PAPERS 45 INDUSTRIAL ESTATES: LOCATION TRENDS AND ACCESSIBILITY

PRESENTATION out the implementation of the Catalan exclusive uses. Nevertheless, and despite Mobility Law instruments, particularly the the fact that this has been a general trend, From an academic perspective, as well as Mobility Plans for industrial estates and to date we have little information about from the point of view of professionals, the fi gure of the Mobility Manager. where these industrial estates are located, governments and economic agents how many there are, the area they cover in involved, there is a general consensus In the third article, Margarida Castañer and hectares and how much of this land area is regarding structure and location of Antoni Ferran review the conclusions of available. Similarly, there has been little in- economic activities as the objects of the 3rd Conference on Territorial and Urban depth research into what we know about great changes in recent years. The so- Planning Environmental Assessment. The the kinds of businesses located in these called industrial estates, seen as areas of Conference goals were to come up with areas beyond merely classifying them functional specialization, have been and effective ways to apply the European along with industry. still are the ones in which these territorial Union Directive 2001/1452/EC to the changes of the economic-productive conception of new areas of economic The following article is an attempt to system arise most clearly. Understanding activity, to establish environmental and refl ect the current situation concerning the them and thinking on their characteristics, landscaping criterion to guide the selection defi cit of information on these issues from on the activities that settle in them in an and design of their site and, lastly, to the analytical perspective of supply and intensive manner, and on how to plan, launch the challenge of collaboration demand of industrial estates in Catalonia1. design and manage them, becomes between different Administration levels This study starts from the basis of three essential to develop urban and territorial in order to enable the development of hypotheses shared by the academic world, planning policies and economic strategies. supramunicipal economic areas. institutions and social representatives. The fi rst hypothesis is that these spaces The publication of the four articles The issue is closed by a fourth article can no longer simply be identifi ed as included in this 45th issue of the PAPERS in which Juli Esteban refl ects about industrial areas because they also include magazine can be regarded as an attempt the capacity, the tools and the ways in logistics and commercial enterprises to contribute to this necessary refl ection which physical planning can infl uence the and services in general. Therefore, focusing on the 1.750 industrial estates dynamics of location of industrial estates. throughout this article we will use the located in Catalonia (according to the Starting with the defi nition of a set of term industrial estate in its broadest Census of Industrial Estates in Catalonia guiding principles that seek to promote sense, that is as an area where business 2005-2006, developed by the Institut coexistence with other activities and to enterprises are located on land classifi ed d’Estudis Regionals i Metropolitans de rationalize their settlement, the author as industrial, tertiary or mixed. The second Barcelona). refers the spatial and temporal diffi culties hypothesis, which follows from the fi rst, that arise when a range of territorial plans refers to the fact that the characteristics The location of these economic areas, attempt to establish guidelines for the of these economic activities are no the variety of situations resulting from choice of sites, sizes and mixed-used longer incompatible with residential their size, site and land availability, as well patterns, as well as to impose an urban uses; in consequence, the ideal situation as the prospect of fl oor demand, are the model of concentration and proximity. In of locating them in industrial estates subjects analyzed by Carme Miralles- order to go beyond these diffi culties he segregated from urban fabrics has to be Guasch and Carles Donat at the opening of proposes some planning techniques, such re-thought, above all taking into account this monograph. This fi rst article unravels as the regulation of the spatial distribution that this location increases competition the results obtained by two quantitative of both already-known processes and for land use and may make diffi cult the sources created in order to overcome the unexpected opportunities for the siting of siting of other businesses that do need lack of information about local industrial new activities. to be located in these areas. Finally, the estates: the aforementioned Census third hypothesis states that the distribution (which includes location, delimitation, size of industrial estates in Catalonia is, and occupation data) and the Sample of generally speaking, overly dispersed Industrial Estates in Catalonia 2005-2006, INDUSTRIAL ESTATES IN and fragmented, the outcome of a lack which informs of the activities that can CATALONIA: AN ANALYSIS OF of coordination between municipalities, be found at those estates. The analysis of SUPPLY AND DEMAND which poses diffi culties when it comes to offer/demand dialectics here is based both siting businesses that require a large areas on these quantitative data and systematic, of land. Carme Miralles-Guasch qualitative information gathered in in-depth interviews to relevant experts in the fi eld. Carles Donat When it comes to studying industrial estates, there is a lack of homogeneous The second article, by Àngel Cebollada, and detailed information for Catalonia is about the unresolved matter of the Introduction as a whole. In an attempt to address accessibility to industrial estates. Given this, three sources of information have the acknowledgement that the relocation With the passing of time, the location been devised: two of them quantitative, of industries to the urban periphery has of economic activities has been a census and a sample of industrial occurred without taking into account the governed by various lines of reasoning estates; and one qualitative, a corpus of workers’ accessibility needs, a resulting and circumstances. At present, and for in-depth interviews. The Cens de polígons situation characterized by a severe quite some time now, town and city d’activitat de Catalunya 2005-2006 shortage of collective transport offer, councils have been trying to situate (Census of industrial and tertiary estates in in which the car appears as the most these businesses in industrial estates in Catalonia 2005-2006) began with sending effective mean, is outlined. As a way to suburban areas, often isolated from the out a questionnaire with a map to those correct or straighten it, the author points traditional urban fabric and set aside for local councils with industrial, tertiary or

INDUSTRIAL ESTATES: LOCATION TRENDS AND ACCESSIBILITY / 89 mixed land, so that they could identify come from a variety of areas ranging from they cover. At the same time, for each and defi ne their industrial estates. This municipal management to the academic area we explain the relationship between approach provided satisfactory responses world, and including various institutions industrial estates and the territory based from 102 local councils. This data source that study manufacturing sector dynamics on three factors: location according to size, was complemented and contrasted with in general and industry in particular. An their site in relation to urban centres and others, the most important being the data in-depth interview is a qualitative social other industrial estates and the level of base generated by the Pacte Industrial research technique that allows one land taken up. The relationship between de la Regió Metropolitana de Barcelona, to develop an in-depth dialogue with the industrial estates and urban centres which was used for 104 municipalities. individuals who are an integral part of the has lead us to consider a threshold of 200 In other territorial areas where no second population being studied. An interview metres distance between them so as to source was available, we made use of is understood as a “communicative be able to differentiate between those layouts of municipalities, databases process” though which one can “extract” which are segregated and those which, from other local authorities (regional and information from someone (in this case in contrast, are closer or could even be local councils), institutions (Chambers of an expert on the topic under study). considered appended to or an integral part Commerce), and from the Institut Català The aim is to generate a discourse on a of an urban centre. Also the relationship del Sòl (Catalan Land Institute) -being the specifi c line of argument (high degree of between the industrial estates themselves most important sources consulted. Taken fl uency and not pre-coded, as opposed to has led us to consider them as territorial as a whole, this group of data sources questionnaires), which allows the person phenomena with a physical continuity from local administrations and institutions being interviewed to give their opinions and which can make up “business areas” was used for 367 municipalities, 78.9% about the topic one wishes to analyse. As or, alternatively, classify them as isolated of the total of the municipalities covered regards this study, the interview began if they are distributed in a fragmented by the census. Urban planning ones from an initial minimal script on predefi ned manner. According to these characteristics were used for those areas not covered topic areas with no pre-established order, one can speak of segregated, integrated, by these sources; this was the case for through which the focus of this research concentrated or isolated sites. 81 municipalities, 17.4% of the total of was broached based on the personal the municipalities covered by the census. experiences, opinions and expectations In 2006 there were 1,748 industrial From these sources, those that were of the person being interviewed. These estates with an area greater than 0.5 consulted most, in order of priority, were: interviews were carried out between hectares covering 32,240 hectares, which planning sectors (46 municipalities), February and April 2006 and totalled corresponds to approximately 18% of followed by general municipal planning 14 hours of recorded conversations. The the urban and development land4. The (25 municipalities), and fi nally the Sistema transcriptions of these interviews have metropolitan area of Barcelona is the d’Informació Territorial del Planejament allowed us to analyse the most important territorial area where the largest number Urbanístic (Urban Planning Territorial issues related to the supply of and demand of industrial estates is concentrated, Information System) (10 municipalities). for industrial estates. 712 (40.7%). In second place we have The information obtained from the Comarques Centrals and Comarques planning sectors was contrasted against This article is divided into three sections Gironines with 329 and 287 industrial orthophotomaps. In cases where and is a response to the information and estates (18.8% and 16.4%, respectively). sectors are an extension of an already analysis carried out for each of the Next in order we have Camp de Tarragona existing area of economic activity, the three aforementioned sources, which and Àmbit de Ponent, with 176 and 159 two areas have been grouped together are summarised and contrasted in the industrial estates (10.1% and 9.1%, to make one industrial estate. Finally, conclusions. In the fi rst section, based respectively). Then fi nally, we have Terres in the municipalities where none of the on the data from the census, we analyse de l’Ebre and Alt Pirineu i Aran, with 61 aforementioned sources were available, a some of the principal factors associated and 24 industrial estates (3.5% and 1.4%, morphological criterion was applied. Thus, with the supply side of industrial estates respectively – see fi gure 1). However, this industrial estates were located by means in Catalonia: location, dimensions, siting order changes seen from the perspective of applying visual photointerpretation with respect to population centres and of the total gross surface area taken techniques based on the 1:25.000 to the rest of the industrial estates, and up by the industrial estates. While the orthophotomaps by the Institut fi nally, the degree of land availability. In Metropolitan Area remains in fi rst place Cartogràfi c de Catalunya (Cartographic the second, based on the information with 15,623 hectares (48.5%), second Institute of Catalonia)2. This criterion was collected in the sample, we analyse what place in order of total gross surface area used for a total of 17 municipalities, 3.7% constitutes demand, placing particular in Catalonia is Camp de Tarragona (5,030 of the total of the municipalities covered emphasis on the consequences of hectares - 15.6%) with Comarques by the census. changes in the structure of the economy Centrals (3,666 hectares - 11.4%) and vis-à-vis demand for space in industrial Comarques Gironines (3,669 hectares The second quantitative source, la Mostra estates, and also on territorial differences. - 11.4%) rating third. Àmbit de Ponent de polígons d’activitat de Catalunya Finally, in the third section we present an (2,717 hectares - 8.4%) remains in fi fth 2005-2006 (Sample of industrial estates analysis based on the in-depth interviews, place although the gross surface area here in Catalonia), allowed for gathering which provides a complementary is closer to that of Comarques Gironines information about the different types of perspective to the previous two sections and Comarques Centrals. Finally, Terres businesses found in industrial estates. detailing pertinent factors according to the de l’Ebre (1,376 hectares - 4.3%) and Alt Information was collected from the perceptions and opinions of the experts Pirineu i Aran (158 hectares - 0.5%) remain questionnaire sent to local councils in themselves. in sixth and seventh place respectively. which they were asked to specify the percentage of land taken up by each of the These differences between the number following branches of business: industry, 1. Industrial estates in the territory: of industrial estates and the total gross transport and warehousing, retailers, location, site and land availability surface area they cover can be explained wholesalers, services for people, services by looking at them according to their size provided for companies, and others. According to the data obtained in the and comparing the distribution between census carried out during 2006, there each of the areas. As fi gure 2 illustrates, In order to obtain a clearer idea of the are approximately 1,750 industrial in Comarques Gironines and Comarques supply of and demand for industrial estates estates in Catalonia. In this section their Centrals there is a very high percentage of in Catalonia, we deemed it appropriate to characteristics are analysed according small and medium sized industrial estates, carry out in-depth interviews to provide a to a breakdown of the place where they 67% and 68% respectively. In contrast, qualitative analysis based on the opinions are found by territorial area3, and also the percentage fi gures for medium-large of various qualifi ed experts. These experts according to size and the surface area industrial estates are lower (35% and

90 / Papers 45 / 32%). In the Barcelona metropolitan area this graph reveals a second level of land – General Metropolitan Plan) area, the and Camp de Tarragona, the percentage availability in Camp de Tarragona, where majority of the industrial estates are an distribution of industrial estates according there are 2,300 hectares with take up appendage to, or integrated into, the to size is almost identical. Around 80% levels below 25%, and among these, more urban stretches. In contrast, in the more of the industrial estates are situated in than 500 hectares are unoccupied. Next peripheral parts, as we have already seen, the medium-size range (with and equal in order, we have Comarques Centrals, the industrial estates are located in a more breakdown, 40% and 40%, between the Comarques Gironines and Àmbit de disperse and fragmented manner, and in medium to small and medium to large Ponent, with approximately 1,300 hectares addition they tend to be segregated from industrial estates) and a little over 10% for with take up levels below 25%. Finally urban centres. the extremes (small or large). As regards we have Terres de l’Ebre with some 600 percentage fi gures for small industrial hectares with take up levels below 25%. Analysis of the site of the industrial estates estates, these are well below those for In Alt Pirineu i Aran, where there are few in the metropolitan area of Barcelona Comarques Gironines and Comarques industrial estates, there are approximately allows for concluding that in the PGM Centrals, particularly in the latter case, 65 hectares with take up levels below area a specifi c global view in the form of where they account for almost 20%. In 25%. supra-municipal level planning, has led to Àmbit de Ponent, almost half the industrial a confi guration of the territory where the estates are medium-large (48%), and this The differences in the intensity of urban industrial estates are generally grouped is the second area where the medium- and metropolitan development in each into “business areas” that are contiguous large industrial estates are in the majority. of these territorial areas explain the to the urban fabric. In contrast, for the In contrast, there are very few large differences in terms of distribution and rest of the area, the development of land industrial estates and account for only the take up levels in industrial estates in for businesses has led to a distribution of 5%, one of the lowest fi gures. Finally, the Catalonia seen in the tables given earlier. industrial estates which are fragmented medium-small industrial estates make Similarly, if we take a closer look at each and/or segregated from the urban up 36%, a fi gure that is slightly lower area we can see that the questions of networks. Exceptions to this are the than those for the rest of the areas. A location and site of the industrial estates traditionally industrial cities (Sabadell, characteristic feature of Terres de l’Ebre have their own distinct characteristics. Terrassa, Mataró, Vilafranca and Vilanova) is a signifi cant level of medium-large and other locations where, because of land sized industrial estates - this is the area development dynamics, they have ended where they are more predominant, 53%. 1.1. The metropolitan area of up confi guring industrial estate and urban In addition, the fi gure for large industrial Barcelona centre continuums (C-17 corridor to Vallès estates is 12%, in contrast to the fi gure The 712 industrial estates in the Oriental). for small industrial, 5%. In Alt Pirineu i metropolitan area of Barcelona cover Aran, where the total number of industrial 15,623 hectares, which means If one looks at the availability of land, in estates is signifi cantly lower than the rest approximately 20% of urban and the metropolitan area of Barcelona, there of the areas, the characteristic features development land for this area. As can is a high percentage of industrial estates here are the fi gures for medium-large be seen in map 1, the vast majority are with a high take up levels: more than sized industrial estates (67%) and the located in Vallès Occidental, Baix Llobregat half, 394, have take up levels above 75% absence of large industrial estates. The and Vallès Oriental regions, following (fi gure 4). Nevertheless, this is the area in result of this distribution is that in the Camp the main corridors between Barcelona Catalonia with the most land available, as de Tarragona, Terres de l’Ebre and the and the Pre-littoral Depression. If we there are 156 industrial estates (a quarter), metropolitan area of Barcelona, industrial take a closer look at the site and analyse that add up to 3,787 hectares, with a take estates cover a higher average surface the spatial relationships between them, up level below 25%. Among these, the area (28.6 hectares, 22.6 hectares and we can see two opposing phenomena. predominant feature is medium-small 21.9 hectares, respectively) as opposed On the one hand, in the major corridors, and medium-large industrial estates. In to Àmbit de Ponent (17.1 hectares), and where a majority of the industrial estates map 1 one can see that large industrial particularly Comarques Gironines and are located (Llobregat corridor, Besòs- estates with available land are located Comarques Centrals (12.8 hectares and Mogent-Congost corridor, and the C-58 within the PGM area: Delta del Llobregat, 11.1 hectares, respectively). In last place corridor, Riera de Caldes, Riera de Rubí), Centre Direccional del Vallès and the we have Alt Pirineu i Aran where the there is a confi guration of as many as Polígon Can Sant Joan. From among the average surface area taken up by industrial 17 major “business areas”. On the other largest industrial estates in the rest of the estates is 6.6 hectares. hand, one can also see an opposing metropolitan area of Barcelona one should tendency of fragmentation, the outcome also note the “business areas” to the Whether one considers the number of of the industrial estates being isolated south of Terrassa, and the Vilafranca del industrial estates or the total gross surface from each other. Generally speaking, these Penedès industrial estates. Medium-large area, the result is that in all the areas there are small and medium sized industrial industrial estates with land availability is land available. As can be seen in fi gure estates and the majority are located in the are, in the majority, located in the second 3, in the metropolitan area of Barcelona, more peripheral spaces of the metropolitan ring of the metropolitan area, while the there are many industrial estates with a area of Barcelona: to the north of the AP-7 majority of the smaller industrial estates high level of land taken up, although it is in Alt Penedès region, on the Serralada are found in the medium and small sized the area which has most land availability. Pre-littoral slopes in Vallès Occidental and municipalities of the second ring, above Accordingly, on the one hand there are particularly in Vallès Oriental and in some all in Alt Penedès and the Vallès Oriental 250 industrial estates with more than 90% of the Maresme municipalities. regions. take up and around 125 with take up levels which are also quite high, 76%-90%. On If one looks carefully at the site, from 1.2. Comarques Gironines the other hand, however, there are more the perspective of the distance between than 150 industrial estates take up levels industrial estates and population In Comarques Gironines there are 287 below 25%, and among these, all the land centres, one can see how 70% of the industrial estates with a gross surface is available for 40. The availability of land in industrial estates in the metropolitan area of 3,669 hectares, which means the metropolitan area of Barcelona is even area of Barcelona are an appendage to, approximately 13% of the urban and more visible when we look at the graph or integrated into, the urban fabric. The development land. Generally speaking, showing the total gross surface area; rest are segregated, that is, they are at a they are located following the structure we can see that there are almost 3,800 distance of more than 200 metres from of the urban system. Thus, the most hectares with take up levels lower than urban centres. In the aforementioned important ones are found around Girona 25% (2,500 with take up levels 1%-25% major “business areas”, and in general (map 2) and Figueres, followed by the and 1,300 unoccupied). Further reading of in the Pla General Metropolità (PGM rest of the region capitals: Olot, Banyoles,

INDUSTRIAL ESTATES: LOCATION TRENDS AND ACCESSIBILITY / 91 la Bisbal d’Empordà, Ripoll, and Santa region, from el Vendrell to the Barcelona in the triangle comprising the municipalities Coloma de Farners. The concentrations of metropolitan area limits, following the of Tortosa-Roquetes, Amposta-Sant Carles industrial estates in la Jonquera, Blanes N-340 and AP-7 road corridors. de la Ràpita, and l’Aldea-Camarles (map and Palafrugell should also be stressed. 4). The remaining areas with noteworthy In the small population centres there are If one analyses the site in greater detail, concentrations are located in the southern concentrations of small and medium sized taking into account the spatial relationships and northern extremes of this area: to the industrial estates which provide support to between the industrial estates, one can south, the municipalities of Ulldecona, local businesses. see that there are a considerable number Alcanar and la Sènia; and to the north in of concentrations that make up “business Ascó, Flix, Gandesa and Móra d’Ebre. Taken When analysing the site, it should be areas” in the metropolitan area of as a whole, the industrial estates in Terres noted that there are 202 industrial estates Tarragona-Reus (map 3). This phenomenon de l’Ebre cover 1,376 hectares, which (comprising 70% of the total) that are can be found as much around the port of corresponds approximately to 17% of the more than 200 metres from one or other Tarragona and the large petro-chemical urban and development land for the area. population centre. The phenomenon of complex as well as along the principal segregated industrial estates, as is the case road network infrastructure (T-11, AP-7), If one looks closely at their site, one can here, is quite widespread throughout the and around the urban centre of Reus. see that of the 61 industrial estates in entire area and is found as much around Another noteworthy feature, given its size, Terres de l’Ebre, 38 (accounting for 62% of the major cities as well as the rest of the is the petro-chemical area between the the total) and 71% of the total gross surface municipalities. One can also see that, municipalities of Constantí, Perafort and el area, are at a distance of more than 200 generally speaking, they are isolated from Morell; and the Constantí industrial estate. metres from one or other population centre. each other. So, a characteristic feature As can be seen in map 4 (the triangle of site of industrial estates in Comarques A particular feature of Camp de Tarragona, comprising Tortosa-Roquetes, Amposta- Gironines is segregation and fragmentation. more so than in any other area in Catalonia, Sant Carles and l’Aldea-Camarles), the is the large number of industrial estates industrial estates, generally speaking, Figure 5 illustrates that in Comarques segregated from the rest of the urban are segregated from the urban networks Gironines there is a signifi cant level of land fabric. This is the case for 128 industrial and quite fragmented, with the exception availability in their industrial estates, since estates, comprising 73% of the total. The of the two concentrations closest to the almost half have take up levels below 50% great majority of these industrial estates urban centres of Tortosa and Roquetes. and, furthermore, among these there is are located outside the municipal limits In general, all the industrial estates are a signifi cant number of industrial estates of Tarragona and Reus, where the urban located at a very short distance from the with take up levels ranging between 1% development has not been as intense. main road network infrastructures (AP-7, and 25%. Availability of land is a particular The distance from population centres N-340, N-235, C-42 and C-12). A diverse feature of medium sized industrial estates is particularly important in the case of set of circumstances can be seen in the and is illustrated by the large number some Baix Camp municipalities and the rest of the territory. Accordingly, some of medium-small and medium-large Constantí industrial estate (the latter in industrial estates are grouped together industrial estates with take up levels in the the metropolitan area of Tarragona-Reus). forming small “business areas”, mainly at a 1%-25% range. It is the small industrial In Montblanc and to the east of the Baix short distance from the population centres estates which show the highest levels Penedès region, from Vendrell to the (Ascó, Mora d’Ebre, Perelló). However, of saturation, since 42 of the 51 existing Barcelona metropolitan area limits, the in other areas where there is more than industrial estates have take up levels existence of segregated industrial estates one industrial estate they are located in greater than 50%. Another feature that is due to their site along the road corridors an isolated manner (Ulldecona, Sènia). should be noted is the availability of land (N-240, N-340 and the AP-7, respectively), Finally, in other municipalities, where there in the large industrial estates. Even though which are found at a certain distance form is only one industrial estate, it is located at they are fewer in number in this area, 8 of the population centres. a signifi cant distance from the population the 15 located there have take levels below centre (Gandesa, l’Ametlla de Mar). 25%. In Girona (map 2) and Figueres, the In Camp de Tarragona almost two thirds two principal urban networks where the of the 176 industrial estates have take up In Terres de l’Ebre industrial estates there largest industrial estates are concentrated, levels below 50%, which corresponds is more land available than taken up. there is land available in industrial estates to more than 70% of the total gross Almost two thirds of the industrial estates of all sizes. In the remaining regional capitals surface area. As can be seen in fi gure 6, have take up levels below 50%, which and in the coastal municipalities, the land availability is apparent for industrial corresponds to almost three quarters of industrial estates with available land in estates of all sizes. A particularly the total gross surface area. As can be the medium-sized range. In Santa Coloma noteworthy feature is the large number seen in fi gure 7, land availability is a feature de Farners and la Bisbal d’Empordà, the of medium-large sized industrial estates for industrial estates of all sizes, and predominant feature is medium-large that are unoccupied or with take up levels particularly prevalent in the large number of sized industrial estates with take up levels within the 1%-25% range. There is also medium-large sized industrial estates with ranging from 26% to 50%. One will fi nd a considerable number (22) of medium- take up levels below 25%. Bearing in mind these same take up levels in the medium- small sized industrial estates with take up the generally high degree of land availability, small sized industrial estates in the Olot levels below 25%. From among the large the small industrial estates have the highest and Ripoll urban networks, and in the industrial estates, it should be noted that level of saturation, since 15 of the 21 in medium sized ones in Banyoles and the more than half (12 of the 23) have take up the area have take up levels above 75%. coastal municipalities. levels below 25%. Small industrial estates, Available land can be found throughout the smallest in number for this area, are almost the entire territory, both in the those with the highest level of saturation triangle comprised by Tortosa-Roquetes, 1.3. Camp de Tarragona of land use, since 16 of the 21 existing Amposta-Sant Carles and l’Aldea-Camarles The 176 industrial estates located in Camp small industrial estates have take up levels (map 4), as well as the remaining regional de Tarragona cover 5,030 hectares, which above 75%. In general, available land is capitals. Móra d’Ebre and Móra la Nova are corresponds approximately to 19% of located throughout the area, as much in the only exceptions: the land take up level the area’s urban and development land. If the metropolitan area of Reus-Tarragona for these municipalities in all the industrial one looks at the location, one noteworthy (map 3) as well as the rest of the territory. estates is above 50%. feature is the major concentration in the Tarragona-Reus metropolitan area. In the 1.4. Terres de l’Ebre 1.5. Comarques Centrals rest of the territory the main locations are in the municipalities of Valls, Montblanc In Terres de l’Ebre there are 61 industrial The 329 industrial estates in Comarques and to the east of the Baix Penedès estates, the majority of which are located Centrals cover 3,666 hectares, which

92 / Papers 45 / corresponds approximately to 19% of In Comarques Centrals there is a great population municipalities: Ponts, Artesa the urban and development land for the deal of land availability in the industrial de Segre, Maials, l’Albí, Vinaixa and Sant area. The industrial estates in Comarques estates. Even though the number of Guim de Freixenet. Centrals are mainly located on the three industrial estates with less than 50% take major plains in the areas (Pla de Bages, up account for 38% of the total number, When analysing the site of the industrial Plana de Vic and Conca d’Òdena), the total gross surface areas is equivalent estates, it should be noted that there is a generally speaking following the structure to 46%, almost half of the area total. particularly high percentage of industrial of the urban system. As can be seen in fi gure 8, there is land estates segregated from urban fabrics. available, above all in intermediary-sized This is the case for 114 industrial estates, A characteristic feature of the site of the industrial estates. Particularly noteworthy which account for 72% of the 159 industrial estates in Comarques Centrals is is that there are 41 medium-large sized located in this area and this high fi gure that it has the second lowest percentage industrial estates and 38 medium-small is attributable to a variety of factors: of industrial estates segregated from the sized industrial estates with take up in general, at the planning stage, the urban networks (after the metropolitan levels below 25%. If we single out the industrial estates have been located at area). In total there are 186 industrial medium-small sized industrial estates as a considerable distance from residential estates, 57%, at a distance greater than a whole, the most numerous in the area, development land, and in many cases 200 metres from one or other population there is a very signifi cant number with these plans have still to be put into effect. centre. It can also be seen that, generally high levels of saturation: 83 with take up One should bear in mind that municipal speaking, they can be found close to the levels above 75%. It should also be notes areas in Àmbit de Ponent, are larger in main transport network infrastructures. In that the small industrial estates are those size that in the rest of Catalonia, and some cases, this site is due to relief factors, with the highest take up levels. Finally, in generally speaking the relatively fl at. particularly in the regions of Solsonès, the few large industrial estates located These features, combined with the trend Berguedà, to the north and to the south of in this area, one can fi nd a wide range of to locate industrial estates at a distance Bages and to the southeast of Anoia. That circumstances, from industrial estates from population centres, has meant that in is, the parts of the territory which are not with high levels of land availability (4 with many cases they have been located on the situated on the major plains of the area. a take up level lower than 25%), to others extreme limits of the municipality, with the Accordingly, the industrial estates (and with high levels of saturation (4 with take paradoxical situation that, in some parts also the main transport infrastructures) are up levels above 75%). If we look closely at of the territory, they border on population located in the river-beds of the principal land available according to the location and centres of neighbouring municipalities. river networks (Llobregat, Anoia, Cardener). the size of the industrial estate, one can One also needs to bear in mind that many see differences. As can be seen in maps of the business enterprises located in On the Pla de Bages and Conca d’Òdena, 5, 6 and 7, in the main urban systems these industrial estates are related to the the site of industrial estates reveal some (Manresa, Vic, Igualada) land availability agro-industry and highly incompatible with similar characteristics (maps 5 and 6): is particularly prevalent in medium and residential uses, hence the situation where within the municipal limits of the two large sized industrial estates. In the two the industrial estates which house these capitals, Manresa and Igualada, the other region capitals (Solsona and Berga), businesses have to be located a long way industrial estates are located in a concentric land availability is prevalent in medium- from population centres. In other cases, manner around the population centres, large industrial estates. In the rest of the the proximity of the farming exploitation in the spaces closest to the access territory the situation varies considerably, has become a determining factor when it infrastructures to municipalities (radial) or and there is land available: at the two comes to their site. in a circumvolutory manner (concentric). extremes, Sant Vicenç de Castellet- In the rest of the municipalities which Castellgalí and in Avinyó, there is a wide As regards the spatial relationship make up part of the urban systems of variety of industrial estates with available between industrial estates, one can see Manresa and Igualada, the industrial land; in Balsareny the predominant feature two opposing phenomena. On the one estates are located very close to the main is medium-large sized industrial estates; in hand there are large “business areas”, a road network (the Llobregat motorway Jorba large industrial estates and in Torelló feature which is found in the three major intersection with the Eix Transversal at medium-sized industrial estates. Finally, concentrations of industrial estates to the Manresa and the A-2 at Igualada), but as it should be noted that the polarities with east of the municipality of Lleida and the opposed to what has happened in the two less land availability are Manlleu, Calaf and two areas around the Alcarràs-Torres de capitals, they are at quite a distance from Prats de Lluçanès. Segre intersection on the N-IIa. This is the population centres. The industrial also characteristic of urban development estates of Sant Fruitós de Bages, in Tàrrega, where fi nd the areas’ fourth 1.6. Àmbit de Ponent Santpedor and Sallent in the Manresa most important of “business areas”, and urban system, and the industrial estates The 159 industrial estates located in Àmbit in Cervera, Agramunt and Bellpuig, among of Jorba and Castellolí in the Igualada de Ponent cover 2,717 hectares, which the remaining polarities at a regional and urban system, illustrate the segregation of corresponds to around 22% of the urban sub-regional level. On the other hand, industrial estates from population centres. and development land for the area. The along with the development of “business industrial estates in Àmbit de Ponent areas”, one fi nds the opposite state On the Plana de Vic, the municipality of are mainly located following the urban of affairs, that is, fragmentation. Good Vic is of particular importance both in system structure, very close to the main examples of this would be the urban terms of the number of industrial estates road transport network infrastructures, system of Mollerussa, Balaguer, and Bell- as well as the total gross surface area particularly the A-2 intersection and the lloc d’Urgell (the latter being part of the they cover. Here the location of the Lleida urban system ring road network Lleida urban system). industrial estates follows the model for (LL-11, N-240, N-230, C-12, C-13, N-IIa). Manresa and Igualada, that is, set up in a There is a major concentration of industrial In Àmbit de Ponent more than half of concentric manner around the population estates in the Lleida urban system (map the industrial estates have take up levels centre, in the spaces closest to the access 8), both in terms of number and total gross below 50%, which illustrates that there is infrastructures and by pass routes. In the surfaces area. Moving out, the Mollerussa a considerable amount of land available rest of the municipalities of the Vic urban and Tàrrega urban systems are located at in the industrial estates. As can be system, and the Osona region in general, a second level. At a third level we have the seen in fi gure 9, the availability of land the industrial estates, are generally remaining regional capital urban systems: is particularly prevalent in medium-sized appended to the population centres, Cervera, Balaguer and Borges Blanques. industrial estates highlighted particularly despite there being a signifi cant degree of At a fourth level we fi nd the sub-regional by 36 medium-large industrial estates fragmentation of small and medium sized polarities: Bellpuig, Agramunt and with take up levels ranging from 1%- industrial estates (see map 7). Guissona. Finally, there is a group of small- 25%. Looking at medium-small industrial

INDUSTRIAL ESTATES: LOCATION TRENDS AND ACCESSIBILITY / 93 estates one fi nds both extremes: there is where there is land classifi ed for industrial cities with an industrial tradition in the a substantial amount of available land (36 use, tertiary or mixed. The resulting metropolitan area of Barcelona. This with less than 25%) as well as others with data obtained have been distilled and process is dealt with in 1994, volume high levels of saturation (30 with take up systematised by the IERMB team, from 18 of the journal Papers6. In this volume levels above 75%). Small industrial estates which a sample of industrial estates has various contributors analysed the principal have very high take up levels - almost all been obtained. This sample allows for relocation dynamics of manufacturing of them have land take up levels above analysing data by territorial area5 and, from enterprises ranging Barcelona out towards 75%. From among the few large industrial these, for mapping out cross variables in the rest of the metropolitan area of estates in this area, it should be noted that some cases. Barcelona. The general consensus in these 5 of the 8 found here have take up levels articles underlined how manufacturing below 50%. The distribution of industrial The fi rst idea that should be noted was relocated or “pushed out” from the estates and availability of land in this area from these results is that the traditional centre of the city to industrial estates on varies from one extreme to another. As can operations functions of industrial estates the periphery of Barcelona and the other be seen in map 8, in the main “business are undergoing a transformation. As consolidated Metropolitan cities. area”, to the east of the municipality of can be seen in fi gure 11, in Catalonia Lleida, the take up levels are the highest, industry occupies a little less than half These relocation dynamics of although there are some industrial estates of the land in industrial estates, while manufacturing companies, as is illustrated with less than 25% take up. In the second businesses dedicated to transport and by the data collected during 2006, have and third “business area” for this area, warehousing are becoming more and continued in the metropolitan area of at the Alcarràs intersection on the N-IIa, more prevalent and even the predominant Barcelona with a parallel pattern that has one can see that there is a substantial type of business in some of the more extended to the major cities in Catalonia. amount of land availability in medium-sized recent industrial estates. Both industry Illustrative examples of this are the industrial estates. Land is also available in and transport/warehousing take up transformations in the urban areas of Gran Tàrrega, however, here in the case of large approximately three quarters of the land Via-L’Hospitalet, Badalona and Cornellà industrial estates. In Mollerussa there is in industrial estates throughout Catalonia. (being the most important), part of the land available in industrial estates of all The third branch of business enterprises in urban spread of Barcelona. But this has sizes, while in the rest of the municipalities terms of percentage take up is wholesale also been the case for Lleida, Reus, Olot of the Lleida urban system one can see commerce, accounting for almost 8%. and other cities that have put into practice a strong presence of medium and large Next in order are services provided for policy changes regarding the urban fabric industrial estates with take up levels companies and people, which add up and urban uses, substituting traditional ranging from 26% to 50%. to approximately another 8%. Retail industrial spaces for residential or mixed businesses account for 1.5% of the land. use spaces. 1.7. Alt Pirineu and Aran This land take up is the result of changes Also, during recent years there has been The 24 industrial estates in Alt Pirineu i taking place in recent decades in the a heavy increase in demand for land Aran cover 158 hectares. They are located internal structure and organisation of for logistics use in industrial estates, mainly following the urban system of the business enterprises, which have led to although this has not happened in the area. So, the major industrial estates are in an increase in the presence of tertiary same way throughout the territory of la Seu d’Urgell, Puigcerdà and Tremp. At a sector enterprise (in terms of production Catalonia. As can be seen in fi gure 12, second level we have Vielha e Mijaran. At and take up) and with a resulting loss the main concentrations of logistics a third level we have the other two region of the secondary sector. This, however, enterprises has taken place in Àmbit de capitals (Sort and el Pont de Suert), and continues to be a key element to guarantee Ponent, where 40% of the land is taken other sub-regional polarities (Pobla de economic growth and competitivity. This up with these kinds of companies, and Segur, Oliana, and Bellver de Cerdanya). transformation of the economy has been in Àmbit Metropolità with a 25% take up Finally, we have two industrial estates, accompanied by territorial dynamics of land. In addition, there are noteworthy one in Prats i Sansor, in la Cerdanya, of decentralisation and dispersion of concentrations, albeit to a lesser degree, and another in Les, in the Val d’Aran. If production throughout Catalonia combined in Comarques Gironines (15%), Terres we take a closer look at the site one can with the relocation of business operations de l’Ebre (12%) and in Comarques see that there are 18 industrial estates, at a world scale. Centrals (11%), not forgetting Alt Pirineu 75%, located at a distance of more than i Aran where there is also a considerable 200 metres from one or other population Industrial estates, as spaces for concentration (above 40%). Despite centre. As regards the availability of land, specialised business enterprises, are the fact that quantifi cation has not been as can be see in fi gure 10, more than half the areas where these changes are possible, it has also been possible to verify have take up levels below 50%, with a most clearly visible. The location of retail the presence of transport and warehousing predominance of industrial estates with and wholesale businesses, services businesses linked to port transit in the take up level within the 1%-25% range. If enterprises for companies and people, Tarragona-Reus metropolitan area based one looks at the data for the entire area, the increase in demand for spaces for on the in-depth interviews. availability of land can be seen in small logistic businesses, the “pushing out” of industrial estates (0.6-1.9 hectares), small- “light” manufacturing companies from In Àmbit de Ponent, such high levels of medium (2-4.9 hectares), and medium the centres of cities, the transformation land take up by logistics enterprises need (5-9.9 hectares, and 10-19.9 hectares). In of old industrial spaces for mixed use to be seen in the light of warehouses and all the municipalities with industrial estates with residential functions in mind, have agro-food stuffs haulage businesses. With there are some with take up levels below transferred competition for land use to recent improvements to the Ebre corridor 50%; the only exceptions being Vielha e industrial estates. In some cases, however, road and rail network and its trajectory Mijaran and Oliana. this has made it diffi cult to consider through Àmbit de Ponent, it is expected traditional manufacturing businesses as that land demand for logistics businesses the main candidates for these spaces. All will continue to increase. 2. Demand for space perspectives in things considered, we are witnessing a industrial estates process of relocation of business activities Generally speaking, as we have already and an increase in logistics and tertiary seen for the metropolitan area of The data given below provide us with businesses, facts which are determining Barcelona, transport and warehousing information about the business enterprises demand for space in industrial estates. businesses occupy one quarter of the land. located in industrial estates in Catalonia. Nevertheless, this percentage changes These have been obtained from a The relocation of manufacturing began in relation to the year the industrial estate questionnaire sent to the local councils in the 1980s in Barcelona and in other came into operation. As can be seen in

94 / Papers 45 / fi gure 13, the more recent the industrial banking facilities, petrol stations, some The objective here is to gather the estate the greater the percentage land hotels and others. At present there are opinions and perceptions of people linked take up for logistics businesses and the many industrial estates lacking in these to industrial estates, either because they lower the percentage for industry. For services, as can be seen in fi gure 14: are responsible for managing them from industrial estates coming into operation approximately 60% of industrial estates one or other local government area, or prior to 1960, the percentage of transport do not have restaurants, almost 90% do because they are experts on this topic. and warehousing businesses does not not have banking facilities, and another even reach 10% of the total, however, this 90% are not provided with other types This qualitative analysis was carried percentage increases to 15% for those of services for companies in industrial out using in-depth interviews and, after industrial estates that opened between estates. In addition, one can appreciate analysis, four main topic areas have been the 1960s and 1980s, and reaches almost differences depending on the territorial determined based on the opinions of 20% for those that started to operate in area, particularly in the case of banking those interviewed and, in addition, some the 1980s. In Industrial estates that have facilities: there is a sharp contrast between proposals for improvements which are been set up and running more recently the metropolitan area of Barcelona, where also given below7. The four major topics (between 1994 and 2006), transport these services are provided in one in are the: economic and territorial dynamics and warehousing companies account for four industrial estates, and the rest of of businesses, supply, characteristics and almost 50% of industrial estate land use, Catalonia, where they are practically non- functions of industrial estates, and demand which indicates that the space demand existent. It should also be pointed out that for industrial estates. for these businesses has increased in there is a serious shortage of services for recent years. The main reason behind industrial estates in Comarques Centrals . Economic and territorial dynamics of this lies in the increase in cargo transit at businesses follow, according to those the Port of Barcelona. Given the growth As can be seen in fi gure 15, the presence interviewed, two tendencies in Catalonia. perspectives of the Port, one can expect of these kinds of services is closely The fi rst, which began some decades that, in the future, demand for logistics related to the size of the industrial estates. ago, is a process moving away from the businesses will continue to grow, both Accordingly, the largest industrial estates urban centres to the periphery of the in the metropolitan area as well as in the have more services than the medium size cities, a phenomenon which is known as bordering regions: Baix Penedès, Anoia, industrial estates, and these, in turn, have relocation. The second tendency, which Bages, and la Selva. more than the small industrial estates. One is more recent and complementary to can conclude that the demand for space the fi rst, is the phenomenon known as Tertiary businesses occupy one fourth of for these services will be determined outsourcing, which is the process of the industrial estates’ land in Catalonia. by the size of the industrial estate under re-siting activities outside Catalonia, in As has taken place in this sector in development. Whatever the case, one benefi t to other autonomous regions or general, there is a diverse range of tertiary has to consider that these businesses even other counties. businesses operating in industrial estates. contribute characteristics to the industrial However, one has to take into account that estate which improve the competitivity Relocation is well-known and common to the presence of these businesses is one of the companies located there, not to all urban areas. This is related to the need of the main factors that have contributed mention the quality of life for the people to move “bothersome” businesses away to increasing competition for land use. who work there. residential areas and to consolidate urban This fact, as mentioned earlier, has caused land space for other uses. This process diffi culties in some cases regarding As stated earlier, there is a third group consists of relocating these businesses location manufacturing businesses. In an among tertiary industry businesses located out towards a city’s peripheral urban attempt to analyse this competition for in industrial estates. These are those areas or else towards smaller population land use, a classifi cation has been made of businesses which do not provide a direct centres in the surrounding areas. What is tertiary businesses based on the kinds of service either to companies or individuals interesting here are the nuances that those manufacturing operations they carry out in that work there, and that, furthermore, interviewed give when assessing the rate industrial estates and location alternatives. do not have characteristics that are of this process. City dynamics move at a Accordingly, three basic different groups of incompatible with residential uses. As can slow pace and even though it may have businesses have been defi ned: those that be seen in fi gure 16, these businesses begun some decades ago there are now need to be located in the industrial estates, occupy approximately 8% of the land in still many medium and small industries those which provide a direct service to industrial estates in Catalonia. On closer occupying land space areas within urban companies or persons that work there; and analysis of the data by territorial area, limits. This situation invites one to believe those located in industrial estates that do one can see that in the remaining areas that this will maintain demand for land no fi t into the two previous categories. the percentages are quite similar and space in peripheral urban areas for some vary between 7% in the metropolitan time to come, because slowly but surely A clear example of tertiary businesses that area of Barcelona and 12% in Comarques small and medium-small sized companies need to be located in industrial estates, Gironines. The exception here is Alt Pirineu are moving away from the consolidated are wholesale businesses. As can be i Aran, where these businesses occupy urban areas of cities. seen in fi gure 11, they take up 8% of the 35% of industrial estates’ land space. land in industrial estates in Catalonia. The location of these kinds of companies Outsourcing is a dynamics of relocating These companies need large surface in industrial estates, from a global companies outside Catalonia, which areas to be able to store merchandise and perspective, has to be seen in the light of a those interviewed attribute to different require good accessibility and access. need for land space for buildings at a lower factors such as the price of land, the Furthermore, they are incompatible, in price, bearing in mind that, as opposed to need for more space, supply of services, the majority of cases, with residential other services businesses, these kinds communications and infrastructures. The use, since they generate quite signifi cant of companies could be located in urban target land implies thinking at different fl ows of heavy goods vehicles to meet centres. territorial levels, even though the most their transportation needs. These are common case is moving abroad - when businesses which are likely to grow in companies decide to move to another the future and, consequently, so will their 3. Qualitative analysis: in-depth country where production costs are much demand for space in industrial estates. interviews lower. Nevertheless, the destination for the new locations is not the only or most The second group includes those As stated in the introduction to this important consideration. According to businesses which provide services to article, the quantitative analysis given those interviewed, the territories most in companies and workers in industrial in the preceding sections have been competition with Catalonia are bordering estates. These are catering businesses, complemented with a qualitative analysis. autonomous communities: Aragón —and

INDUSTRIAL ESTATES: LOCATION TRENDS AND ACCESSIBILITY / 95 the city of Zaragoza, where there is a which are the result of the mixture of Turning to more atypical businesses substantial offer of industrial land and a uses between industrial and residential which can now be found in industrial dry port—, and the Comunidad Valenciana functions. estates, we would like to point out two: —with the city of Valencia, where large the science and technology parks and companies linked to exporting can take As for Baix Penedès, region as a hinge logistics businesses. Concerning the advantage of the seaport. The same between Camp de Tarragona and the former it was stated that, despite having can be said, although not to the same metropolitan area of Barcelona, the grown very quickly and apparently spread degree, for Castile-La Mancha, the coast advantages seen here are related to the all over the territory (linked to universities), of Andalusia and Murcia. Outsourcing AP-7 motorway as a connector between their relative use in terms of percentage manifests itself in different ways according spaces outside Catalonia (Aragon and País of industrial land is very low and therefore to the size of the company: in the case of Valencià), to fl at orographic conditions they do not represent a threat to more large companies this takes the form of a and that they have not reached the traditional industrial land use by the division of operations (production is moved saturation levels of the metropolitan area secondary sector. However, it was pointed away while management stays here), of Barcelona. A little to the south, Camp out that the supply of land set aside for while in the case of small companies the de Tarragona is seen as one of the growing these uses is growing fast. Logistics is one move means the entire production unit. areas with comparable advantages such of the very recent elements introduced Despite the fact that these dynamics show as major infrastructures (port, airport, into industrial estates, a signifi cant all the signs of continuing, some of those motorway) and a network of cities growing trend resulting from global interviewed warned that outsourcing a consolidated by mixed land uses and dynamics, such as the fragmentation and company is a very complex operation availability. Concerning Àmbit de Ponent, specialisation of production processes, and so this phenomenon may not be as the opinion is that there is a generation but also from dynamics at a more local widespread as one might predict. of new industrial land which will be set level. All of this is infl uenced by the aside for logistics, particularly at some strategic position of Catalonia situated The metropolitan area of Barcelona and 25 kilometres from area of the capital between the Mediterranean and the rest Àmbit de Ponent are, according to those Lleida. Reasons given are based on the of Europe. Concerning logistics, they interviewed, the only territorial areas with comparative advantages regarding land also point out some confl icts deriving predominant businesses sectors. In the availability, price and infrastructures, etc. from the perception this kind of business case of the metropolitan area of Barcelona, Within these parameters, the industrial requires a lot of land but generates few the most signifi cant current business sector land in the western areas is seen in jobs, although everyone agrees that this is is the metal products industry, seconded relation to all the development that is going strategic. by textiles, although textiles is a sector on in Saragossa. This city is not seen as a that is clearly in decline. The tertiary competitor but rather as a complementary Of all these transformations and the and quinary sectors, which have come element to all that could happen in Lleida. actual ageing of industrial estates, some forward as a replacements for companies Finally, and located more to the north, problems are appearing particularly in with little added value or sectors in there was mention of potential growth in those built before the 1980s. The oldest, clear decline do not appear to be able to Alt Empordà. at the time of writing, are already in compensate for the loss of companies need of remodelling and modernising and jobs. In Àmbit de Ponent the most The people we interviewed see availability which requires the active involvement important businesses are linked to the of land in terms of its location related to of the local governments and the agro-food stuffs industry derived from the metropolitan area of Barcelona: the companies themselves. The main focus of livestock (abattoirs, the meat industry, further away the greater the availability of remodelling is to improve access both in freeze storage, etc) and handling fruit and land. Taking this factor as a basis, there terms of accessibility within and outside vegetables. All of these take up a large are two variables that impose restrictions as a necessary requirement for industrial amount of land space with the backing of on its use: the short supply of sizeable estates to be competitive and effi cient. a signifi cant logistics sector. parcels of land appropriate for companies On this particular point those interviewed with large land space requirements, underlined the needs of workers to be Opinions regarding the supply of industrial and changes in land classifi cation –land able to get to the workplace in industrial estates focused on areas of major growth programmed for industrial use being estates by public or collective transports potential and land availability, both (as one re-classifi ed for residential use. This re- means. might expect) closely related. The supply classifi cation is being carried out by a of industrial land is not seen as monolithic number of local councils. The price of land, According to those interviewed, the issue at a global level for Catalonia, but however, does not appear to be a decisive change in demand for industrial estates, rather that its analysis by obligation has to factor, although there has been a lobby lies in the type and order of land holding start from its location. The view of those against those who are holding on to land option for industrial estate premises interviewed not only made mention of the expecting land prices to increase. and the infrastructures, while at the quantity of land but also of to the value of same time they attribute this change its relative location in the territory. Another of the key ideas expressed by to transformations in manufacturing those interviewed is that in recent years businesses and companies relocating. All those interviewed concur in the fact business profi les in industrial estates that in the metropolitan area of Barcelona have been changing at the same time In this context one can see a diversifi cation those zones with the greatest degree of that functional aspects have been added of the types of land tenure since, land availability and growth potential are derived from the secondary sector and somewhat tentatively, renting seems to be located in Alt Penedès, Vallès Occidental, linked to services. These changes have gaining ground (as in the rest of Europe) Vallès Oriental and Baix Llobregat, albeit been accompanied by new accessibility as an alternative, albeit for a minority, to with a few peculiar features. Vallès needs, both regarding workers and goods. land ownership. The main advantage of Occidental appears to be one of the One of the most relevant facts, and at the renting is related to reduced requirements regions that offers most attractive to the same time seen as a positive factor, is for tied-up capital. It is in this context business world, while great emphasis the increase in the diversity of businesses that formulations are in the early states, and value is placed on the presence of in industrial estates, which is related to to apply pressure to local authorities to “clusters” (the result of help from the changes in the economy in general and intervene and promote and offer industrial European Union). The experience in this changes in the production structures. estate premises for rent. This needs to region could well extend to Bages and For these reasons, more now than ever, be protected through offi cial legislation Osona, provided that infrastructures are industrial estates are no longer associated or through some involvement by local improved. Baix Llobregat, in contrast, is with industry, particularly those that have authorities, so that certain manufacturing attributed with positive characteristics been created more recently. sectors can have access to this option.

96 / Papers 45 / They also explain that the trend in the facilitate identifying and defi ning what concentration of industrial estates in the profi le of industrial estate premises, are known as industrial estates. These are metropolitan area of Barcelona, there throughout Catalonia, is moving more identifi ed in urban planning legislation is also a substantial park of industrial and more towards small buildings, around according to use (industrial, tertiary and/or estates in the rest of the territory. To 500 m2 or even smaller and of a modular mixed) for the purpose of classifying land, be more specifi c, half of the industrial nature. However, this tendency in no way but in many cases, within these areas estates in surface area are located in the suggests that the demand for large spaces there is more than one industrial estate. metropolitan area of Barcelona, 15% in is disappearing. As a rule, it has been the governments, the Camp de Tarragona, 11% each for particularly local governments and some Comarques Gironines and Comarques The opinions and perceptions concerning institutions, that have delimited the Centrals, 8% in Àmbit de Ponent, 4.3% demand not only refer to land or the industrial estates in the territory under in Terres de l’Ebre and 0.5% in Alt Pirineu industrial estate premises but also to their jurisdiction basing their delimitation i Aran. the infrastructures that industrial estates on the criteria of continuity between the have or should have. Following on from urban fabrics or from the development of The second supply factor analysed this, the main defi cits referred to by those urban planning. The result, however, is that was the availability of land. According interviewed are generally centre on the in Catalonia the study of industrial estates to the data from the census, from the road and energy networks, and they has been based on sources that are neither 32,000 hectares of industrial estates in underline the lack of connections with the homogenous nor exhaustive. Catalonia, 10,000 hectares (one third) Barcelona port and airport. Growth needs have take up levels lower than 25%, and are not only related to the availability This situation is the starting point of this from these approximately 2,700 hectares of land but also to the quality of the article which attempts to compensate for are unoccupied –most of this space infrastructures that can give added value to the aforementioned defi ciencies. Three corresponds to industrial estates in the the territory that goes far beyond the price different sources have been drawn on phase of being set up and running or at factor, given that prices have increased which are mutually complementary, both the project stage. The following is a break everywhere. Finally, it should be pointed in terms of methodology used as well as down by area of land availability given in out, even though this is not a topic that the information gathered. The fi rst source, hectares where take up levels are lower came out in all the interviews, the quality cartographic, has allowed for carrying out a than 25%. First in order is the metropolitan of the environment around the industrial Cens de polígons d’activitat de Catalunya, area of Barcelona which has 3,789 estates is perceived as being a factor that 2005-2006, which with the application hectares with take up levels below 25% is becoming more and more important. of GIS techniques has provided spatial (35.9% of the total land in Catalonia with data related to location, dimensions, site these take up levels). Second, we have Finally, our interviewees pointed out a and land take up in industrial estates. the Camp de Tarragona which has 2,300 series of proposals that revolve around two The second source provides statistical hectares (21.4% of the total for Catalonia). basic ideas: supra-municipal planning of data based on questionnaires answered Third, we have Comarques Gironines, industrial estates and shared management by local governments in Catalonia who Comarques Centrals and Àmbit de of them. The fi rst attempts to resolve have jurisdiction over land assigned Ponent, each having approximately 1,300 current atomising in the site of industrial for industrial, tertiary or mixed use. hectares (each corresponding to 12% of estates in the territory. This is due far too This resulted in the Mostra de polígons the total for Catalonia). These regions often to planning formulated at a local d’activitat de Catalunya, 2005-2006, are followed by Terres de l’Ebre where level, and has serious implications for the with quantitative information about the there are approximately 600 hectares environment, not forgetting accessibility businesses located throughout Catalonia. (5.9% of the total for Catalonia) and, problems and does not allow for suffi cient Finally, by way of a further complementary fi nally, Alt Pirineu i Aran with 65 hectares critical mass. Generally speaking, those source, it was felt necessary to carry (0.6% of the total for Catalonia). The views who were interviewed coincide in pointing out in-depth interviews with experts and of those interviewed concerning land out that the Generalitat (the autonomous people with knowledge in this area, which availability in industrial estates in Catalonia Catalan government and local supra- provided qualitative information concerning centred on their location with respect to municipal government with jurisdiction the reasons and arguments behind the the metropolitan area of Barcelona. In over urban planning), would need to make current situation of the industrial estates in their opinion the further from the capital strategic land reserves so as to be able Catalonia. (Barcelona) the greater the availability of to develop them from a more large and land. Nevertheless, as has been seen, less local level. They also point out the Once all the data was collected and the data obtained from the census do not importance of coordination with local organised, the next step was to analyse appear to corroborate this view entirely. governments. The second proposal refers supply of and demand for industrial estates Almost certainly these differences to shared industrial estate management, which is presented in this concluding derive from two interpretations: for the with the creation of a fi gure who could section, combining quantitative data for metropolitan area of Barcelona, land manage topics that are common to this Catalonia as a whole (to date non-existent) presently being developed as industrial public space: infrastructures and services with feedback from the various agents estates (e.g. the “Parc empresarial de provided for the industrial estates, and mentioned. Supply has been considered Viladecans”) or at the project stage (e.g. complexities common to the companies. in terms of location and surface area, the “Centre Direccional in Cerdanyola This position of industrial estate availability of land in the industrial estates, del Vallès”) are not seen as a supply manager would be adequate both for the and their site in relation to the rest of the component; secondly, the fact that there businesses of the industrial estate and for industrial estates and to urban centres. are many industrial estates with high the Administration, which would have a The basis for analysing demand has take up levels adds to the perception of unique speaker. been the businesses located in industrial saturation (9,000 hectares, more than estates, relating them with the main half, have take up levels above 75%). In tendencies in economic and territorial short, one can conclude that there is a 4. Conclusions dynamics. substantial amount of land available in all the territorial areas and the metropolitan In this article an analysis has been made of The fi rst supply factor analysed was area of Barcelona is the area where most some of the principle elements that have location and surface area of industrial is located. a bearing on the supply and demand of estates. According to data from the industrial estates in Catalonia. This study census, in Catalonia there are 1,750 As has been seen, the availability of land begins from the premise that there is a industrial estates that cover an area of and its distribution throughout Catalonia lack of information resulting from the lack 32,000 hectares. Generally speaking, are factors that need to be highlighted of a specifi c offi cial institution that would it can be seen that although there is a when considering the supply of industrial

INDUSTRIAL ESTATES: LOCATION TRENDS AND ACCESSIBILITY / 97 estates. Therefore, given the current due to relief conditions, based on the as stated earlier, they have led to changes situation, one cannot consider supply to census one can see a sharp degree of in the kinds of businesses that can be be an impediment to developing economic segregation with respect to the rest of found in industrial estates. Accordingly, activities. However, from among the the urban fabric. In total in Catalonia, of industry occupies a little less than half other elements related to supply that the 1,750 industrial estates, half are at a of the industrial estates’ land, and one have been analysed here, it should be distance of more than 200 metres from can predict that the demand for space by stressed that dimensions, in most cases one or other urban centre. Breaking this this sector will not increase appreciably. very small, and excessive fragmentation down by areas, the metropolitan area New demands will be determined by the and dispersion of industrial estates of Barcelona (the area with the highest relocation of manufacturing businesses throughout Catalonia, are perceived by level of urban development) shows (from the centres of cities to the periphery) those interviewed as factors that have a the lowest percentage for segregated and attracting new companies. With this negative impact, not only on the territory industrial estates (30.2% over the total in mind, the main future challenges appear but also on the competitivity of the industrial estates for this area), however to be: remodelling the oldest industrial economy. This view is held by the majority since there is a very large park of industrial spaces, adapting them to the new of those interviewed who, in addition, estates the number is very signifi cant (215 demands for industrial estate premises point out that large industrial estates or segregated industrial estates). Second (smaller format, modular, with spaces for concentrations of industrial estates that in order, we have Comarques Centrals offi ces, and also introducing the option to make up “business areas” are a feature (with 56.5%, 186 industrial estates) and rent) and the profi le of industrial estates of rational land use and the only way to Terres de l’Ebre (62.3%, 38 industrial (services for companies and workers, promote collective transport. From the estates). Finally, we have the areas with development quality and facilities, good census it has been possible to diagnose the highest percentage of segregated access routes). the current state of affairs concerning industrial estates: Comarques Gironines these issues. The fi rst thing that should (70.4%, 202 industrial estates), Àmbit de These opinions are backed up by the data be underlined are the differences in Ponent (71.7%, 114 industrial estates) and from the sample, where one can see that the size of industrial estates between Camp de Tarragona (72.7%, 128 industrial transport and warehousing businesses different territorial areas. Accordingly, in estates). These high percentages are account for one fourth of the land, and Camp de Tarragona, Terres de l’Ebre and generally due to a combination of two are even more predominant in some the metropolitan area of Barcelona, the factors. First, in the general plans, the of the more recent industrial estates. average fi gures for land space occupied industrial estates have been located at Statistical evidence for the presence by an industrial estate are higher (28.6 quite a distance from the urban centres, of logistics companies in industrial ha., 22.6 ha. and 21.9 ha., respectively), leaving space in between to allow estates provide us with a break down as opposed to Àmbit de Ponent (17.1 residential areas to grow, and in most of the most important areas where they ha.), and particularly in Comarques cases these provisions have not been put are concentrated: 40% in Àmbit de Gironines and Comarques Centrals into effect. The second most common Ponent, 25% for the metropolitan area (12.8 ha. and 11.1 ha., respectively). As factor has to do with the location of of Barcelona, and Camp de Tarragona this study has shown, these differences many industrial estates close to main (although the sample did not allow for between areas are also reproduced road network infrastructures at a certain empirical quantifi cation, we were able within each one. Generally speaking, in distance from urban fabrics. Given this, to verify the case for this area from the those parts of the territory where urban the majority of those interviewed, when in-depth interviews). In the fi rst case, the development has been more intense referring to the issue of site of industrial strong presence of logistics businesses one can see concentrations of industrial estates in relation to urban centres, is associated with local agroindustrial estates that make up “business areas”. begin from one premise: the functions companies, while in the other cases this This is the case for the area covered by the of industrial estates have changed is due, above all, to the proximity of two Pla General Metropolità (PGM – Barcelona and many of the businesses located in of the principal Mediterranean ports. Metropolitan Planning), the traditional industrial estates are not incompatible with In all three areas it is expected that the industrial cities in the metropolitan area residential uses. demand for space by these businesses of Barcelona, the metropolitan area of will continue to grow, in one case due to Reus-Tarragona, and some of the other Turning to the perspective of demand for the agroindustrial businesses and in the major urban systems in Catalonia (Lleida, space in industrial estates, the change in other two because of expected growth of Girona and Manresa). From these areas the functions of industrial estates turns the ports. One can expect that logistics one needs to differentiate between PGM out to be a particularly important factor. enterprises will continue demanding area, where the “business areas” are First of all, one needs to bear in mind that space in industrial estates throughout mapped out in the majority of cases from a these changes are determined by the Catalonia since, as pointed out by those supra-municipal perspective, and the rest, main economic and territorial dynamics. interviewed, with the fragmentation and where planning is limited by an individual At present, they are characterised by the specialisation processes of production municipal view. In the other parts of the shift towards tertiary enterprises in the the commercial exchange of goods is territory the characteristic features of economy, the fragmentation of production, becoming more and more commonplace. site of the industrial estates are a high the relocation of businesses inside In general, the logistics sector is seen by degree of fragmentation and being either Catalonia and the outsourcing of business those interviewed as a kind of undesired medium sized (between 2 and 10 ha.) enterprises outside Catalonia. The latter type of activity, especially as one moves or small (from 0.5 to 2 ha.). In short, as process was one of the most predominant further away from the ports of Tarragona regards dimensions and site of industrial issues referred to by those interviewed. and Barcelona. So, although everyone estates, one can talk of supply in terms In general, this is seen as being linked considers this to be a strategic matter, of a diverse range and spread out across more to production costs rather than the they also point out certain confl icts Catalonia, both across different areas and, consequence of land shortage or land resulting from the belief that logistics especially, within each area. With the prices. In contrast to the production costs enterprises require large areas of land but exception of the PGM area, this due to the issue, the quality of the environment generate few jobs. lack of a supra-municipal perspective. around the industrial estates is considered by those interviewed to be an important Finally, tertiary activities account for one An analysis has also been made of the factor for competitivity in order to attract fourth of the land of the industrial estates site of the industrial estates in relation and keep companies there. in Catalonia. One has to take into account to urban centres. With the exception of that the presence of these businesses is areas where urban development has been Industrial estates, as specialised spaces one of the principal elements that have most intense (the PGM area) or where of economic activity, are the areas where caused an increase in competition for the development land is seen as limited these processes are most apparent, and, land use, which in some cases has posed

98 / Papers 45 / diffi culties for locating manufacturing 4 Data source for urban and development land: by car. This is illustrated in the study by businesses. As it is happening in the Direcció General d’Urbanisme. www.gencat. the Metropolitan Region of Barcelona’s sector in general, there is also a wide net/ptop Comissió de Mobilitat del Pacte Industrial1 range of tertiary businesses in industrial 5 The data for Camp de Tarragona (Tarragona Area ) (see table 1): 19% of industrial estates estates. To facilitate analysis of this have not been included as they proved to be of within the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona competition, tertiary businesses have slight signifi cance. and 20% of the land area where industry been classifi ed based on the operations 6 See the article entitled “La ciutat i la indústria” is located are particularly diffi cult to get to (“The City and Industry”). they carry out in the industrial estates if public transport is used. By this I mean 7 For a complete list of interviewed, please see and location alternatives. Accordingly, that the closest inter-urban bus stops or footnote 6 on the Catalan text. one needs to distinguish three business train stations are 1.5 kilometres from the groups: in the fi rst group there are those centre of an industrial estate as the bird which have to be located in industrial fl ies. In contrast, 23% of industrial estates estates, such as wholesale businesses and 26% of the land area where industry which, due to the volume fl ow of goods, ACCESS TO INDUSTRIAL ESTATES: is located are accessible through regular would make them incompatible with UNFINISHED BUSINESS public transport services (PIRMB, 2003). residential uses. These activities account However, these fi gures are somewhat for 8% of the land in industrial estates in Àngel Cebollada optimistic when we take into account Catalonia and it is forecast that demand that the transport services themselves will continue to increase. The second have not been evaluated adequately. By group is comprised of businesses that this I mean that while an industrial estate offer services to companies or workers Introduction could be 500 metres from a train station, in industrial estates. These are catering the trains may only run once every two businesses, banking facilities, petrol Industry has been re-located to industrial hours, or there may be a bus that runs stations, some hotels and others. At estates on the urban periphery without once an hour to an industrial estate where the moment there are many industrial considering how accessible they are for fi ve thousand workers are employed. estates where there is a shortage of workers. There is a severe defi ciency Furthermore, what has not been taken into these services, particularly in the smallest of collective transport systems linking consideration are physical, natural or urban industrial estates. So, one can predict that these industrial estates, and so the car is obstacles that separate the train station or demand for space by these services will effectively the means of transport which bus stop from the industrial estate. be determined by the size of the industrial best guarantees access. This situation estates under development. However, has serious social and environmental Another issue is the minor role played one has to bear in mind that they improve repercussions. To address this situation, by company-operated transport. In the competitivity of the companies located the “Llei de mobilitat de Catalunya” beginning (at the end of the 1960s and there and the quality of life for those (“Mobility Law for Catalonia”) provides for the beginning of the 1970s), the fi rst people who work there also. The third executing mobility plans for its industrial companies to set up business in these group is comprised of those businesses estates and creating mobility managers. industrial estates provided transport for which do not provide a direct service either These two provisions have just begun to their employees, but with the passing of to companies or people, and furthermore be put into practice throughout Catalonia. time this means of transport has been are not incompatible with residential uses. progressively withdrawn. This fact is These businesses account for 8% of the explained by increased car ownership land in industrial estates in Catalonia and, 1. Inaccessible industrial estates among the population, residential generally speaking, their location has to be dispersion, infl exibility of available services related to the possibility of access to more In recent decades Catalonia has witnessed and the gradual externalisation of transport ground space at a lower price. However, a process of re-location of economic costs. At the moment, according to data one should bear in mind that these activities, characterised, to a certain from the survey, Mostra de polígons businesses add to competition for land degree, by focusing services (especially d’activitat de Catalunya, 2005-062 carried use in industrial estates which can pose advanced services) in urban centres and out by the Institut d’Estudis Regionals i diffi culties regarding the locating of other relocating commercial enterprises that Metropolitans de Barcelona3, only 10.3% branches of business. require large land areas, such as industry, of the industrial estates in the Metropolitan to the peripheral urban areas. This is also Area of Barcelona and 7.4% of industrial part of a larger picture, a gradual process estates in Catalonia as a whole have at 1 This article brings together the major of specialised land use according to the least one company that relies on company- contributions from the study entitled “Anàlisi purpose for which it is used, and which operated transport services. de l’oferta i la demanda de polígons industrials i generates unique and physically separate terciaris a Catalunya” (“An analysis of supply and specialised zones. This is precisely the In the light of these statistics concerning demand for industrial and tertiary industrial estates case for the industrial estates which now collective transport, the breakdown of in Catalonia”) by the IERMB team commissioned form part of our daily urban landscape transport means used by people who by the Departament de Política Territorial i Obres (López de Lucio, 1993). work in industrial estates comes as no Públiques (Department for Territorial Policy and surprise. The following table illustrates Public Works).The authors would like to especially The creation of these industrial estates the breakdown by mode of the different thank Maria Costa’s work in the development of coincides with the increased use of industrial estates in the Metropolitan the Census. privately-owned vehicles and with the Area of Barcelona. Here you can see a 2 Ortofotomapes 1:25.000 de l’ICC, versió 4. Any gradual downsizing of various collective group of industrial estates, all located in dels vols 2000-2003. transport means. As a result, areas have periphery municipalities, where the use 3 In this article we have used the seven functional been specifi cally designed to house of a privately-owned car to get to work areas for the purpose of our study as given industry in suburban spaces located at is above 90%. This percentage drops in the Pla Territorial General de Catalunya varying distances from traditional urban dramatically in industrial estates where (General Territorial Plan for Catalonia): the Àmbit some of the major fi rms provide company Metropolità (Metropolitan Area), Comarques stretches without allowing for means of Gironines (Girona Regions), Camp de Tarragona transport other than a privately-owned car transport (i.e. the case for the Montornès (Tarragona Area ), Terres de l’Ebre (Ebre Lands), (Cebollada i Miralles, 2005). del Vallès group of industrial estates), Comarques Centrals (Central Regions), Àmbit or those industrial estates located close de Ponent (Western Area) and the Alt Pirineu The outcome of this process is a situation to metropolitan centres where there is a i Aran (High Pyrenees and Aran). We also use where there are numerous and fragmented relatively wide offer of public transport “metropolitan area of Barcelona” when referring industrial areas where accessibility is a services (for example, Granvia Sud de to the Metropolitan Area. serious problem unless one gets there l’Hospitalet de Llobregat).

INDUSTRIAL ESTATES: LOCATION TRENDS AND ACCESSIBILITY / 99 2. Economic and social dysfunctions Turning to workers in industrial estates on the road, means that proximity and resulting from the lack of accessibility who travel by public transport, we fi nd savings in terms of time are important that the cost in time is very high, and considerations when it comes to choosing The lack of accessibility to industrial a number of factors explain this. First, a job. Faced with this situation, the estates via means other than a privately- the need to change to another service; strategy employed by the companies to owned vehicle brings in its wake a chain second, because of road congestion which retain personnel of particular interest is to of consequences for the environment and bus users also have to live with; third, offer higher salaries. socio-economic dysfunctions. This article because of the distance between the bus deals only with the latter of these two, stop or train station and the work place; Another consequence of the lack of which I have grouped according to who and fourth, the adapted service schedules accessibility, and related to the points I is affected: the workers in the industrial for industrial estates, which means that have just mentioned, is the diffi culty of estates, the companies in the industrial they have to get to work well before the maintaining a stable workforce in certain estates; and those who are excluded or work day begins or that they have to wait companies. In the previous paragraph we “absent”. for a long time before being able to set off have seen the case of workers belonging home. to the high-profi le job categories. But the same can be said for the middle and lower 2.1. The workers in the industrial professional job profi les, particularly in 2.2. The companies estates those companies that are located further This case concerns that group of people The lack of accessibility via means of away from the collective public transport who, despite the problems accessing transport other than a privately-owned services and/or those operating in sectors industrial estates mentioned earlier, are vehicle also affects the companies that where salaries are lower. able to get to the industrial estates and, operate in industrial estates since they consequently, the work place. This does are often obliged to take on employees Road congestion also affects companies not detract, however, from the fact that from a limited labour market. This situation since in real terms this means lost working these people have to assume additional affects the lowest professional levels hours. A pertinent example is the case of costs resulting from this situation. For the (students on work experience) and, to a lost production capacity at the Seat plant majority of workers who get to work using lesser degree, the high-profi le professional in Martorell, where up to 2,000 vehicles their own vehicle, these costs can be categories. were not produced due to workers arriving translated in terms of the time taken to get late over the course of one year. As a to and from work, the money spent and In order to meet employment needs for result of this situation, a plan has been put accidents that can occur en route. the less specialised job profi les, they are forward to provide a train service to the only able to resort to the very local labour plant to prevent road congestion (CONC, Additional costs in terms of time are market, often from the same municipality, 2004). directly related to the mass use of because the percentage of people in this group who own a car is low. This means privately-owned vehicles and the resulting 2.3. Those “absent” road congestion. This fact mainly that companies have diffi culty satisfying translates as an increase in travel time and, their employment needs and are unable The third category affected comprises consequently, the working day since the to take advantage of the most appropriate those groups who do not have access journey is directly related to the job. This human resources in the region where they to a privately-owned vehicle on a daily signifi cant amount of time spent getting operate. and independent basis. These make up to and from work has a direct impact on the group I call “absent” from industrial reconciling time spent at work and time The diffi culties resulting from being unable estates. One only has to page through the spent with the family. to take advantage of students on work classifi ed ads to see that job vacancies experience is another drawback which include the requirement “own vehicle Cost in fi nancial terms derives mainly these companies have to deal with. The required” to get to work; even if it refers to from the need to purchase and maintain professional training courses in secondary temporary work for three months and for a privately-owned vehicle as a necessary education include work experience the lowest of the job profi les. This clearly means to get to the work place. However, in companies as part of the student’s has a direct impact on job opportunities for this cost increases as a result of road studies. Generally speaking, companies these people and the likelihood of fi nding a congestion due to the amount of wear place a high value on the possibility of job. Generally speaking, the social groups and tear on the vehicle and higher fuel engaging students on work experience, that fi nd it most diffi cult to get to industrial consumption. as this is an opportunity to try out workers estates are women, students, young who already have basic training and, at the people and immigrants. Accidents which occur in itinere are same time, students can complete their clearly another problematic element for training according to the specifi c needs The women most affected are those those people who have to travel to work of the company where they are fulfi lling with a low formal education profi le who using a privately-owned vehicle. Here I their work experience requirement. The tend to seek employment in production am referring to accidents which occur diffi culties related to access to industrial or outsourced services such as cleaning. when travelling to and from work. If we estates means that many companies forgo To overcome this accessibility obstacle, look at fi gures for the Spanish State as a the possibility of taking advantage of work women have to resort to strategies which whole, 40% of road accidents are in itinere experience students. make them dependent on third parties, (some 40,000 per year). In Catalonia a fact which explains why they continue alone, the total in fi gures for this category The high-profi le professional categories to be the principal users of the carpool of accidents was 17,371 in 2004. In are another group which pose problems system or a colleague’s car. This means Catalonia, in 2003, 90 people were killed in for companies when it comes to fulfi lling that access to industrial estates by women road accidents in itinere (the majority due employment needs (and on occasions is very much limited to local areas. to road accidents), a fi gure which means securing those already employed). that 6 out of every 10 work-related deaths Some companies in suburban industrial From among students on work experience, happened while travelling to or from work. estates in the second metropolitan ring those who are most affected are those In addition to these statistics, 1 in every have experienced the situation in which in the Catalan “cicle formatiu mitjà”4 who 9 work-related accidents resulting in sick it is becoming more and more common are still not of legal age, and particularly leave in Spain are due to road accidents, for employees to place a higher value young men who choose to qualify to work which means that 140 million work on having more time for themselves. in the industrial sectors and, therefore, days were lost as a direct result of road The existing road congestions and the need to further their training in companies, accidents (CONC, 2004). subsequent time that they have to spend the majority of which are located in

100 / Papers 45 / industrial estates. In contrast, young 3.1. Drawing up mobility plans This task included the participation of women usually specialise in sectors such the Catalan Autonomous Government’s as administration, healthcare, hairdressing At present the fi rst mobility plans for Departament de Política Territorial i Obres or sales; in the majority of cases their industrial estates are being drafted, Públiques (DPTOP - Department for work experience training can be carried partly as a direct result of this law, but, Territorial and Public Works). out within city limits. As is the case for particularly, in response to the local women, this group has to rely on the representatives who realise that we need Almost parallel to this, and from the area car as a passenger to be able to get to to get down to tackling a problem which is of Barcelona City Council’s Vies Locals the industrial estates. The lack of safety becoming increasingly conspicuous in the (Local Road Networks Department), provisions on the road networks that link to areas where they operate. a mobility plan was drawn up for an the industrial estates rule out the possibility industrial package for three municipalities for them to resort to alternative transport The mobility plans are enacted by a variety in Vallès Oriental. On this occasion there means such as a bicycle or moped. of territorial administrations and from the was cooperative exchange regarding perspective of different territorial areas. methodology with the PIRMB mentioned In addition to students, the young people The transversal nature of mobility and earlier, so that their plan would have most affected by this situation are the the different territorial levels involved comparable results to the previous case. lowest age groups, with less formal means that that there is (or could be) a The same approach has been adopted in the training and with very limited fi nancial certain profusion of plans proposed and municipality of Viladecavalls’ Industrial resources. This group in particular has areas affected and which could denote a Estates Mobility Plan, proposed by diffi culty entering the job market because certain degree of lack of coordination in the Pacte per a l’Ocupació del Vallès lack of accessibility leads to them being their studies and proposals. At present, Occidental5. undervalued socially and means that they mobility plans are being sponsored by run a very high risk of social exclusion. the Generalitat de Catalunya (Catalan Based on the proposed measures to Autonomous Government), the Diputació be adopted, these plans are at different Immigrants also have serious diffi culties de Barcelona (Barcelona City Council), stages of implementation, basically accessing industrial estates. Nevertheless, the Consells Comarcals (County or those referring to improvements to, or people from this particular group attempt Regional Councils) and Ajuntaments the creation of, new bus services. Other to overcome this obstacle by resorting (Town Councils). In addition, there is a proposed measures, such as those to a wide range of strategies: walking or plethora of areas, each sponsoring their referring to creating mobility committees, cycling along lengthy suburban stretches own plans: territorial and urban policies, mobility managers or steps to be taken in on the side of the road (and at unsociable economic development, mobility and the area of privately-owned vehicles, have hours), travelling as a car passenger, the environment. This multiplicity of not yet been put into operation. forming part of a carpool or using public administrations and areas means that on transport means. They make use of occasions there is an overlapping and The Barcelona City Council’s Department whatever is available to address their different resources could be allocated for the Environment is heading a three- disadvantaged situation in the labour to the same industrial estates. This has year European project whose objective is market. reached the point where, on one occasion, to map out ten mobility plans for industrial a local council approved two different estates (seven for the administrative Paradoxically, from one perspective, mobility plans for the same industrial boundaries of Barcelona and one for each this inadequate state of affairs regarding estate without the two departments of the other three administrative areas of access to industrial estates seriously responsible for putting them forward Catalonia) as the fi rst step (the fi rst year), discriminates against the socio- (in this case economic development and to establish a methodology for putting economically weakest groups. Yet and environment) being aware of the into operation negotiation mechanisms these very same social groups have set other’s proposals. Although common between the local representatives up mobility strategies which are more sense and good will avoid such fl agrant of the industrial estates in order to sustainable (which is precisely what is contradictions, and overlapping and lack implement the proposed measures. For needed, a requirement from society and of coordination are rectifi ed, this should this reason, the project foresees the need sustainable mobility), but yet is diffi cult for not distract us from the fact that in general for training and appointing ten mobility us to put into practice to access the work what is lacking is a global strategy for managers to carry out this task during the place in industrial estates with the present dealing with this issue. remaining two years. offer of transport services. In the following paragraphs I shall I would also like to point out the work comment on some of the mobility plans being carried out by the Pacte per put into operation for industrial estates 3. The instruments foreseen to l’Ocupació del Consell Comarcal del in the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona, Vallès Occidental to make an inventory improve access to industrial estates: grouped according to methodology and of all the mobility plans and projects that mobility plans and the position objectives. affect industrial estates in this region. This of mobility manager inventory hopes to gather all the proposals In 2004, as a pioneering project, the for improving accessibility to industrial As of July 2003, Catalonia now has a new Barcelona’s Metropolitan Region Industrial estates, particularly those which at present set of offi cial guidelines for regulating Pact (PIRMB), and more specifi cally their have not yet been put into practice, to mobility. The objective behind the mobility Commission on Mobility, promoted the highlight possible areas of overlapping law, unanimously approved by the Catalan initiative of drawing up mobility plans for interests, detect points in common and Parliament, is to plan and manage mobility industrial estates for three metropolitan map out those industrial estates that have based on the criteria of environmental and municipalities. The objective was to been “overlooked”, etc. All in all, this is a social sustainability. The problems that go beyond the plans themselves and project that is attempting to make a global have been identifi ed to date have lead to to draw up methodology criteria that reading of the situation so as to be able to this law providing for a particular method would serve as a basis for plans in other provide operational guidelines at a regional of working that gathers information about industrial areas. These plans incorporated / county level which embrace an area accessibility problems to industrial estates a clearly innovative dimension: the that goes beyond the just the industrial and establishes the need to draw up and inclusion of socio-economic dysfunctions estates themselves or an individual execute specifi c “Mobility Plans” for these derived from the lack of accessibility municipality. One has to bear in mind that areas. Among other issues, these plans and the identifi cation of those groups the industrial areas for the Metropolitan include the need to create the position of a excluded, thus going beyond the limits of Area of Barcelona often form part of urban mobility manager. conventional studies on mobility needs. extensions that cross over the boundaries

INDUSTRIAL ESTATES: LOCATION TRENDS AND ACCESSIBILITY / 101 of municipal administration jurisdiction. At the moment we can talk of two this group encounters great diffi culties This means that many industrial estate mobility managers who are responsible getting to industrial estates since many mobility plans for a given municipality for Zona Franca and the Universitat of these workers do not own a vehicle. affect the area they comprise although Autònoma de Barcelona (Autonomous the industrial area extends beyond their University of Barcelona), although the b) Companies providing cleaning administrative boundaries. latter is not an industrial estate in the services. This task is common to all the strict sense of the term. But, both cases companies in industrial estates and is Altogether, an inventory was made in are special areas which each cover a generally sub-contracted. The workforce Vallès Occidental of 58 plans or projects, very large surface area, so this does in this sector is usually comprised of 21 specifi c to industrial estates6 which not make them the best of models from women who have mobility diffi culties illustrate the panorama of local councils which to base experience for applying and who often work unsociable hours, and local representatives involved as well to other areas. As a fi nal point, the typically before the normal work day as the different areas that are working on managers of the project headed by the begins. Therefore, these are people mobility. Another issue that this study has Barcelona City Council’s Department for who work during hours when there is a highlighted for discussion is the lack of the Environment foresee the fi nancing of serious lack of transport services other coordination and exchange of information managers through European institutions, than a privately-owned vehicle. that sometimes exist between the local as a pilot project, which means that it councils themselves. would be diffi cult to extend this fi nancing c) Employment associations working with to other areas. disabled people. Although they can also 3.2. The mobility manager be hired directly by the company, there are associations that, in effect, operate As I stated earlier, the mobility law 4. The world of the industrial estate: a like companies providing a service with foresees creating mobility managers. This heterogeneous reality to be taken into the objective of placing people with position, however, still needs to be defi ned account to improve accessibility some disability. This social group also and presents a number of issues to be has a specifi c profi le as regards mobility resolved concerning what their profi le Improving access to industrial estates as they need access to more specifi c should be, which the territory they should means making the necessary instruments means of transport. The majority of the cover and who would be responsible for available to travel there via means other busses that run to the industrial estates appointing them. than a privately-owned vehicle. However, are not suitably equipped which means industrial estates are very heterogeneous that industrial estates are inaccessible As regards their job profi le, it appears in themselves when it comes to structure, for this particular group. that they should be responsible for local representatives, social groups, tasks, managing mobility to industrial estates and schedules, etc. This diversity needs d) Other sub-contracted groups. This based on applying the agreed plan, and to be taken into account: proposals should encompasses a group that could range they have to take great care to work not be thought of in general terms but from the security sector, gardening with representatives from the industrial rather tailored to the needs of specifi c or catering. These people also have a estates to make progress in solving this social groups. Companies are the physical specifi c job profi le regarding the hours problem. In any case, given the lack of space where different social groups they work and the available means of mobility provisions for industrial estates in coincide on a daily basis to perform their transport. many respects, there are those who are jobs, but each of these interested parties in favour of creating an overall industrial interacts in its own way with means of The Secondary Education Schools and estates’ mobility manager rather than an transport and mobility strategies. the universities also generate a group of individual mobility manager assigned to a people who are required to carry out their specifi c industrial estate. The following paragraphs provide a training, at least partially, in companies breakdown of those who make up the located in industrial estates. The mobility Turning to the area which an industrial groups of people that need to gain access problems faced by this particular group estate should comprise, there is also to industrial estates on a daily basis. of students on work experience have confusion. In the Vallès Occidental region been discussed earlier in this article. The alone a list has been drawn up of 112 The workers directly employed by the curriculum for Catalonia’s secondary industrial estates: some cover a very companies located in the same industrial schools’ “cicles mitjà i superior” includes, small surface area, others are small units estate are not a homogeneous group, as part of the study programme, a work integrated into an extended industrial area either by gender, age, professional experience module which students are that were classifi ed as industrial estates category, working hours, disability or required to fulfi l to be able to complete as a result of a partial plan that had been rights. However, they do make up the their formal education. These work developed. It would seem pointless to most visible group and they are the experience modules are an integral part assign a mobility manager to each of these main focus of the diagnostic studies and of the academic year whereby students industrial estates, and yet it would possibly proposals for mobility plans to industrial have to combine a half-day’s work at be more viable to group certain individual estates. a company with a half-day at school. industrial estates together based on key Students, therefore, make up a group with variables such as territorial continuity, Sub-contracted workers make up a mixed a specifi c mobility profi le as regards mode labour market and mobility fl ows. bag who play an important role in the daily of transport, working hours and the route running of companies that outsource a they have to travel. Finally, which local authorities or local large number of tasks, including production representatives should set aside time and work. These sub-contracted workers are take on the expense of appointing and likely to use vehicles to get to the industrial 5. Views concerning mobility training mobility managers, is another estates, sent by the following companies: strategies current problematic issue. If the law states, “a framework for setting up and a) Temp or Seasonal Job Agencies. These In addition to this heterogeneous fi nancing has to be established which is are a supply source of a large number reality regarding the profi le of local the responsibility of the companies who of people who have to get to and from representatives and social groups found in operate there…”(Catalan Mobility Law industrial estates on a daily basis. Given industrial estates, there are also a variety - additional third paragraph)7, then this is the temporary or seasonal nature of of views concerning the different mobility not a realistic possibility while it is based their work and that these people tend to strategies. Being familiar with these views solely on the disposition of the companies correspond to the lower professional job is of primary importance when it comes and not on clearly binding legislation. profi les given the tasks they perform, to carrying out proposals concerning

102 / Papers 45 / accessibility: what would be the year as workers rights to this service have be feasible and safe at any time of the agreements and objections to introducing been “bought up” by the companies. day and for any of the social groups. Once improvements, what role should be played In some cases this service has been again, this means taking into account by each local representative and what maintained because it is required by law gender at the design stage. responsibility would they be ready to take (i.e. if the company has relocated) or on? All of this would be extremely useful because company committees (with the information for the mobility manager to exclusive right to decide on these matters) 6. Final conclusions elaborate measures that by necessity are have chosen to retain the service. The extremely complex, as is the problem to continuity of these transport services At present, in Catalonia we are at the be resolved. In the following paragraphs, undergoes re-negotiating conditions, that point where plans and operations to I shall describe these mobility strategies it should be a service shared by various improve accessibility to industrial estates and the most common views held by the company collectives and there should be are emerging. The present problems various local representatives. mutual agreement between all the parties encountered accessing these industrial involved. spaces, that have resulted from lack of The car as a driver. This is the predominant planning, and the environmental, social strategy and the one seen as being the Public transport. It is considered and operational problems that have most practical for getting to the industrial completely inadequate by all the local ensued, are reason enough to justify the estates. In fact we have already seen at representatives. The statistics generated interest shown by many and various local the beginning of this article how this is the by the surveys answered by workers in representatives to work towards providing majority transport choice in the industrial the industrial estates clearly illustrate the solutions to the problems highlighted in estates for which we have data. This fact state of these services. We have already this article. needs to be put into a context of the poor seen in table 2 how the fi gures for those offer of alternative means of transport using public transport are very low and But the drawing up of these plans by the other than the privately-owned vehicle, vary between a marginal 0.2% for Parets various bodies, and in different municipal and the fact that there is an absence in del Vallès to the exception of 27.6% for areas, does not necessarily mean one these industrial estates of other social Granvia Sud de l’Hospitalet de Llobregat. should disregard working from a global groups, that is, those who do not own However, taking aside the latter case, the perspective that could include areas that a vehicle. This very lack of alternatives data for all the industrial estates refl ect extend beyond an industrial estate and that means that many companies specifi cally fi gures of 6.7% or lower. could create links with its potential labour require their workers to be car owners to market and with other industrial estates in the degree that those excluded continue to Setting up new lines of service or the area. To do this, it is necessary to take be overlooked when proposing a mobility adapting those already in operation advantage of points of common interest, model. needs to be adapted to needs related make good use of existing services, share to working schedules, complementing services, not only for individual companies Car sharing. So often we forget that there present services and integrating them but also for different industrial estates as is a more rational use of the car from a into the public transport service routes. the most important factors. social and environmental point of view. For example, you cannot have a situation Car sharing is also a common practice where the proposed bus service begins It is also important for plans and proposals for getting to and from industrial estates. before that of the urban bus services in to be put into effect with the agreement In the table below, you can see that the the municipality where this service would of the local representatives involved for percentages for those who resort to this run from. Here, proposals for operating them to be effectively put into practice. strategy runs from around 4.3% for the public transport services, must also take As I have mentioned throughout this Granvia Sud industrial estate, to 10% care to provide a transport service that article, the proposals that have been put for the industrial estates in the Polinyà is competitive in terms of journey time into operation are mainly those referring industrial estate. and tailored to the size of the industrial to public transport. But, the other face to estate and the number of existing the coin is that other proposals could be Here we have two ways of sharing. workers. Likewise, these proposals left hanging: setting up mobility managers, The fi rst is the carpool, that is travelling have to incorporate concerns and views creating a mobility council, policies together with other work colleagues. regarding safety, comfort and road safety regarding the use of a privately-owned The reason for resorting to this strategy provisions for the trajectories that run to vehicle or improvements to accessibility could be sharing travel expenses or the bus stops and stations. Once again, for non-motorised modes, often end alternating the car being used, or it could it is essential to incorporate gender up not being put into operation. These be another way for some people to considerations since, on the one hand, considerations are no less important. But, get to work who do not own a car. The women are the main users of these means above all, these are measures that require second vehicle sharing option is to rely of transport, and on the other hand, they consensus and the active participation on resources within the family whereby are the group most likely to experience of the local representatives, the other a family member expressly drives the potential risk situations: what is the dimension to a theoretical plan. person to the work place when no other point of a bus stop that is inaccessible or solution is available; typically, this is the perceived as a potential danger? There are Another item to take into account is that strategy resorted to by women and young precedents for non-use of this means of all the local representatives and social people. Many companies do not view this transport precisely for this reason. groups in these industrial estates need strategy option positively as they do not to be considered: the most visible and consider it to be a valid solution because Non-motorised modes. Despite the hidden, those present and those absent. if anything happens to the person driving fact that these modes of mobility are When mobility plans for industrial estates this will result in absenteeism of his/her viewed as marginal, walking to work are proposed one has to have a very companion travellers. Therefore, to affects the majority of workers since it clear focus on the two objectives being promote this particular strategy one fi rst is an integral part of the majority of the pursued: the change in the transport needs to establish measures that would routes. Therefore, any proposal that has mode for those people who travel to solve these problems and meet with the the goal of improving access to industrial and from the industrial estates on a daily approval of all parties concerned. estates has to take into account itineraries basis, and the inclusion of that sector of undertaken on foot or by bicycle, be it the labour market that has been left aside Company-run transport. It is viewed by within the boundaries of the industrial because it is impossible for them to get many fi rms as a relic from the past on the estate or possible links to transport to the industrial estates. The surveys that road to extinction. This is a service that infrastructures and urban nuclei in the deal with demand have focused on those has been steadily decreasing year after surrounding areas. These routes have to who can get there and, normally, those

INDUSTRIAL ESTATES: LOCATION TRENDS AND ACCESSIBILITY / 103 who have been directly employed by d’Ambientòlegs de Catalunya (Professional an area of economic activity in every companies in the industrial estates, and Association of Environmental Scientists of municipality has led to serious problems include very little data for subcontracted Catalonia) and involved the collaboration of of an environmental and territorial nature. groups. The very same data that is used the Generalitat de Catalunya’s departments Among other effects, we should mention: as a basis for getting to know the world of Territorial Policy and Public Works, and the indiscriminate use of land, the diffi culty of people who work in industrial estates Environment and Housing3, as well as of supplying them with water, power, can tend to overlook groups of workers the Observatori del Paisatge (Landscape new technologies… Moreover, dispersion such as cleaning services, ETTs (Temp or Observatory) (table 1). generates problems in terms of mobility, seasonal employment agencies in Spain) both of people and merchandise and many or auxiliary services. And, as I have already The workshops focused on debating of them are not very competitive”. said, regardless of the volume of people a specifi c aspect: the implementation they may represent, this particular group of new areas of economic activity in Without large-scale planning and of people are vulnerable because of the the territory. Three key questions were coordination, each municipality would have mobility modes they have to use. approached in this respect: where do we to construct its own estate, becoming locate them? What is installed there? And obsessed with persuading activities to To be able to identify the group I call how are they installed? locate in its municipal district, pursuing “those absent”, we need to resort to the dangerous and imprecise vision of qualitative research methods. Getting to linking such location with richness and know the nature of the problem, views and 1. Conceptual framework employment. It is as if those municipalities concerns surrounding mobility problems that do not manage to establish their generated by the lack of accessibility and The workshops, which were held in the own industrial estate would have to the profi les of those absent, are key data context of the new culture of territory4, be indefectibly condemned to being that should allow us to draw up proposals particularly focused, as a preliminary marginalised in the general process of to facilitate their inclusion. element of the debate, on the fact that national growth. territory should be understood as being a Finally, it is necessary to see that newly fi nite, limited and scarce resource5, one The development model, in this context, constructed industrial estates incorporate that is of key importance to all citizens, and must not lack a global territorial vision, accessibility needs into their initial stage of which should be understood as a common either from the physical (accessibility, conception and include modes of transport asset that is not at the free disposition mobility of people, suitability of the that would allow for sustainable, safe and of the urbanisation process. They also type of soil, orography, environmental universal access. considered, as a guiding element, the need impact) or the strategic (exploiting the to promote a change in the environmental potentialities of each territory, specialising policies that have been observed until now. uses to obtain the maximum synergies, 1 The Pacte Industrial de la Regió Metropolitana The aim is to shift from end of the pipe or etc.) point of view. This option makes it de Barcelona is a territorial association made corrective policies to preventive policies6. possible to more effi ciently deal, from an up of local administrations, trade-unions and environmental perspective, with other businesses organisations and a wide variety of The new concept of sustainable aspects such as mobility, public transport bodies related to economic development and the development and the need for it to occur on access10, quality supply of water and promotion of employment. a local and regional scale offers an excellent power, etc, while preventing these areas 2 Survey of active industrial estates in Catalonia, opportunity for the integrated incorporation from being dispersed too much around the 2005-06. of the environmental and ecological territory in order to guarantee that what is 3 Institute for Regional and Metropolitan Studies of question into town and country planning7. already a scarce enough resource is used Barcelona. more functionally and rationally11. 4 This is a two-years period of professional learning, usually for 16 to 18 years old people. From an environmental perspective, the 5 Vallès Occidental association of companies, inclusion of environmental planning in Pluri-municipal industrial estates may be a 8 trade unions and local administrations to promote plans and programmes is a key part of this solution in terms of the rationalisation and employment. process. The idea is to plan ahead for the optimisation of the processes of territorial 6 In this study the more general plans were used if initial stages of the planning process and occupation, thus leading to a tendency the municipality did not have specifi c studies for even of policies, in order to incorporate the to concentrate rather than disperse. their industrial areas. environmental dimension from the outset This scenario obviously presents major 7 “ha d’establir-ne el règim d’implantació i el and guarantee that all of the alternatives and problems in terms of town and country fi nançament a càrrec de les empreses que hi impacts are adequately considered. But planning. The benefi cial consequences operen…” (Llei de mobilitat, Disposició adicional what are the tools and instruments available derived from it (table 2) would be suffi cient tercera). for the planning, design and management compensation for the major diffi culties of areas of economic activity on the basis of that would need to be overcome, and this new conceptual framework? which cannot be denied, and the proposal signifi es a change of panorama in terms of INSTRUMENTS FOR THE PLANNING, the urban planning of this country12. DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT OF NEW 2. Territorial planning AREAS OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITY1 Territorial planning must assume a highly A primary element for refl ection is that relevant role in this aspect, both in terms Margarida Castañer referring to the selection of the location for of the promotion and the establishment of these areas. The choice is a key decision these new locations in the territory, and Antoni Ferran which should consider environmental and of considering the criteria of functionality, landscape criteria as variables that should rationality and effi ciency. In this sense, be present in the decision making process. the criteria for the development of the Introduction Programa de Planejament Territorial But how should the choice of location be (Territorial Planning Programme) states: In the month of September 2005, Olot dealt with? Does every municipality have was the venue for the third Workshops on to have its own industrial estate9? There “Territorial plans (...) must be restrictive Environmental Evaluation2 applied to town are several reasons why supramunicipal in the implantation of industrial estates and country planning. The workshops implementations are often necessary. and business parks that are formally were organised by the Fundació d’Estudis This justifi cation is included, synthetically, autonomous and separate from urban Superiors d’Olot (Olot Foundation in the fi rst conclusion to be drawn from bodies. It would be useful for these of Higher Studies) and the Col·legi the workshops: “The practice of locating implantations to be limited to those that

104 / Papers 45 / are of strategic territorial interest and are Plan’). This is the moment when the c) Criteria and measures of integration: big enough to justify their development as incorporation of environmental and potential impacts, analysis of a singular or autonomous network with a landscape criteria can determine the alternatives, justifi cation of the adopted public transport service”13. fi nal result and, especially, affect the solution and description of the measures perception that citizens might have of adopted to correct the impacts. So, the implementation of areas of these new areas15. economic activity on a supramunicipal The study must be accompanied by the scale cannot happen without considering At this advanced stage of the decision graphic documents required to visualise the sensitivity of municipal authorities14. making process, it is important to make the impacts and the proposals for In awareness of this, debates of the issue a new effort to try to fi nd what aspects integrating the project in the landscape, have arisen in different forums. Clear require or could require more detailed as well as information related to the state examples of these, among others, are the work in order to achieve the maximum of the plans in which the action is to be recent workshops held in Vilafranca del level of integration of environmental and included. Meanwhile, the main objective Penedès, promoted by the Alt Penedès landscape criteria in the development of the landscape impact and integration County Council, and the debates that of the zoning plan. This is not a report is to evaluate the suitability and have arisen in the county of La Selva, also matter of theoretical considerations suffi ciency of the criteria or measures promoted by the County Council. or of defi ning the standard criteria and adopted to integrate the required recommendations in a generic fashion, actions, uses, works and activities in the In Vilafranca del Penedès it was but rather a matter of looking in fi ner landscape. The issue of this report is the highlighted that “For several years detail at the location and identifying the perceptive duty of the Direcció General different voices within the county, and aspects of greatest interest and those that d’Arquitectura i Paisatge, among other outside of it, have debated the need could be the most vulnerable. Moreover, requirements, when so determined by to fi nd forms of territorial cooperation there is a need to defi ne the actions that territorial zoning plans and territorial and compensation that can make the could be effective and effi cient in the directive plans, as well as all other possible protection and conservation of the short term through application of the situations established by territorial or Penedès landscape compatible with local principle of precaution and prevention that planning legislation. councils’ needs to fi nd mechanisms and was mentioned earlier. strategies that can help them to promote Environmental conditioners are covered the growth of their municipalities and In this context, the fi rst question to be by legislative decree 1/2005, of July 26, provide a service to their citizens”. considered is that referring to the area and which passes the redrafted text of the Llei content of the obligatory environmental d’Urbanisme de Catalunya (Urban Planning And in Santa Coloma de Farners it was study. Current legislation specifi es that Law of Catalonia) and establishes, among said that “Municipalities must satisfy their this must contain sections that offer a other matters, what the content of an citizens’ needs. In this sense, there is an description, an analysis and a justifi cation environmental report should be. Law increasing need to fi nd sites for waste of the plan. It must also include the 9/2006, of April 28 was passed more disposal, municipal pounds, warehouses, specifi c environmental recommendations recently on the evaluation of the effects of libraries, sports centres, etc. All of this and conditioners that will need to be certain plans and programmes concerning involves the acquisition of land, which considered in order to neutralise or the environment. In fact, this law provided has to either be purchased or acquired minimise any impact. a response to the pending transposition by through the relevant transfer. It is the central government of Directive 2001/42/ local administrations’ lack of economic Recently, the Direcció General CE of the European Parliament and of resources that has led to the existence of d’Arquitectura i Paisatge (General the Council of June 2001 concerning the such a high offer of industrial land”. Management of Architecture and evaluation of the effects of given plans Landscapes), associated to the and programs on the environment, which Consequently, there is a need for the Generalitat’s Department of Territorial establishes guidelines on the basis of local authorities that plan and manage Policy and Public Works, drew up a draft which a sustainability report should be new areas of economic activity of a regulation bill that develops Law 8/2005, produced, in terms of its content and the supramunicipal nature to decide how of June 8, for the protection, management situations in which one should be made17. they will be able to compensate for the and planning of the landscape16. Chapter II advantages and disadvantages of the of said project covers the regulation of the It should be considered that any implantation of new areas of economic landscape integration and impact study proposal for developing a new area of activity in consideration of all of the and the landscape integration and impact economic activity should be developed municipalities involved as a whole. report as innovative instruments in the on land that has already been qualifi ed legislature of Catalan town and country as industrial for the purposes of said In this sense, the Olot workshops planning. The draft regulation bill itself plans. In relation to the set of variables concluded (table 3) that “In order determines that a landscape integration that may be susceptible to study (such to develop this new strategy for and impact study will be required, as land occupation, the water cycle, supramunicipal areas of economic activity among other situations, when any law, air quality, acoustic, lighting and radio- there is a need to fi nd the right formulas disposition or town and country planning electric conditions, waste and material and legal tools to viably distribute the in general establishes such a requirement. management, the conservation of advantages and disadvantages that are biodiversity and natural heritage and generated in relation to the different In accordance with the aforementioned landscape quality), there is a need to municipalities implied”. This aspect will be project, the study must contain the identify which are likely to cause the commented upon in greater detail further following: greatest impact and which ones are likely on, when we discuss the management of to be affected. Any activities that could be these spaces. a) Description of the state of the developed at the site need to be defi ned landscape: main components, landscape when regulating the plan. values, visibility and fragility of the 3. Design landscape. 4. Public promotion of a pluri- Another element for refl ection is what b) Characteristics of the project: site and municipal site: The new challenge of elements should be installed and how insertion, documents that defi ne the inter-administrative collaboration they should be installed (table 4). project: elevation, sections, fl oors, Evidently, this involves a change in the volumes, materials and other relevant Given the changing scale of urban planning scale of analysis (Plan Parcial or ‘Zoning aspects. operations, both in physical and strategic

INDUSTRIAL ESTATES: LOCATION TRENDS AND ACCESSIBILITY / 105 terms, the traditional methodologies The distribution of advantages and imperfect. Current legislation does provide for urban development based on the disadvantages between the municipalities us with mechanisms. But putting these into confl uence of the actions and interests of and other agents that are directly affected practice requires political desire. And for the binomial of the town council and the by the new industrial estate must form there to be political desire, we need to deal promoter of the land, which until now has the basis for relations between them in with a preliminary process of refl ection, enabled municipal requirements and the accordance with the principle of solidarity. to convince ourselves that it could be the interests of investors to converge, now All of the participating agents must obtain right instrument for participating not only in appears to have its shortcomings. It now benefi ts that correspond to their level of the costs, but also in the benefi ts of a joint seems that unplanned public and private participation in the project, but must also promotion of industrial land”. initiatives fi nd it diffi cult to develop large- bear any corresponding burdens. This scale actions due to the complexities logically implies that in carrying out the derived from this new scenario, which project, all effort and management tasks 1 In writing this article we based our work on the affects the shared territory or interests of as well as investments should be fairly reports presented at the third Workshops on several municipalities. distributed. Environmental Evaluation applied to town and country planning. We would like to thank the The promotion of a site for economic The redistribution of income derived different speakers for the effort they put into activity on a pluri-municipal scale from the implantation of the business preparing the materials used in the workshops requires agreement between a group park should occur on the basis of two and especially the contributions made by Albert of municipalities in a certain territorial concepts: the sale or lease of sites must Cortina, Ramon Forcada, Fernando Nebreda and region where a possible location has been be adjudicated to each agent in accordance Joan López. identifi ed. These municipalities must agree with the investments they contributed and 2 Previous editions: See the minutes of the I to act in a coordinated fashion, showing their participation in active administration, Workshops on the Evaluation of the Environmental mutual concern and the will to collaborate as should be fi scal benefi ts, as established Impact of Town and Country Planning, which in achieving these objectives (with or by agreement (project licence for new discussed the technical and political challenges without the help of other administrations buildings, property tax on buildings of applying Directive 2001/42/CE. The minutes of or the private sector). The importance of constructed, business taxes). the “II Workshops on the Introduction of Strategic this new way of working was explicitly Environmental Evaluation in Town and Country Planning: challenges and experiences” are also described in the workshop’s conclusions, Current regulations foresee two available. FES. Olot, 2000 and 2002. Càtedra de which said of the issue that it is formulas for agreed activity between Geografi a I Pensament Territorial. Universitat de “necessary for municipalities to integrate municipalities, both of which involve Girona. the new territorial culture in their day-to- voluntary association: mancomunitats 3 For more information see www.fes.org day activities and to see the advantages (the joint management of different 4 See the Declaració de Figueres (Figueres, 2003), they can benefi t from by initiating a new communities) and consortiums with Declaració de Tortosa (Tortosa, 2005) and the strategy on a supra-municipal scale when other administrations (table 5). In order Manifi esto por una nueva cultura del territorio it comes to defi ning the sites for new to specify terms, there would be a need (2006); Madrid, Colegio de Geógrafos. areas of economic activity in Catalonia. to formalise an urban planning agreement 5 The European Soil Charter published by the A new era has begun in which pacts involving all of the administrations Council of Europe in 1972 said “Soil is a limited and agreements between neighbouring implied in order to establish the legal resource that is easily destroyed”. Later, in 1992, municipalities will need to be made in framework that will have to be constituted, in the Curitiba Declaration, which formed part order to be able to undertake common establishing the essential elements of its of the Rio de Janeiro summit and was possibly projects”18. statutes as part of the process. the fi rst constitutional attempt at specifying the requirements for sustainability on a local scale and The objectives that this group of Both situations are primarily governed by in the territorial sphere, says we should “waste the municipalities and collaborating public their statutes. However, in the case that minimum and economize the maximum”. or private agents will have to share will concerns us, the promotion of industrial 6 Antoni Ferran i Mèlich; La consideració dels aspectes ambientals i paisatgístics en el disseny be specifi ed over time as they observe a estates by local administrations, the dels nous polígons. series of necessary stages. consortium makes it possible for other 7 World Charter for Nature. United Nations public or private agents to be integrated; Resolution of October 28, 1982: The United 1) Study the viability of the project. agents that are specialised in these kind Nations General Assembly passed the charter for of projects, and which have the technical nature which proclaimed such principles as: “In 2) Acquire the necessary land. and fi nancial capacity to ensure they are the planning and implementation of social and 19 carried out successfully . economic development activities, due account 3) Prepare and manage the new urban shall be taken of the fact that the conservation of planning project. In short, the need to fi nd mechanisms for nature is an integral part of those activities”. territorial compensation and cooperation 8 Directive 2001/42/CE of the European Parliament 4) Urbanise the new site. is the challenge that needs to be solved in and the Council of June 27, 2001, concerning order to proceed with this new strategy, the evaluation of the effects of given plans and 5) Commercialise and promote the plots one which must be able to tackle the new programs on the environment, transposed to the of land resulting from the urbanisation territorial and environmental challenges in Spanish legal framework by Law 9/2006 of April process. our country today. Consensus regarding 28 on the evaluation of the effects of certain plans the need to fi nd new mechanisms for and programs on the environment. 6) Manage the operations of the site over territorial compensation and cooperation 9 We speak of an area of economic activity time. is unanimous and proposals have been put although the term industrial estate is often used to refer to the same, which does lead to a certain forward in several different forums. conceptual and terminological confusion. The principles of approval, collaboration 10 Joan López: “The most outstanding fact is that and solidarity must necessarily govern There are plenty of formulas and industrial estates spread all over the territory the relations between municipalities. ideas regarding the issue. There are lead, through their very nature, to mobility 20 21 22 23 The initiative must be understood to be a French , Italian , Basque and Catalan that is diffi cult to satisfy with collective means joint, decided and sustained management experiences. But in fact, as Fernando of transport”, Institut d’Estudis Regionals i project that supports the development Nebreda, managing director of Oarsoaldea Metropolitans. of the new site. This joint project will be told us at the end of his talk in Olot, “in 11 See footnote number 6. specifi ed by a series of major transactions, any case, the other interpretation we 12 Ramon Forcada i Pons (2005); Actuacions decisions and investments whose could draw from this experience is that industrials i d’activitat econòmica d’abast objective is to plan, construct and maintain instruments for collaboration on a county plurimunicipal. Projectes de l’Incasòl. a business park. level do exist, but they are incomplete or 13 Departament de Política Territorial i Obres

106 / Papers 45 / Públiques; Criteris per al desenvolupament del The councils may delegate authority to the The objective of mixed urban areas in Programa de Planejament Territorial. ‘mancomunitat’ or consortium in relation to rates which activities and housing coexist in 14 In the opinion of municipal representatives, the and special contributions, as well as fi xing public keeping with the reinvention of the dense development of new areas of economic activity prices. But they cannot be granted the authority and varied Mediterranean city has very (industrial, commercial and services) represents to establish taxes, which should be the authority much been assumed nowadays, at least a possibility for local fi nancing. The promotion of the relevant councils. Either by agreement or in ideological terms. I do not believe that of an industrial estate by private initiative initially by statute it may be established that the council it has been assumed quite so much in involves a set of benefi ts for local bodies: Short can transfer to the association a portion of the terms of specifi c projects. Whatever the and medium terms income in the form of project income obtained by the industrial estate through case, the spatial interrelationship between licences, long term income in the form of IAE application of taxes. This management by the housing and activities is an objective (Impuesto sobre Actividades Económicas - ‘mancomunitat’ or consortium may not obstruct Business Tax) (medium and large companies), the the constitution of an administrative conservational to be defended at least insofar as this use of the space by municipal services through association”, Incasòl. coexistence or proximity should not have transfer of the corresponding percentage of land, more negative than positive effects for one generation of local employment. However, if the use or the other. planned occupation of land does not lead to the companies actually being implanted, all that It could be said that in this historic period for is generated is land in reserve that is subject to AREAS OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITY IN cities, the factors that benefi t the coexistence speculation in relation to costs, without generating TERRITORIAL PLANNING of activities and housing are the more any benefi ts for the municipality, other than the dominant. The increase in the number availability of land for locating municipal services. Juli Esteban i Noguera of jobs in tertiary activities (trade and (Minutes of the meeting of La Selva CSPS services) in comparison with industrial [Supramunicipal Council of Sustainable Planning] and some primary jobs that may once have of June 29, 2006.) 1. Principles been of importance in certain areas (such 15 Antoni Ferran i Mèlich; La consideració dels as mining and the energy sector), has led aspectes ambientals i paisatgístics en el disseny Spaces where intensive economic to a high proportion of employment that dels nous polígons. activities take place, along with those can be located in a fully urban context. 16 Edict of May 9, 2006 that made public the draft If we also consider those small-scale decree to develop Law 8/2005, of June 8, on used for housing and infrastructures, to industrial activities that continue to be the protection, management and planning of the different degrees constitute the most landscape. perceptible forms of occupied land and located in the urban environment, we 17 For more information see the Generalitat de are those that provide it with a structural could safely say that urban areas that Catalunya DMAH website. function. Other spaces, though also contain housing and compatible uses, and 18 Fernando Nebreda Díaz de Espada, managing hosting economic activities, may - due that have been developed continuously director of Orasoaldea, spoke along similar lines to their extensive nature - play the role through growth from the historic core, are when opening his talk by saying “I am going to within the territory of being open spaces the spaces offering the largest amount of present the most relevant issues of an experience that form part of the necessary balance employment and are therefore the main that is based on the existence of the shared between extension and intensiveness, areas of economic activity. political desire of several municipalities to join soft and hard, permeable and paved, together and concentrate their strengths and rural and urban, etc., which does not However, it is also true that there are resources in order to promote an industrial site. necessarily have to be quantitative, but factors that tend to lead to specifi c areas of (…) this desire is more important than a clear legal structural. economic activity being differentiated and structure …” located in separate parts of the general, 19 Ramon Forcada i Pons (2005); Actuacions Territorial planning seeks to provide mixed-use urban fabric. These factors are industrials i d’activitat econòmica d’abast guidelines for rationality and effi ciency derived from the incompatibility, either plurimunicipal. Projectes de l’Incasòl. among the three above-mentioned objective or subjective, of certain activities 20 For more information see the web. and their containers with urban fabrics in 21 Graziella Guaragno; Strategie territoriali per la components of land colonisation: which housing is the dominant use. There pianifi cazione sostenibile delle aree produttive: le agrarian areas, infrastructures and esperienze della Provincia di Bologna. settlements. To do this and in order to is, however, a need to determine and 22 With respect to the way that costs and benefi ts maintain coherent attitudes in different analyse these factors. can be distributed, in presenting the experiences territories and circumstances, the of the county of Oarsoaldea (Euskadi), its Generalitat de Catalunya’s Programa de Incompatibility due to the disturbance, managing director, Fernando Nebreda, said: Planejament Territorial (Territorial Planning danger or unhealthiness caused by “We have seen the fundamental elements of the Programme) has proposed fi fteen criteria activities is suffi cient reason to promote experience that is taking place in this county of expressing the logic that makes sense of specialised areas for such activities. Guipuzcoa. The agreement was signed by the contemporary territorial planning1. Another important factor is the size of the mayors of the municipalities of Errenteria, Lezo, spaces and buildings that some of these Oiartzun and Pasaia and the president of the Although the criteria should be understood require. It is certainly diffi cult to properly Development Agency on February 11, 1998, and it as a whole and many of them are highly fi t elements of anything greater than is currently fully operational, and is receiving 50% transversal in nature, we can highlight here two hectares in an urban street network. of the annual IAE of the operations that have been those that are of the greatest relevance to Apart from geometric problems, a large performed. Some might ask whether the reforms the subject of this article. industrial or logistic site located in an to the IAE have affected this agreement. Well, urban area will generate a very large void the way we understand it (…) there is no reason Criterion 8. To favour the coexistence of in the immediate surroundings where why it should have any effect because it is purely there will be very little urban intensity. a calculation criterion. Even if the IAE were to activities and housing in urban areas and There may also be diffi culties, although disappear, the desires expressed in the agreement rationalise the implantation of industrial would require another calculation criterion to be and tertiary estates. the effects on the surroundings could found that would lead to roughly similar amounts”. be very different, if the site is destined 23 Ramon Forcada: “In reference to the management Criterion 10. To ensure the compact and for commercial, hotel, leisure or public- and maintenance of taxation, there would be a need continuous nature of growth. service purposes. In these cases, urban for the statutes to establish that both the costs intensifi cation could occur, although in derived from the maintenance of the industrial Criterion 11. To reinforce the nodal some cases disturbances to housing estate once it is up and running (provision of structure of the territory through urban could be generated as a result of the public services: electricity, drainage, water, etc.) growth. intensifi cation itself. and income (rates, property tax, business tax, land value added tax, etc.) will be distributed Criterion 12. To make mobility a right and We should add that in recent decades among the members in the right proportions. not an obligation. there has been a progressive increase in

INDUSTRIAL ESTATES: LOCATION TRENDS AND ACCESSIBILITY / 107 the size of commercial, hotel and service of new urban sectors highly limits 2. The diffi culties sites and the most common response the capacity for mixing new housing has been far too simple and lacking in with other uses, but this need not be Territorial planning involves two congenital creativity. These elements (important as an impediment to the coexistence in diffi culties in reference to the vectors centres of economic activity but also as integrated fabrics of residential buildings of time and space, which despite being generators of urban relationships) have and other buildings used as offi ce space, common to all physical planning to a certain been located outside of the city, often for commerce, for hotels, etc. Therefore, extent, are of particular importance in this in industrial estates. Certainly, from a especially in new urban extensions, urban case. The fi rst diffi culty is spatial and is particular size onwards, the only possible planning should offer the right sites and derived from the division of the territory site for certain facilities is outside of the volumes to serve the functional needs into municipal regions, each of which has city in large-scale estates or on specifi c of buildings that can be used for urban its own personality and its own projects; the sites designed for them. I also believe activities that, due to the lack of adequate second is temporal, and is derived from that we should consider two things here. conditions, often end up being located the nature of the plan and the procedure The fi rst relates to planning attitudes in industrial areas, which dissipates their of formalising and processing it, which with regards to the increasingly oversized capacity to act as structuring elements can lead to a relatively long period of time nature of industrial, logistic, tertiary, within new city fabrics. between the defi nition of proposals and service, tourist, recreational sites and so their execution. A third and also temporal on, which necessarily have to be settled In short, and as can be directly gleaned diffi culty that should be considered from outside of urban areas and on sites from the criteria exposed, territorial and the outset of any planning process is the whose location is diffi cult to forecast. also urban planning must foster the mixed high degree of uncertainty in forecasting The logic behind all these implantations and integrated growth of urban areas that future episodes and circumstances. of areas with economic activity inevitably can play a vertebral role in the territory separates them from the territorial model and restrict to the bare minimum those However, it has to be said that these we seek, which is one based around the implantations that do not constitute diffi culties can be somewhat overcome nodal structure represented by large and proportionate and well articulated when defi ning the nodal model of medium sized cities and which avoids, extensions of the existing urban areas. growth proposed by territorial plans. as much as possible, the proliferation of This is the idea of “rationalising the The indication of certain areas that will spatially autonomous areas of activity implantation of industrial and tertiary polarise urban extensions does not involve (and residence). In whatever case, and estates” that was expressed in the determinations of form, and can be argued although the expected result is not the previously mentioned criterion. with suffi cient objectivity depending on one we would like, we should accept the existing nodal structure, the foreseen that some economies of scale at location The Programa de Planejament Territorial‘s connectivity and the availability of land. have withstood the end of Fordism and criteria suggest that the desideratum is a But we should not forget that the nodal are still important for certain economic territory in which: structure implies the spatial distribution activities; therefore, the territory must of most of the employment. Meanwhile, accommodate at least a few sites of this – The creation of new urbanised sites the urban development of nodes and type. Similarly, it would be useful to know (for housing and activities) should be cores will occur through municipal urban how to make an evaluation in each case polarised in large and medium sized planning’s determination of sites that, of the sense and effects of the site: its cities that offer the conditions to extend due to their location in relation to existing strategic value within the territory, the their urban area and have the capacity urban areas, offer implicit prospects reasons for such a large-scale demand, to construct the nodes that must form for urban development. Therefore what the mobility fl ows that will be generated part of the functional structure of the the territorial plan indicates with respect and the future alternatives, should the territory as a whole. to the nodal potential (or not) of an urban activity end. This evaluation should area’s development does not contribute especially consider the differences – Other cities and small urban nucleuses new and immediate urban prospects, and between those activities in which a should grow in a moderate fashion that therefore does not introduce new factors large scale is a structurally functional does not modify their position within that can distort the land’s market value, requirement, and others where a different the territorial structure. which inevitably structures its prices in business focus would enable them to accordance with the imagined prospects split up and locate the smaller parts in – Rural areas that do not have to be based on urban and topographic reality. different places. Another important factor occupied by the urban extensions to evaluate is the distinction between should substantially maintain their The diffi culties are much larger in relation to those activities that provide few jobs and integrity and only receive those territorial planning’s possible determination do not have direct users (such as logistic buildings that are constructed for the of new areas of economic activity that are centres) and those where the opposite purposes of the agrarian or rustic separated from urban areas. As is well occurs, such as services and shopping activities performed there. known, there are many local councils that centres. aspire to having an industrial estate However, we know that this will not be that is separate from the urban core and The ideological basis of this analysis is 100% possible and there would have can be used to locate already existing but none other than the consideration that to be deviations of different types from supposedly disruptive workshops and the implantation of new and territorially the three objectives; specifi cally, some industries, offering the option of locating isolated areas of activity (even though areas of intensive economic activity economic activities that can generate jobs they are large) is in principle topologically that do not fi t in with these established and will create income for the generally undesirable, but that we should accept guidelines would have to be admitted. In defi cient municipal funds. that territorial functionality and economic whatever case, as well as needing to be (and sustainable) development has to justifi ed in terms of the advantages they In the present-day context, and from a involve at least a few of these. would bring to the territory in relation municipal point of view, this objective is to economic development and in terms incontrovertibly logical, but its results are The second refl ection is on the frequent of the minimisation of the number of evidently unsatisfactory from a territorial incapacity of urban planning to create implantations, these actions would need perspective in terms of the landscape and urban spaces that can integrate new to be located somewhere that complies environment. We could add that this model forms of activity that are perfectly with certain conditions of functional, for setting up an activity could leave plenty compatible as components of the and also formal, rationality in relation to of room for functional improvement, but, new mixed-use fabric of cities. The infrastructures, the territorial surroundings for obvious reasons, this is not a particularly typologically residential specialisation and the landscape. valued factor given the simplicity involved

108 / Papers 45 / in independent management by individual diffi culties in relation to the locations of also depends on economic growth, councils in relation, if possible, to sites these areas. If the aim is for the territory to as the jobs that are created are also a where the landowners’ attitudes are have relatively few, larger and preferably cause for immigration, which will cause favourable. territorially integrated, separate areas of the population to increase. Without economic activity, the question of where immigration, the population of Catalonia The objective of rationalising these urban these are to be located is of particular would clearly decline over the next few implantation processes is an imperative for importance. However, once the municipal decades. In short, it could be said that territorial planning that is legally founded logic has been surpassed, the question it is on the basis of the hypothesis of an by the general principles for urban planning is: who determines the locations of the increase in jobs that we can defi ne the actions of the Llei d’urbanisme (Urban new areas of activity on a territorial basis? future quantitative scenarios required to planning law) and especially articles 3 It seems the answer has to be territorial provide a response to territorial planning. and 9 of this Law, which are specifi cally planning. transferred to the criterion for “rationalising There are two additional comments: the implantation of industrial and tertiary That will surely be through a process fi rst, although perhaps debatable, the estates” that was explicitly adopted by the of territorial planning that can evaluate objective of economic growth has not been Programme. the different concurring variables: the questioned by any signifi cant political force general territorial model, foreseeable in Catalonia. Second, most of the economic In accordance with this criterion, demand, accessibility, available services, growth in our country corresponds to the territorial planning clearly establishes environmental values, landscape, uses creation of jobs; growth resulting from two complementary lines of action for that prefer certain locations over others, an increase in productivity is of very little the creation of areas of activity that are etc. But this does not mean that it would relevance. typologically differentiated from urban be recommendable for territorial or master networks. plans to determine the locations chosen for Hypotheses and predictions regarding such actions. the creation of jobs are therefore starting – Sites that are continuations of existing points for defi ning the scenarios in which urban areas for those activities that are It is fairly common knowledge that a there is the need of space for housing and compatible with a certain proximity plan-based formal recognition of a site’s for economic activities. to housing. Of an extension that is in prospective value that had not been principle proportionate to the reality of considered earlier, or was uncertain or Economic activity is spatially a far more the urban area and under the requirement more or less distant, leads to landowners imprecise concept than the concept of that the urban planning and architecture being gifted a generous increase in the housing. Hence, while territorial planning of the buildings and landscape provide value of their property; until the present, adopts the criterion that housing should the most appropriate solutions for the this has frequently been an added diffi culty be located in continuous and mixed urban morphological integration of these areas for developing actions. networks, economic activities, as well with the contiguous urban networks and as preferably being integrated in urban the image of the surrounding rural space. This problem is hard to solve, especially in networks of this type, may also in some territorial or master plans that take shape at cases be more conveniently located in – Minimisation of the number of a relatively distant moment from the action specialised areas. It should be added isolated implantations (or that are not (which must pass through more intimate and that the entails adopted by the plans proportionate to the contiguous nucleus) precise urban-planning instruments), and establish conditions for the distribution and leading to larger-scale concentrations where it is diffi cult to establish agreements integration of the growth of urban areas, that could include more services and in which the owners do not overvalue the but not a globally limitative quantifi cation a more carefully considered territorial land - making it problematic to proceed in the territory. On the other hand, given implantation. with the plans. We should also remember that specialised areas are considered a that what can be done in municipal urban model of implantation to be limited to In order for this concentration model to planning, given the size of the region and those cases where they are justifi able, provide a response to motivations for the familiarity of the owners and operators it would be useful for the territorial plan creating new industrial estates and for this with vested interests, is more diffi cult in to contain at least one approximate to be a credible alternative to the dispersion the wider territorial arena. quantifi cation of what surface area or land that follows municipal division, the formulas would be required, and to evaluate possible for creating these areas of activity would These concerns could be substantially distribution. have to enable the participation of the reduced if the criteria when evaluating town councils with a vested interest in the expropriations for the purposes of urban The methods of calculation would benefi ts and charges of the implantation, activity were genuinely independent of the inevitably be estimative and results regardless of localisation in one municipality plan’s own expectations, and if this could would have to include a safety factor, but or another being a determinant factor. enable the generalisation and fl exibility of methodologically they would have to follow public actions for expropriation at prices a pattern with the following steps: This is a perfectly achievable objective, that were reasonable and not derisory. but it would be foolish to ignore the Meanwhile, as far as possible, there is a a) Expected new jobs. diffi culties, which are made all the more need to prevent the spatial expression of serious due to inexperience and, often, to proposals for action leading to the rural b) Subdivision into sectors of activity in a lack of trust. The use of this alternative land being overvalued by its owners and accordance with the existing situation model undoubtedly requires demonstrative thus posing diffi culties for carrying out the and predicted evolution. actions and the provision of incentives and necessary actions. cohesive elements by supra-municipal c) Estimation of: jobs of an urban nature, administrations and most especially by jobs in specialised areas and jobs in no the Generalitat. It would also be useful for 3. Planning techniques fi xed location. improvements to be made to the Local Administration’s legal regulatory framework d) Application of standards: m2 of covered in the sense that this should clearly 3.1. The quantitative objectives surface/worker. privilege intermunicipal collaboration as The quantity of space for non-primary opposed to individualism. economic activities depends on e) Application of constructible area: m2 of the economic growth expected. In built-up area/m2 of industrial site. The model for concentrating separate fact, demographic growth and the areas of activity also involves a series of corresponding space for new housing f) Surface area of land required.

INDUSTRIAL ESTATES: LOCATION TRENDS AND ACCESSIBILITY / 109 3.2. Spatial distribution different municipalities requires the current situation and dynamics, possibly agreement of all of the municipalities omitting new options or alternatives that If all of the land was publicly owned (or its involved in the area indicated by the could be of veritable territorial interest. transformations could always be decided Plan, accompanied by the establishment by means of public policy) and the supra- of formulas that enable equal sharing of For these reasons, territorial planning municipal authority monopolised urban the benefi ts and charges resulting from must have the capacity to incorporate responsibility, the next step would be the the action. Municipalities that so desire unexpected actions considered coherent conversion of the necessary hectares for may opt to refrain from participating. with the main objectives of the plan and of specialised economic activities, proposing Also, the municipalities that neighbour declarable territorial interest. There should a set of well delimited actions in the most the pluri-municipal regions established therefore be a possibility for these actions appropriate places in terms of topography, by the Plan may request to be to be formally considered by some kind of accessibility, availability of services and incorporated in the action and must be method as implicit elements of the plan’s landscape integration. This is a complex admitted if their spatial implication with intentions, and for these not to require any task, especially for an instrument that, this action is justifi ed. kind of modifi cation to the territorial plan, in addition to its broad focus, also which would involve as long a process requires precision at the local scale; but – When the action does not take place as its original formulation. To do this, nevertheless it is perfectly feasible. In due to a lack of agreement between the territorial plans indicate that they consider whatever case, the two further reasons municipalities but where simultaneously part of their provisions to be exceptional previously mentioned require a more there is a general interest in the territory actions recognised by the Comissió careful approach in order to make room for it to be carried out, the Generalitat d’Urbanisme de Catalunya (Urban Planning for those operations that need to enable de Catalunya may promote this via the Commission of Catalonia) as being of action as agreed with and between Institut Català del Sòl (Catalan Land territorial interest, which is a pre-requisite councils and, if relevant, to make room Institute) and provide the adequate for any kind of urban-planning procedure. for the necessary acquisitions of land to mechanisms for the equal distribution of facilitate adequate leadership by the public the benefi ts and charges of a social and However, it is established that these operators of urban development in this fi nancial nature that are likely to affect possible exceptional actions, which are type of area. the municipalities as a result of the plan. limited to objectives concerning service or economic activities, should be subject to Therefore, the determinations made by – Actions for the implantation of areas of the following conditions: territorial planning in this area should be economic activity will be specifi ed using undertaken with a great deal of prudence whatever instruments of urban planning a) They must be of a size and have the and should result in assignations of are necessary. functional requirements to justify a site more or less quantifi ed supra-municipal that does not follow the guidelines for transformations, which would need to – The plan of initiatives for new areas of the extension of urban areas established constitute areas of economic activity within economic activity must foresee and by the Plan. Those actions that could reach of and of interest to the surrounding guarantee access via the transport occur within the framework of the municipalities. network and the provision of power Plan’s spatial determinations are not supplies considered necessary, in considered exceptional. The solutions to the problems that cannot accordance with the size of the area and be dealt with via the level of spatial the expected activities. b) The motives for fostering territorial indetermination maintained by this formula interest in the action will be the will have to be guided by the establishment This regulatory basis will undoubtedly improvements that this could represent of conditions for implantation in the area in need fi ne-tuning both in relation to the to the territory in terms of services, relation to confi guration, access, provision procedure for action and the conditions environment, economic development, of services, image, etc. Some of these of implantation, especially due to the international projection, social cohesion conditions will be of general relevance in incorporation of the Pla de les Directrius or standard of living. the area of the territorial plan while others de Paisatge (Landscape Directives Plan), may refer to specifi c locations. which establishes legislation in this ambit. c) The action must propose satisfactory environmental solutions in relation In the fi rst territorial plans produced by 3.3 Unexpected opportunities to access requirements, in terms of the Programme, the creation of new expected fl ows and the provision of specialised areas of economic activity Apart from clearly indicating the land that water, energy, telecommunications and was governed by dispositions such as the cannot be the object of urban development waste removal services. following: under any circumstances, territorial planning establishes a framework in other d) The action will comply with the – Creation of new industrial estates or, areas for action based on the structural requirements of planning, architecture, in general, new areas of economic defi nition of the model and actions. This materials, colours and complementary activity (and, if relevant, the extension framework is markedly fl exible with regard vegetation that ensure its acceptable of existing areas, when their size means to the formal concretion of urban and integration in the territory’s morphology they transcend the boundaries of the infrastructural implantations. However, and landscape, in accordance with municipality), must be associated with there is always the need to consider the criteria established in the plan’s an inter-municipal agreement that that the defi nition of regulations for regulations, specifi cally the Landscape enables the equal sharing of benefi ts development will also come across the Directives. The draft proposal for the and charges relating to the action. dilemma between the possibility of leaving project presented to the Comissió out actions that may be of interest to the d’Urbanisme de Catalunya will include – The Plan indicates the pluri-municipal territory (but that do not comply with one whatever specifi cations are considered areas that could be the object of of the established conditions) or that are necessary in relation to these matters. these actions. The municipalities too imprecise in their defi nitions of the involved must be active agents in the same (which could lead to undesirable e) The actions will exclude the use of decisions concerning the implantation implantations). This dilemma is particularly housing, other than that which will be and operation of these new areas of relevant in relation to actions involving used for the permanent vigilance of the economic activity. the implantation of economic activities. installations. The continuous process of change to their – The initiative to develop an area that content and requirements can lead to the It should be added that the inclusion might affect the land of one or more conditions, established on the basis of the of these actions in master plans that

110 / Papers 45 / may deploy the territorial plan are also understood to be a form of recognition of their territorial interest and their conformity with this.

The considerations noted here are to a large extent also applicable to the problem of the determination of new areas of economic activity in master urban plans. I also feel that, given the more precise and intimate nature of such plans, the matter requires some specifi c considerations that are not strictly relevant to the current discussion, and which still require a certain amount of methodological fi ne-tuning.

To conclude, I wish to highlight that, despite their limitations and the lack of practical experience, territorial plans could contribute to the spatial rationalisation of implanting economic activity. Nevertheless, for the proposals to be fully effective, there is a need to proceed by increasing the following variables:

– Capacity for action of municipalities and local supra-municipal bodies.

– The desire for municipalities to cooperate.

– Synergy between plans and actions.

– Capacity to acquire land at reasonable prices.

Without preventing it from proceeding as effectively as it can, certain vital changes need to be made to the legislative framework in order to achieve an operative context that benefi ts from the spatial rationalisation of areas of economic activity.

1 The criteria are detailed in chapter 2 of the reports of all of the territorial plans, that can be consulted on the Departament de Política Territorial i Obres Públiques website (www.gencat.net/ptop).

INDUSTRIAL ESTATES: LOCATION TRENDS AND ACCESSIBILITY / 111