 1897. Orphaned. Ecole des Beaux Architectura/Review, 1900-1990, New York, Springer, 2013. See also: ul.rchitectureArts in Paris, d'Ajourd'hui, from which he graduated with the Diploma of Architect Vol. 3 (2003), 37-46; AA Vol. 17 (1989), 24-30; D. P.L. G. Returned to Algeria 1925. By 1933 - had already built 15 Architecture of Brazil and Vol. 36 (1998), 3-13. Schools - nominated to Societe des Architectes Modernes. See: 18 Ambiente Construido, Vol. 95 ( 1944), 58-84. Files, January 1933, 81-84, March 1933, 245-246, 19 Ibid., 76. September, 461-465 and November 1936, 567-568; Les 20 Architectura/Review,See note 14. ChantiersNoVol.rd-Af 03 ( 1933),ricains, 104 and Vol. 05 ( 1936), 82-86; 21 Paul Nelson, Paris, Editions Cahiers d'Art, 1933, 502-509 and 1936, 859-870. Fran<;:oisul.rchitectureBienvenu schemesd'Au 1933; "La Cite Hospitaliere de Lille: Etude d'un projet publie en 1933", mentioned:jourd'hui, Sanatorium Rivet, page 860. Cite indigeneLa de Construction la Boucle, La Cite Hospitaliere1945. de Li/le, Moderne,page 862. In 1938, the Federation Nord-Africaine des Architectes was 22 Vol. 37, No. 16 (1937), 351-352. After formed with Fran<;:ois Bienvenuas President. ul.rchitecturegraduating fromFranc;aise, Princeton and serving as an aviator in France during 35 1936, 859-870. WW!,The Princeton Paul NelsonAlumni returned Weekly, briefly for a short stint in Wall Street, 36 AA No. 44 (2001), 3-5; Bhatt, Aditya, "Golconde: Architecture, and then back to Paris. He found the rigidity of the Ecole des Beaux LaClimate Construction and Comfort", Moderne, Ahmedabad: School of Arts stultifying but, stimulated by Georges Braque, he pursued his Architecture,Files, Cept University, 2011. own style of drawing under the guidance Auguste Perret who ran 37 Robert Jonathan Esau, "Connell,Undergraduate Ward Thesis, and Lucas and the emergence a dissident studio. Back in the USA in 1929, Paul Nelson directed of the British Modern Movement in Architecture", movies in Hollywood before returning to Paris where he undertook PhD Thesis, 1994, 27. the design of the Cite Hospitaliere de Lille. Paul Nelson, "A Method 38 No. 89 (1990), 77-81. Bryn Mawr College, of Procedure In Architectural Design", June 1937, 39 Vol. 13-14 (1947 ), 1-97. 52-57; Vol. 9 (November-December 1933), 9; 40 RevuePerre Yagode /'Art, ( ed.), "France d' Outremer", 1936, Vol. 13-14 (1971), 74-129. Architectura/Record, ul.rchitectureNo. 3. Yago hadd'Aujourd'hui, been associated with the journal from its inception in ul.rchitecture d'Aujourd'hu� ul.rchitectured'Aujourd'hui, th 23 Paul Nelson, Jean Helion, 10 Vol. 1-4, 1935. 1930. For this issue he drew upon the latest expertise available. Most 24 PaulPerspecta, Nelson, op. cit. of the buildings and projects featured were in North Africa (Algeria 25 Vol. 13-14 (1971), Cahiers74-129. d'Art,Paul Nelson'syear, influence on the work and Morocco). Also featured were buildings from Lebanon and Syria of Jean Prouve, particularly in relation to the Tropical House, has as well as Guadeloupe. There were general articles on climate, indig notPerspecta, been adequately explored. The louver systems and the metallic enous architectures in Sub-Saharan Africa. Tunisia, Indochina and N construction seem to suggest an affinity. Charlotte Perriand and Jean Madagascar were not covered. 0 Prouve, worked closely together and moved in the same circles as 41 Vol. 3 (1945), whole issue. N 0 Paul Nelson and his friend Fernand Leger. Jean Prouve, 42 Vol. 5-6, 1952, 34-117; Jacques Soulillou ( ed.), N ul.rchitectured'Aujourd'hui, I New York, Praeger, 1971; Carmen Rives a Marseille, Editions Espegel, "Charlotte Perriand", Chapter 7 in Jean Prouve; Parentheses,Techniques et Architecture,1993; Vol. 1 (2011), 580-586; 0 prefabrication:Structures Abingdon, and Elements, Routledge, 2018, 199-240. See also: Coloniales: Architectures,Vol. 24 (2018), deSaint 83-100-Louis and ABEDouala, Journal, Vol. 4 (2013). E WomenArchitects in the Perspective, International Journal 0 Vol. 111 (1952), 171-174; Vol. for 1960, 38-41 43 Vol. 20 (1948), whole special issue; E Modern Movement, of Heritage Studies, 0 and Vol. 24 (2018), 83-100. Vol. 102 (1947), 97-99. " Architectura/Review, Modulo, ul.rchitectured'Aujourd'hui, The 0 26 Henry Russell Hitchcock, Philip Johnson, 44 Vol. 103 (1946), 105-113; IntemationalJournalNewofHeritageStudies, York, MoMA, February-March 1932, Architectura/Review,Vol. 101 (March 1947 ), 83-88; Vol. 101 (May 1947 ), 165-172; Vol. 102 Catalog. Modern Architecture: (AugustTheArchitects'Journal, 1947), 58-59; Vol. 102 (October 1947),TheArchitecturalReview, 138-139; Vol. 102 27 International Exhibition, Vol. 3 ( 1932 ), 61-63. (November 1947 ), 171-172; Vol. 102 (December 1947), 185-188; 28 was a monthly published in Algiers from Vol. 103 (January 1948), 7-8; Vol. 104 (December 1948), 264, 295 and ul.rchitecture1928 to mid 1937.d'Aujourd' In 1933, hu( it changed its name to It covered 298; Vol. 105 (January 1949), 33-34; Vol. 107 (February 1950), 123-130; Lesa wide Chantiers rangeNord from- Africaindividual ins ... houses to large infrastructure projects. Vol. 107 ( April 1950 ), 221-223 and 229-230; Vol. 108 ( August 1950 ), 88-92; Focused on North Africa from Morocco to Tunisia,Chantiers. it had feature Vol. 108 (October 1950 ), 221-232 and 249-258 and Vol. 108 (November articles on modern architecture in France with quite regular features 1950), 303-306. on Le Corbusier. Through its pages it is possible to see a progression 45 Vol. 112 (November 1952 ), 322-330. from classically inspired buildings, flirtations with Maghrebian "orien 46 Vol. 111 (January 1952), 16-22. talism", through preponderance of art-deco, to doctrinaire modernism. 47 Jiat-HweeThe Architectura/Review, Chang, There are many discussions about the need for a "Mediterranean" Architectura/Review, Abingdon, Routledge, 2016. architecture. 48 See: A GenealogyVol. 7 of (1983), Tropical 337-346. Architecture: Colonial networks, 29 Vol. 07-08 ( 1943), 207. 49 See:nature and technoscience, Vol. 8 ( 2003), 337-354; Habitat International, 30 a Latin term, are common in North African vernacular Vol. 10 (2004), 439-453; Vol. 30 (2006), 396-411; building.Techniques They et Architecture, are normally formed in walls to create gaps for venti Journal of Architecture, Vol.Social 65 ( 2006), Identities, 188-215; lation.Claustra, August Perret used the term to describe the precast concrete HabitatVol. International, 6 (2016), 269-288. elements that are a striking feature at his church at Notre-Dame du 50 Journal of theSociety ofVol. Architectural 113 (1953), Historians, 288-289 and 298-310; Rainey. He had first used them when, as a contractor, he had built the Hist6ria. Revista daFLUP,Vol. 62 Porto, ( 1946), 53-60 and Vol. 69 ( 1953), 7-21; Cathedral at Oran in 1910. In both cases the are filled with Architectura/Review,Vol. 120 (July 1954), 68; ABE Vol.Architectural 4 (2013); glass. Perret later used open at the Musee des Travaux Publics. AssociationJournal, Vol. 103 (1955), 315-333; Lucio Costa insisted that his honeycomb wallsclaustra of ceramic elements in Architects'Journal,Vol. 12 ( 2010), 17-24; Vandana Baweja,Journal, "Otto Konigsberger the Guinle housing scheme wereclaustra and not in any way Journaland the of Tropicalization the Royal Society of of British Arts, Architectural Culture",Ra-Revista in Duanfang de Hugo Segawa, "Lucio Costa: a vanguarda permeada corna tradi<;:iio Luarquitectura, ( ed.), Abingdon, Routledge, 2010, 236-254. - entrevista a Hugo Segawa", claustraSao Paulo, No. 104, 1987,cobog6s. 150; 51 Vol. 103 (January 1948), 8-22 and Vol. 110 (June Civil, Vol. 83, 1923, 1-4. 1947), 199-204.Third World Modernism, 31 Vol. 208 ( 2000Projeto, ), 44; Vol. 3Le 52 Architectura/Review, Vol. 128 (July 1960 ). (1988),Genie 455-487; Vol. 19 (2002), 164-192; 53 Ibid., 5-6. Architectura/Review, Vol. 70 (2011), 492-511;Cultural Anthropology, 54 Architectura/Review,Maxwell Fry, Jane Drew, London, Vol. 52 (2009), 201-232;Muqarnas, Michael Windover, "ExchangingJournal Looks: of theSociety 'Art B. T. Batsford, 1956; Dekho'ofArchitectural Movie Historians,Theatres in Bombay", Deco: Architectural History, London, B. T. Batsford, 1964;Tropical Udu Architecture Kultermann, in theNew humid zone, Quebec, Presses de l'Universite, 2012, 159-188; Sharada Dwivedi, Rahul New York, UniverseTropical ArchitectureBooks, 1963. in the Dry and Humid Zones, Art A mode of mobility, Architecture in Mehrotra, Deco, Mumbai, Eminence Designs Pvt. Ltd., 2008; 55 Aladar, Victor Olgyay, Devices, Princeton, Africa, Navin Ramani, Laura Cerwinske, Deco Princeton University Press, 1957; Victor Olgyay, Bombay Solar Control andShading (1930-1953), New Delhi, Lustre Press, Roli Books, 2007. Princeton, Princeton 32 Vol. 09 (1936), 461-465. Bombay Art Architecture, A Visual University Press, 1963. Design with Climate: Journey Bioclimatic approach to ArchitecturalRegionalism, Chantiers,

16 11 56 South African Architectural Record, Vol. 35 Quly 1950 ), 151-162. ( c. 1965) by former Indonesian Foreign Minister Adam Malik to his 57 Stephen Trotter, Cities in the Sun, Brisbane, St Regis-A. C. I. Pty Ltd., Singaporean counterpart S Rajaratnam. It is an emblem of the strong 1964. diplomatic and cultural relations between Indonesia and Singapore, 58 Architectural Review, Vol. 122 (November 1957 ), 323-332. and was for many years displayed prominently at the main stairway of 59 Architectural Review, Vol. 128 Quly 1960), 4-92. the City Hall building where the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,together 60 TheArchitectural Review, Vol. 118 (November 1955), 318-321; Vol. 120 with many key government departments such as the Prime Minister's (October 1956), 252- 254; Vol. 124 (October 1958), 258-260; Vol. 126 Office and Ministry Culture, were housed. Today, this display is made (November 1959), 275-278 and Vol. 131 Qanuary 1962), 131 and 779; The possible by the kind support of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.ABE Architects' Journal, Vol. 127 (March 1958), 346-347. 78 Lawrence J. Vale, Architecture, Power and National Identity, Abingdon, 61 Resolutions, "Incorporation of features of Burmese Architecture in Routledge, 2008; Modernism/Modernity, Vol.12 (2005), 253-272; Public Buildings", Proceedings of the Legislative Council of the Governor Journal, Vol. 4 and Vol. 9-10 (2016). of Burma, 5'b Council) 1930, Vol. xv 11, Session (J'd Rangoon, Government References Printing Office,1932, 169-178. BLOC, 62 Ibid., 170. 63 Architectural Review, Vol. 118 (November 1955), 312-317 and Vol. 125 CASCIATO,Andre (Ed.), "FranceD'ORGEIX, d'Outre Mer", rArchitecture d'.Aujourd'hui, Issue 3, (March 1959), 188-192. September-October 1945, whole issue.docomomo 64 Architects'Journal,January 1955, 38-39. Maristella, Emilie (Eds.), docomomo Journal 28 - 65 Ibid.; TheArchitectural Review, P,Vol. 128 (1960), 21-30; Mark Crinson, COLLINS,"Modern Heritage in Africa", Paris, International, March "Imperial Modernism", in G. A. Bremner, Architecture and Urbanism in 2003. the British Empire, Oxford, o u 2016. Darryl, "Vann Molyvann: Situating the work of Cambodia's most 66 TheJournal of Indian Art, Vol. 6 (1896), 91-94; E. B. Havell, A handbook to influential architect", Perspecta, Vol. 45, 2012, 77-88. Agra and the Taj, Sikandra, Fatephpur-Sikri and the neighbourhood, London, EditorialFRY, & variousDREW, regional features by different invited authors, Longmans, 1903, 85-90; Indian Architecture, London, John Murray, 1913, "Commonwealth 2", Architectural Review, Vol. 128, July 1960, 4-92. 206-207. GOODWIN,Maxwell, Jane,SMITH, Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones, 67 Habitat International, Vol. 7 (1983), 311-326. London, B. T. Batsford, 1964. 68 Architectural History,Vol. 32 (1989), 131-151. HEN KET, Philip L., HEYNEN,G. E. Kidder, Brazil Builds: architecture new and old1652 -1942, New York, MoMA, 1943. 69 Siegfried Giedion, "The need for a new monumentality", in N Paul Zucker ( ed.), New Architecture and City Planning, New York, LE CORBUSIER,Hubert- Jan, Hilde (Eds.), Back from Utopia: TheChallenge N Philosophical Library, 1944, 549-568;J. L. Sert, F. Leger, "S. Giedion, of the ModernMovement, Rotterdam, 010 Publishers, 2002. 0 N Nine Points of Monumentality", in Joan Ockman, Edward Eigen (eds.), "Problemes de l'Ensoleillement: Le Brise Soleil ... I Architecture C,Liture1943-1968: A Documentary Anthology, New York, ROBSON,Conference prononceeDASWATTE, le 2Juillet 1945, au Palais Chaillot", Techniques (Y) XII ( -0 Rizzoli, 1993, 27-31; Architectural Review, Vol. 108 (1950), 307-314. et Architecture, Vol. 01-02, 1946, 25-28.AA [Whole issue on 'eclairage (light)]. 0 TheListener, Architects' Journal, David, Channa, "Serendib Serendipity: The E 70 Vol. 1934), 885-888; May 1934, 785. SHARP, RENDEL, 0 71 Architect'sJournal, October 1935, 621-628; December 1936, 835-839; Architecture of Geoffrey Bawa", Files, Vol. 35, 1998, 26-41. E 0 February 1939, 309-319; March 1935, 484-485 and February 1941, 137 SHARP, Dennis, Sally, Connell, Ward and Lucas: Modem movement 0... and 150. architects in England 1929-139, London, Frances Lincoln, 2008. .,, 72 Architectural History, Vol. 55 (2012), 299-320. Dennis, "TheModern Movement in East Africa: Thework of 7473 The site at the foothills of the Himalayas was selected in 1948 and the ArnyasConnell (1900-1980) in Tanganyika and Kenya with reference foundation stone laid in 1952. TOSTOto the ES, crisis of Decoration in Modern African Architecture", Habitat Jawaharlal Nehru, "Inaugural Address by Shri Jawaharlal Nehru, international, Vol. 7, 1983, 311-326. Seminar architecture, Prime Minister", in Achyut Kanvinde ( ed), on New Ana, docomomo"Transcontinental Modernism: How to Find the Shortcut", Delhi, Lalit Kala Akademi, 1959, 8-9 (5-9). YAGO,docomomo Journal48 - "Modern Africa. Tropical Architecture", 75 Much inspiration for capturing an architecture honoring cultural Barcelona, International, 2013, 30-33. identity draws upon vernacular forms untainted by interference Pierre (Ed.), "France d'Outremer", !.'Architectured'At1jourd'hui, Issue 3, from conventional "erudite" and academic styles. Lucio Costa, March 1936, "Transcontinental Modernism: How to Find the Shortcut". ..., when building a case for modern architecture in Brazil, sought ..... inspiration from pre-19'h century vernacular and Brazilian baroque buildings: Revista doServic;o do Patrimonio Hist6rico e Artistico Nacional, Vol. 1 (1937), 30-39; Ekistics, Vol. 8 (1959), 391-394; Architecture Plus Design, Vol. 14 (September 1997), 104-106; Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 74 (2015), 443-463; Paul Sanders, "Beyond Barrie's House:SAHA the NZ emergence of a regional domestic architecture in Natal during the 1960s", in Andrew Leach, Gill Matthewson ( eds.), Proceedings 2005, Napier, New Zealand, 315-321; Architectural Research Qyarterly, Vol. 4 (2000 ), 67-80; ArchitecturalABE Review, Vol. 90 (1941), 73-76; Vol. 116 (1954), 34-40; Vol. 139 (1966), 143-144; Vol. 130 (1961), 280-283 and Vol. 187 (1987), 72-75; Journal, Vol. 11, 2017. 76 AA Files, Vol. 35 (1998), 26-41; Architectural Review, Vol. 173 (1983), 18-23; Architects' Journal, October 1969, 939-940; Ronald B. Lewcocck, TheArchitecture ofan Island: TheLiving Legacy of Sri Lanka, Colombo, Barefoot, 1998; Art and Asia Pacific, Winter 2005, 68-71; Perspecta, Vol. 45 (2012), 77-88; ABEJoumal, Vol. 11 (2017). 77 The painting was exhibited in the National Gallery of Singapore, the former City Hall where it had hung. It has since been moved to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. At the time, the caption to the painting read: Basoeki Abdullah Labour, 1955-1959. Oil on canvas. In this painting, sometime referred to a Building of the New World, Indonesian artist, Basoeki Abdullah depicted his aspiration for the ThirdWorld at a time when much of Southeast Asia was contem plating a post-colonial era driven by the labors of the common people. Basoeki Abdullah was a role model to members of the Equator Art Society, who believed that art could serve a political purpose in the building of a young Singapore. Thisartwork was presented as a gift

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02 Tropical Architecture, South of Cancer 56 Tropical Modernity: A Hybrid-Construct in the Modern Diaspora in South China - BY ANA TOSTOES - BY RU! LEAO AND CHARLES LAI

62 The Japanese Embassy in Mexico: a Fortunate Association, - a Threatened Heritage - BY LOURDES CRUZ INTRODUCTION 04 South of Cancer: Modern Architecture's ■ Tropical Diasporas - BY PEDRO GUEDES AND JOHANNES WIDODO DOCUMENTATION ISSUES

70 The Nature of Tropical Architecture in Indonesian Modernism N - BY SETIADI SOPANDI N I N 76 Religious Tropical Architecture: the churches of Leandro V. Locsin 0 E 0 ESSAYS in the Philippines E 0 - BY JEAN-CLAUDE GIRARD 0 06 Behind the Veils of Modern Tropical Architecture 80 Makkasan Train Factory: an attempt - BY PEDRO GUEDES to preserve Bangkok's urban heritage - BY PONGK WAN LASSUS 18 Tropical Building Research: "' the Angolan Case 85 Encounters with Southeast - BY MARGARIDA QUINTA Asian Modernism 0 - BY MORITZ HENNING, SALLY BELOW, 26 Otto Konigsberger and Global CHRISTIAN HILLER AND EDUARD KOGEL Architectural Histories - BY VA NDANA BAWEJA TRIBUTE 32 Monuments of Country, Climate and Culture: Michel Ecochard and the Design 89 Towns are made from houses of the Postcolonial Tropolis - Jean-Pierre Watel (1933-2016) - BY TOM AVERMAETE - BY RICHARD KLEIN

40 "Our Cinderella North" - The Modern Diaspora's long reach into Australia's tropical zones - BY ELIZABETH MUSGRAVE 92 BOOK RE VIEWS

48 Alfred Preis and Viennese Modernism in Hawai'i 96 APPENDIX - BY LAURA MCGUIRE

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