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Preliminary Pages Media Independence in Ghana: The Case of the Fourth Republic. Jacob Nyarko [213551924] Submitted in fulfilment of the academic requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy In the Centre for Communication and Media Studies, School of Applied Human Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban. November, 2015 As the candidate’s supervisor I have / have not approved this thesis/dissertation for submission. Date: ……………………………….. Name: ………………………………... Signed: ………………………………. i Abstract The media is often referred to as the fourth estate with the objective of making it autonomous of some society players whose activities seem to sway it from its traditional role of advancing the course of public interest. These dominant forces have intertwined internally or remotely into the very environment within which media institutions operates and seem to stifle their functions and independence. The general objective of this study was to explore the relationship between media independence and the legal, economic and political environments within present-day Ghana. Economically, this study investigated the impact of media funding on the independence of both government and private print media outlets in Ghana tagging advertising as it revenue generation source to determine agenda-setting and framing patterns. Furthermore, it explored whether the media has diversified its operations for revenue generation purpose and to what extent ownership tendencies impacts on editorial independence. Legally, it investigated the impact of media laws and the fourth republican Constitutional provisions on media independence and lastly, assessed the independence of the Ghanaian print media from the perspective of standards and professionalism. The study used an exploratory mixed-research method that combined semi-structured interviews and content analysis. Fifteen participants were drawn from the Ghanaian print media landscape composed of experienced newspaper editors, senior journalists, regulatory bodies, media associations, African sub-regional media organisation and media activists from academia. Twenty newspapers were selected equally from two government and private print houses respectively to conduct a manifest and latent content analysis of adverts placed in Ghanaian newspapers. This work was embedded in the theory of political economy. Transcribed data was organised thematically for analysis and presented in a narrative, tabular and graphical formats. Overall, the study indicated that Ghana‟s corporate community together funds media more than that of government. Funding through advertising impinges on editorial independence and influences agenda-setting and framing of news patterns. Furthermore, small sections of the Ghanaian media have diversified into other businesses to raise revenue to mitigate some of the pressures of that comes with reliance on a lone income. Moreover, ownership influences are evident in the landscape. The study also showed that though the Ghanaian constitution has made some positive impacts, some shortfalls were identified such ii as: The media lack a Right to Information Law; archaic laws still exist in the statute books; and huge court fines which cripples media outlets. Finally, unethical practices were evident in the media landscape and argued that legalities form a minimal part of the independence of the Ghanaian print media but concerns about their freedom is self-inflicted by the very media practitioners through their actions and sometimes questionable reportage. iii Preface The empirical research described in this thesis: “Media Independence in Ghana: The Case of the Fourth Republic” for PhD was carried out in the Centre for Communication and Media Studies, School of Applied Human Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Howard College Campus, Durban, from July 2013 to December 2015, under the supervision of Prof. Ruth Elizabeth Teer-Tomaselli. This study represents original work by the author and has not otherwise been submitted in any form for any degree or diploma at any tertiary institution. Where use has been made of the work of others it is duly acknowledged in the text. Signature iv Acknowledgements I am grateful to God for good health, protection, strength and knowledge throughout my education especially this PhD. The unstable beginning of this work was finally stabilised through the efforts of my supervisor Prof. Ruth Elizabeth Teer-Tomaselli. Her selfless contribution and dedication to this thesis took much of her precious time during the proposal stage which helped to lay a good base on which to build the study. Beyond this, her valuable experience and insightful suggestions saw this work progressed from one stage to the other. Throughout this work, I liked how she remained frank if a position taken with respect to methodological and theoretical concepts were not appropriate without hurting and discouraging the student. She used her virtue of encouragement to push me through. I am also grateful to my wife, Mrs. Ophelia Aba Nyarko for helping to source funds to see the completion of this project. Finally, to you Dr. Kwaku Oppong Asante, you have been an inspiration to me throughout this work. v Definition of terms AMB: African Media Barometer AMDI: African Media Development Initiative CHRI: Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative FOIL: Freedom of Information Law FOIB: Freedom of Information Bill GJA: Ghana Journalists Association GYEEDA: Ghana Youth Employment and Entrepreneurial Development Agency HSBC: HongKong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (Multinational Bank) IFJ: International Federation of Journalists IREX: International Research and Exchanges Board MISA: Media Institute of Southern Africa MFWA: Media Foundation for West Africa NRC: The National Redemption Council NDC: National Democratic Congress NPP: National Patriotic Party NLC: National Liberation Council NMC: National Media Commission NCA: National Communication Authority PRINPAG: Private Newspaper Publishing Association of Ghana PNDC: People‟s National Defence Council RTIL: Right to Information Law RDIRBC: Research Directorate, Immigration and Refugee Board, Canada SADA: Southern Accelerated Development Authority SMC: Supreme Military Council UNESCO: United Nations Organisation for Education, Science and Culture USAID: United States Agency for International Development vi TABLE OF CONTENT CONTENT PAGE NO. TITLE PAGE i ABSTRACT ii-iii PREFACE iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v DEFINITION OF TERMS vi TABLE OF CONTENT vii-xii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.0 Background 1-2 1.1 The Major Republics (1957-1993): Striving towards Media Independence 2-9 1.2 Some Successes of the Fourth Republican Constitution 10-11 1.3 Some Drawbacks 11-13 1.4 National Economy of Ghana 14-15 1.5 Media funding: Relations with Media Independence 17-19 1.6 Objectives of the Thesis 19 1.7 Research Questions 19-20 1.8 Delimitation 20 1.9 Significance 20-21 1.10 Thesis Structure/Organisation 22-23 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 24 2.0 Introduction 24-25 2.1 Concept of Freedom 25-29 2.2 Media Independence: Defining the Concept 29-33 2.3 Previous Studies 33-39 2.4 Media and Society: Issues of Ethics, Standards, Accountability and 39-40 Responsibility 2.4.1 Media Accountability and Responsibility: An Obligation of Freedom 40-45 2.4.2 Media Ethics, Standards and Professionalism 45-48 2.5 Media Freedom and Governance Systems: Democracy, Authoritative and 49-50 vii Socialist forms 2.5.1 What is Democracy then? 50-51 2.5.2 Authoritative Governance and the Press 53 2.5.3 Socialist Governance and the Press 53-55 2.6 Media Ownership and Control 55-58 2.6.1 Media Ownership in Africa 58-59 2.7 Advertising Defined 59 2.7.1 Advertising as a Funding Source 60-63 2.7.2 Media Commodification, Profitability and Consumption 63-65 2.8 Media Diversification 65-66 CHAPTER 3: THE PRINT MEDIA LANDSCAPE OF GHANA 67 3.0 Foundation of Print Media in Ghana 67-68 3.1 Geographical Distribution of Ghana‟s Print Media Resources 68-73 3.2 Media Regulatory Institution(s) and Advocacy / Professional Groups 73 3.2.1 Formation of Press Councils 74 3.2.2 NMC Composition and Formation 74-75 3.2.3 Ghana Journalists Association (GJA) and Private Newspaper 75-76 Publishers Association of Ghana (PRINPAG) 3.3 International Media Bodies/Protocols 76 3.3.1 Windhoek Declaration (1991) 76-77 3.4 Regulatory Environment of Media: Survey of Media Law 77-79 3.5 Post-Independent Ghana and Press Laws 79-82 3.6 Theoretical Framework 82-84 3.6.1 Globalisation 84-85 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 87 4.0 Research Design 87 4.1 Data Collection Sources 87-88 4.2 Qualitative / Quantitative Research 88-89 4.2.1 Qualitative and Quantitative: Merger or Dichotomous Debate 89-90 4.3 Content Analysis: What Is It? 90-91 4.3.1 Media Content Analysis: The Roots 91 4.3.2 Applicability of Qualitative and Quantitative: Revisited in Line with 91-92 Content Analysis 4.3.3 Content Analysis: Procedural Measures 92-93 viii 4.4 Sampling/Sample Procedures 95 4.5 Sample Size for Newspapers 95 4.6 Sections of Content Selection for Newspapers 98 4.6.1 Framing and Agenda-setting: Determinant of Media Independence 101 4.6.2 Framing 101-02 4.7 Agenda-Setting 102-04 4.7.1 Reliability and Validity Differentiated 104 4.7.2 Reliability 104-05 4.8 Inter-coder Reliability 105-06 4.8.1 Validity 106-07 4.8.2 Thematic Analysis: What is it? 107-08 4.8.3 Interviews 108-09 4.9 Sample Size for Interviews 109-10 4.10 Thematic Analysis: Procedural Measures 110-11 Interpreting Data and Presentation 111-12 Ethical Considerations 112 4.11 Limitations 112-13 CHAPTER 5: MEDIA FUNDING VERSUS AGENDA-SETTING/FRAMING:
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