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The Black Press and the End of Racial Segregation in the U.S

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The Black Press and the End of Racial Segregation in the U.S MIGHTIER THAN THE SWORD? THE BLACK PRESS AND THE END OF RACIAL SEGREGATION IN THE U.S. MILITARY, 1948-1954 Mark Slagle A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Journalism and Mass Communication Chapel Hill 2010 Approved by: Dr. Barbara Friedman Dr. Anne Johnston Dr. Donald Shaw Dr. Crystal Feimster Dr. Richard Kohn ©2010 Mark Slagle ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT MARK SLAGLE: Mightier Than The Sword? The Black Press and the End of Racial Segregation in the U.S. Military, 1948-1954 (Under the Direction of Dr. Barbara Friedman) Although President Harry S. Truman ordered the integration of the U.S. military in 1948, the armed forces made limited progress in desegregating before the summer of 1950. The outbreak of war on the Korean peninsula that year forced the military to re-evaluate its policy of segregation and ultimately led the complete integration of all the armed forces. This study analyzes how the largest and most influential black newspapers fought for military integration and how these publications reacted when it arrived. By examining how the black press sought to achieve its goals, this study illustrates the ways in which black newspapers did and did not operate as a dissident media source. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation would not have been possible without the efforts of a number of people. Barbara Friedman shepherded this project from vague idea to finished product. Anne Johnston, Don Shaw, Richard Kohn, and Crystal Feimster all provided valuable suggestions and support throughout the process. Cori Dauber also offered advice when I was still trying to get a handle on what I wanted to do. Extra special thanks are due to Barbara Semonche for giving me free rein of the Park Library’s resources and trusting me to lock up when I left. Finally, none of this would have been possible without the love and support of my parents, Dan and Evelyn. iv “The Army is made up of individual citizens of the United States who have pronounced views with respect to the Negro just as they have individual ideas with respect to other matters in their daily walk of life. Military orders, fiat, or dicta will not change their viewpoints. The Army then cannot be made the means of engendering conflict among the mass of people because of a stand with respect to Negroes which is not compatible with the position attained by the Negro in civil life. .The Army is not a sociological laboratory; to be effective it must be organized and trained according to the principles which will ensure success. Experiments to meet the wishes and demands of the champions of every race and creed for the solution of their problems are a danger to efficiency, discipline, and morale and would result in ultimate defeat.” —Col. Eugene R. Householder, U.S. Army, 1941 “Salvation for a race, nation, or class must come from within. Freedom is never granted; it is won. Justice is never given; it is exacted.” —A. Philip Randolph, 1972. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND ...............................................................1 Historical Context ..............................................................................................6 Black Americans in the U.S. Military ................................................................6 The Black Press: Strategies of Protest .............................................................17 The Chicago Defender ..................................................................................... 27 The Pittsburgh Courier .................................................................................... 29 The Baltimore Afro-American ......................................................................... 30 Research on the Black Press and the Military .................................................31 Theoretical Framework: The Role and Function of Alternative Media ..........38 The Significance of This Study ........................................................................42 Research Questions ..........................................................................................43 Method of Inquiry ............................................................................................44 Limitations of This Study ................................................................................47 Chapter Breakdown .........................................................................................47 II. READY TO FIGHT ................................................................................................50 Truman and the Black Press ............................................................................51 Butting Heads With the “Brass Hats” ..............................................................57 vi A. Philip Randolph Throws Down the Gauntlet ..............................................60 The Black Press and Communism ...................................................................64 The National Conference on Negro Affairs .....................................................70 The Black Press and the 1948 Presidential Election ........................................75 Executive Order 9981 ......................................................................................82 III. PRINCIPLES AND PRAGMATISM ....................................................................89 John Sengstacke Goes to Work........................................................................89 Singing Their Praises .......................................................................................93 Mixed Blessings ...............................................................................................96 Exit James Forrestal, Enter Louis Johnson ......................................................99 “Nuts to Mr. Robeson” ..................................................................................105 “A Score For Our Side” .................................................................................109 Stalemate ........................................................................................................114 Deception .......................................................................................................119 Endgame ........................................................................................................122 IV. NOW TO WAR ...................................................................................................126 “Calling the Red Bluff” .................................................................................127 Holding the Line ............................................................................................132 Victory ...........................................................................................................136 “The Only Solution” ......................................................................................141 Reversal of Fortune ........................................................................................148 “Looking for a Scapegoat” .............................................................................154 “The Latest GI Smear”...................................................................................157 vii V. A PYRRHIC VICTORY? .....................................................................................162 “A Club To Beat Our Brains Out” .................................................................163 The Army Starts To Listen ............................................................................168 On The Home Front .......................................................................................171 Ridgway Arrives, MacArthur Fades Away ...................................................173 Good News or Bad? .......................................................................................178 New Battles ....................................................................................................184 Cease-fire .......................................................................................................190 VI. WINNING THE BATTLE, LOSING THE WAR ..............................................194 Answering the Research Questions ...............................................................196 Implications for Future Research ...................................................................207 BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................210 viii Chapter One: Introduction and Background A single headline dominated the front page of the July 8, 1950 edition of the Chicago Defender , one of America’s largest and most influential black newspapers: “TAN GIs GO INTO ACTION!” 1Two weeks earlier the North Korean People’s Army had invaded South Korea, prompting President Harry S. Truman to authorize military action against the North Koreans. Among the first foot soldiers to engage the North Koreans in battle were members of the U.S. Army’s all-black 24 th Infantry Regiment. These troops, according to the Defender , were “playing leading roles in American participation in the clash.” 2 For the Defender and other black newspapers, the performance of black units such as the 24 th Infantry Regiment was not only a source of pride, but also an opportunity. Black Americans had participated in every major military conflict since the Revolutionary War. Yet
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