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Copyright 2021, The Concord Review, Inc., all rights reserved THE CIVIL SERVICE EXAMINATION SYSTEM: A VEHICLE FOR SOCIAL MOBILITY IN SONG CHINA Lian Wang Introduction In June of 2019, more than ten million high school seniors across China took the National College Entrance Examination (NCEE), or gaokao.1 A critical milestone in a student’s career, performance on this exam directly determines placement into university. While the modern gaokao was instituted in 1977, after the Cultural Revolution, the roots of the institution can be traced back to the civil service examination system in imperial China. From the Sui dynasty (581-618 CE) to the abolition of the system in 1905, the imperial Chinese government recruited bu- reaucrats through the civil service examination system. The system, constituted of a series of exams, was open to almost all men except certain groups such as actors, beggars, and merchants, without official restrictions on wealth or social status. The content and emphasis of the exams varied between dynasties, but in general, candidates were tested on their literary ability and knowledge of Lian Wang is a Senior at Mercersburg Academy in Mercersburg, Pennsylvania, where she wrote this Independent Study paper in the 2019/2020 academic year. 26 Lian Wang the Confucian classics through writing a series of essays in response to curated prompts. In Imperial China, a career in government was unequivo- cally considered the most honorable and worthwhile occupa- tion. The goal of literate men was to enter officialdom, to which success in the examinations was a prerequisite. Thus, those who could afford the time and expenses for preparation and educa- tion attempted them.2 Because this was the established route to achieve conventional success, the exams were extremely difficult and selective. While the system was abolished in 1905, its effects still permeate modern Chinese culture. The examination system set the foundations for public and private education, reinforced Confucian ideals in society, and created a culture in which educa- tion was the highest good. As with any other, it was not without its flaws. Inequality of educational resources limited opportunities for many, and while the content of the exams maintained their objec- tivity, it also strengthened the orthodoxy of Confucian thought. Because success in the examinations required the wealth and time to devote to education, today’s historians often cite this fundamental disadvantage of the poor as evidence against the social mobility created in the system. However, these critics apply a modern outlook to evaluate a historical system that thrived in a different social, political, and economic context. The idea of a purely merit-based system of recruitment was progressive, at a time when Europe had just begun to implement a feudal system. The scale at which the system operated and its central position in society was unprecedented and has not been replicated since. Specifically, the examination system, as implemented the Song dynasty (960-1279 CE), was effective in introducing “new blood,” or bureaucrats without previous ties to the government, into the bureaucracy. This paper will first outline the development of the civil service examination system, then summarize major reforms dur- ing the Song dynasty that contributed to the system’s success. The next sections will delve into two characteristics of the Song system—commitment to impartiality and rise of common educa- THE CONCORD REVIEW 27 tion—which allowed for fairer competition and expanded the pool of candidates, thus laying the foundation for upward ascen- sion through the system. Finally, through numerical data and case studies, the paper will evaluate the extent to which the civil service examination system fostered social mobility in Song China. History The civil service examination system began in the Sui dynasty as an attempt to curb the political power of aristocratic clans. Since the Sui central government did not have sufficient economic ability to support the military, the state, to a large ex- tent, relied on armies that were owned privately by government officials, positions inherited through generations. This caused -po litical and military power to be shared among aristocratic lineages, over which the government had little control. With unchecked power, the aristocracy could even overthrow the emperor. Hoping to establish a group of government officials loyal to him alone, Emperor Wen founded the civil service examination system in 587 CE. He reasoned that, by establishing a route open to the general public, he could recruit officials from lower classes, who would not have loyalties to the powerful aristocracy. At the time, however, only wealthy families could afford books and an educa- tion. Thus, those who performed well on the exams still hailed from the same aristocratic class.3 In the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), while the bureaucracy remained predominantly staffed by the aristocratic class, success in the exams became the preferred route of gaining government positions. The emperors, as well as society at large, favored the jinshi; those who entered officialdom through parentage and family connections were not as highly regarded.4 Some still used family ties to gain minor government positions, but the more ambitious of the aristocrats, who aimed for more respected positions, ceded to the system. During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong (713-756 CE), one-third of those who served as chief ministers rose through the examination system. A hundred years later, under Emperor Xianzong (806-820 CE), that ratio became sixty percent.5 The ex- 28 Lian Wang amination system, however, was still in its early stages, with major defects. For one, the number who qualified for thejinshi degree was extremely small, as scholarly studies were still impractical and expensive to many. The emperor thus had a limited pool from which he could choose officials to fill up government positions. Moreover, the exam system itself created factions. As only a small portion of the bureaucracy was filled by jinshi, those who did enter government through the examinations shared common interests and formed their own group. Men who graduated in the same class considered each other classmates, and their examiner often led a personal following of those who he had passed. From these relationships, political factions were born. These groups within the bureaucracy undermined the system’s goal to eliminate loyalties other than those to the emperor.6 Further changes to the examination system were closely tied to the historical background of the following Song dynasty. First, the Song dynasty was a period of economic flourishing. The capital of Northern Song (960-1127 CE), Kaifeng, located at the junction of the Grand Canal and Yellow River, facilitated regional and foreign commerce. Further, the demand for Chinese silks and spices via the spice trade maintained the economic prosperity of Hangzhou, the capital of the later Southern Song (1127-1279 CE).7 The wealth of the Song dynasty allowed it to sustain a large population. The population at the height of the Tang dynasty was around 50 to 60 million, which grew to 100 million in the early Song, then 120 million by the end of the twelfth century.8 The transition from Tang to Song also marked the decline of the traditional aristocracy. In the Tang dynasty, while aristo- crats began to conform to the system, families with members that held office retained their social prestige. However, in the Song dynasty, the power previously held by aristocratic clans was consolidated in the hands of the emperor, who ruled through a trained bureaucracy, selected upon merit from the examination system.9 Privileges and prestige were no longer tied to aristocratic clans, but granted to individual active officials.10 The decline of the aristocracy dissolved a major hindrance to the exam system’s meritocratic ideal. It restructured the basis of social status in Song THE CONCORD REVIEW 29 society from pedigree to intellect, which was both a driver to the effectiveness of the examinations and a product of the system.11 The Song dynasty is agreed by historians to be the fairest and most productive phase of the exam system. While there were still limitations to laws that enforced impartiality, the extent to which the Song government attempted to curb corruption and inequality was progressive for its time. The Song emperors were especially committed to ensuring that the system was a true meri- tocracy, with Emperor Taizu instituting the palace examinations to reduce factionalism. The government also introduced various measures to prevent cheating and corruption. In addition, the Song state developed a public education system, which, with the popularization of books, increased literacy among the general population. All these factors gave those from lower social classes a more equal opportunity to compete. Overview of the Song System One of the defects of the Tang examination system was its limited scale. In the Song dynasty, wealth from trade allowed the government to support an increased number of positions in the bureaucracy. The examinations became the preferred route of entering officialdom, with jinshi degrees almost a prerequisite for high office. In order to promote studying to compete in the exams, Emperor Zhenzong of Song (986-1022 CE) wrote the fol- lowing poem:12 To be wealthy you need not purchase fertile fields, Thousands of tons of corn are to be found in the books. To build a house you need not set up high beams, Golden mansions are to be found in the books. To find a wife you need not worry about not having good matchmakers, Maidens as beautiful as jade are to be found in the books. To travel you need not worry about not having servants and attendants, Large entourages of horses and carriages are to be found in the books. When a man wishes to fulfill the ambition of his life, He only needs to diligently study the six classics by the window.

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