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INFORMATION TO USERS The most advanced technology has been used to photo­ graph and reproduce this manuscript from the microfilm master, UMI films the original text directly from the copy submitted. Thus, some dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from a computer printer. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyrighted material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are re­ produced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each oversize page is available as one exposure on a standard 35 mm slide or as a 17" x 23" black and white photographic print for an additional charge. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. 35 mm slides or 6" X 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. I AccessingiUMI the World's Information since 1938 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 8804124 AN ANALYSIS OF AMERICAN SPORTSWOMEN IN TWO NEGRO NEWSPAPERS: THE PITTSBURGH COURIER, I924-I948 AND THE CHICAGO DEFENDER, 1932- 1948 Williams, Linda Darnette, Ph.D. The Ohio State University, I98V © 1987 Williams, Linda Darnette All rights reserved UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106 AN ANALYSIS OF AMERICAN SPORTSWOMEN IN TWO NEGRO NEWSPAPERS: THE PITTSBURGH COURIER. 1924-1948 AND THE CHICAGO DEFENDER. 1932-1948 DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Linda D. Williams, B.S., M.A. ***** The Ohio State University 1987 Dissertation Coinmittee: Seymour Kleinman Melvin Adelman / Advl^r ^ h o o l of He^th, Physical K. Sue Jewell Education, and Recreation Copyright by Linda Darnette Williams 1987 To William Allen Bartow and Mary Margaret Fabbro 11. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am indebted to many, many individuals who contributed to my emotional, personal, and professional development. It has been by the "grace of God" and faithful friends that I have had the courage to endure the rigors of the Ph.D. program and the challenges of writing the dissertation. I am especially grateful to those friends and families who opened their hearts and homes to me throughout my years as a college student. My deepest appreciation goes to Rachel Castle, Merilyn Parkins and "Mom" Baggett who have been the "backbone" of my support unit since 1975, both at the University of North Carolina and throughout my tenure at Ohio State University. I am also thankful for the guidance and knowledge I acquire through my work with Coach Mamie Railins and as a student of Dr. Randy Bobbitt. I also wish to express my appreciation to Katie Ellis of the Biometerics Lab for her technical assistance and to The Center of Women's Studies who was the first organization to provide financial assistance for my study. Ill To Peg Fabbro, I offer my sincere thanks and everlasting love for her faith in me and the worthiness of my research. Not only did she serve as my reading partner during the transition from sport management to sport history, but she spent endless hours sharing her knowledge and guiding me as I struggled to grasp the area of sport history. My sincere appreciation is extended especially to Dr. Seymour Kleinman who chaired my dissertation, and to the other members of the committee. IV VITA May 16, 1955 Born - Whiteville, North Carolina 1977 B.A., University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 1978 M.A.T., University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina August 1987 - Present Carolina Minority Post-doctoral fellow. University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. 1985-1986 Coordinator, First Annual Research and Scholarly Activities Forum, Columbus, Ohio. 1986-1987 Vice President, Council of Graduate Students, Columbus, Ohio. 1984-1986 Academic Advisor, University College, Columbus, Ohio 1982-1984 Graduate Administrative Associate, Women's Cross Country/Track and Field, Columbus, Ohio. FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Physical Education Studies in sport management, sport history and organizational behavior. V TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS..................................... Ü i VITA .............................................. V LIST OF T A B L E S .................................. ix CHAPTER I. WOMEN IN S P O R T S ............................ 1 Introduction ........................... 1 Background of the P r o b l e m ............ 1 Purpose of the S t u d y ................... 3 Need for the S t u d y ..................... 3 Conceptual Framework ................... 5 Significance of Study ................. 6 Definitions ........................... 8 Assumptions ........................... 9 Limitations ........................... 10 II. SPORTSWOMEN IN BLACK AND WHITE AMERICA . 14 Sport History ......................... 14 The Black Female in S p o r t ............ 16 Newspapers................................ 2 6 The Coverage of Women in S p o r t ........ 26 Race and Gender in Society ............ 3 3 The Negro P r e s s ....................... 3 7 III. METHODOLOGY AND CONTENT ANALYSIS...... 47 Introduction ........................... 47 Selection of N e w s p a p e r s ............... 49 Collection of D a t a ..................... 50 C o d i n g ................................. 51 Units of Assessment of C o n t e n t ........ 52 IV. AN ANALYSIS OF SPORTSWOMEN IN THE SPORT SECTION AND ON THE FRONT P A G E ....................... 60 The Extent of Coverage............ 60 The Type of Coverage................... 70 The Style of Coverage ................. 95 Production of the M e d i a ............... 100 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) PAGE V. RECAPTURING THE PAST THROUGH THE NEGRO PRESS: A LOOK BEYOND THE DAILY P R E S S ............ Ill APPENDICES A. System for Coding D a t a .................... 12 3 B. Partial Timeline of Major Sporting A c t i v i t i e s ................................. 129 LIST OF REFERENCES............................... 142 Vll LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1. Coverage by issue and designated years for the Pittsburgh Courier and the Chicago Defender................................. 62 2. Coverage by year for the Pittsburgh C o u r i e r ................................. 66“ 3. Coverage by year for the Chicago Defender................................. 68 4. Newspaper items by page location - C o u r i e r ................................. 72 5. Newspaper items by page location - Defender................................. 74 6. Occurrence of basketball, tennis and track and their share of the total coverage in the Chicago Defender ......................... 79 7. Occurrence of basketball, tennis and track and their share of the total coverage in the Pittsburgh Courier ...................... 80 8. Orientation for basketball, tennis, golf, bowling, track and management in the Courier and in the D e f e n d e r .......... .. 87 9. Classification of content for newspaper items in the Courier and the D e f e n d e r ........ 97 V l l l CHAPTER I WOMEN IN SPORTS Introduction During the past twenty-five years, the amount of research on women increased significantly. As the role of women changed during the twentieth century, scholars focused on women, an oppressed group, within a male- oriented society. They examined women in a number of societal roles including business, education, government and the media.^ Both the women's and the feminist's movements contributed to this phenomenon. These movements generated previously unaddressed and unanswered questions. Although these two movements occurred simultaneously during the twentieth century, their goals differed. The women's movement fought to gain civil and property rights that would provide women greater access to power, while the feminist's movement questioned and examined the status of women in society, politics and the economy. Background to the Problem In the past fifteen years, women progressively increased their participation in many areas of sport. This gradual acceleration of women in sports generated scholarly interest in areas within physical education. 1 2 Exercise scientists and biomechanists studied differences between men and women, while social scientists examined the different meanings and impact sport had for men and women. Within the past decade, sport historians have also expanded their research to include women. This inquiry occurred as a result of the general expansion in the scholarly study of women and the growth of the women's movement.2 This predominately descriptive scholarship generally emphasized the achievement of a few women who attained success. At best, these descriptive-chronological accounts explored the milieu in which the developments of women's involvement in sports took place, but they failed to examine their context and meaning.3 For the most part, scholars have been reluctant to examine women outside of the mainstream. Historians assumed that the experiences of the middle-upper class were representative of all women. However, we now know that their experience represented only this specific group. Since the experiences, values and perceptions of minorities and/or ethnic groups differed from that of the white middle class, our current knowledge about women in sport is incomplete.
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