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Shifting the Tide: Transit-Oriented Development and Active Transportation Planning in Los Angeles Forrest Chamberlain William Riggs MCRP , Cal Pol an uis bispo Ph ssistant Professor, CRP epartment, Cal Pol an uis bispo

Chamberlain and Riggs present an overview of the historical context of automobile dependency in Los Angeles, the current transit-oriented development strategies underway, and the planning and implementation of Complete Street strategies. The discussion illustrates how the city is using these strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the impacts of climate change.

os Angeles has the reputation of an auto dependent city. the urban form of Los Angeles. Before the private automobile LHistorically, much of the region was developed as suburban gained popularity, Los Angeles was served by an extensive sprawl, designed to accommodate automobile use. Although streetcar system, established in the late 1800s by powerful real the region is served by a robust public transportation system, estate moguls. These entrepreneurs not only constructed the the majority of the population commutes by automobile streetcar lines themselves, but also residential neighborhoods (SCAG, 2012a). As a result of excessive automobile use, adjacent to streetcar lines (Jackson, 1985). The streetcar the region has long su ered from poor air quality, trac system thus enabled Los Angeles to grow outward from the congestion, unsafe streets, and environmental degradation. downtown core, fostering the development of “streetcar Sprawling development patterns have diminished the suburbs” that would eventually set the momentum for the environmental quality of natural areas on the urban fringe. region’s decentralization and sprawl (Bottles, 1987; Jackson, Automobile use has exacerbated the region’s greenhouse 1985; Longstreth, 1998). gas emissions. In recent years, issues around climate change have become paramount for cities throughout the world. From the late 1880s until the 1920s, the streetcar was the dom- Because a major source of greenhouse gas emissions inant mode of travel for commuters in the Los Angeles region comes from automobile travel, cities have a responsibility (Bottles, 1987; Longstreth, 1998). During this time real estate to reduce emissions in their jurisdictions by shifting travel development was closely associated with the streetcar – most behavior. This typically involves limiting development to development in the region occurred around streetcar lines primarily occur in areas accessible by public transit, and by (Longstreth, 1998). The streetcar suburb is not specic to Los accommodating alternative modes of travel through the Angeles – this pattern of development characterized historic design of the transportation system. development trends in virtually every major American city prior to the mass adoption of the automobile. However, few The Los Angeles region has made signicant headway in re- other American cities were altered as dramatically as Los An- versing sprawl and automobile use. Encouraging greater land geles from the automobile. use densities around transit stations, coupled with invest- ments to active transportation systems, has become both city The Early Proliferation of Automobile Use and regional strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. A dense, transit-oriented Los Angeles is a bold new vision. The Private automobile use caught on quickly in the Southern Cali- following paper presents an overview of the historical context fornia region. The 1920s marked a departure from the streetcar of automobile dependency in Los Angeles, the current transit- to the automobile as the dominant mode of travel. From 1918 oriented development strategies underway, and the planning to 1923 automobile registration in Los Angeles County had in- and implementation of Complete Street strategies. creased by fourfold (Bottles, 1987).

Sprawl and Auto Dependency in Los Angeles: By 1925, there was approximately one car per 1.6 persons in The Historical Context the region, a level of automobile density that the rest of the nation wouldn’t reach until the late 1950s (Davis, 1992; Bot- Streetcar Suburb tles, 1987). As a result of increased automobile use, residential development became more closely associated with the au- Automotive use has been the primary factor that has shaped tomobile than the streetcar. To keep up with the demand for FOCUS 12 ■ Chamberlain & Riggs: Transit-Oriented Development in L.A. ■ 53

housing, developers had two options: increase density in built- Densely populated cities with strong access to public tran- up areas around railways, or construct housing on the urban sit emit less carbon than sprawling, low-density cities. A 2006 periphery, often in areas distant from existing streetcar lines study found that the most densely populated cities have less (Longstreth, 1998). Developers typically chose the second op- private automobile use and lower greenhouse gas emissions tion. Post 1920, residential development and automobile use per capita than the majority of cities in the United States (Dod- had a “symbiotic relationship” resulting in a high percentage of man, 2009). Increasing land use densities close to transit is con- low-density neighborhoods consisting of single-family hous- sidered as a key strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. es located increasingly further away on the urban periphery However, it is also simply considered good urbanism. Compact (Longstreth, 1998). communities with strong access to transit have greater access to jobs and services than sprawling, low-density cities. Automobile Domination Los Angeles has a robust transit system in place, yet is often The number of people commuting by automobile eventually characterized as a city that is inherently not transit-oriented. The grew to outnumber the number using public transportation existing transit network, coupled with proposed investments, (Longstreth, 1998). As automobile use proliferated, there was creates an enormous opportunity for a more transit-oriented an increasing conict between streetcars and motorists for use region. 97% of residents in the SCAG region live within two miles of the right-of-way. Automobiles exacerbated trac congestion of an existing transit station, and 22.5% of jobs in Los Angeles in downtown Los Angeles, an area that had already been County are within a half-mile of existing or proposed transit struggling with streetcar congestion (Bottles, 1987; Longstreth, stations (SCAG, 2012a; Center for Transit-Oriented Development, 1998). To curb congestion, the city council passed a rigid no 2010). Land use densities and intensities can be increased around parking law in downtown that was met with heavy opposition Metro stations throughout the region. A 2010 study found that and protest, forcing the council to quickly repeal the law much of the land uses around transit stations consist of vacant (Bottles, 1987). This was the rst of many legislative decisions and underutilized properties, including small parcels that do not that entrenched the automobile as the integral component comfortably accommodate development (Center for Transit- of the regional transportation system. Between 1920 and Oriented Development, 2010). The same study concluded that 1950, highways were constructed, streets were widened, local governments need to better coordinate their land use and and streetcar lines were demolished, all to accommodate the implementation strategies to better accommodate commercial automobile (Longstreth, 1998; Bottles, 1987; Jackson, 1985). By and high-density residential development in station areas. This 1944 the streetcar system was scarcely used (Bottles, 1987). will be a challenge in meeting state goals to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from automobiles. The prioritization of automobiles in the transportation system allowed automobile use to increasingly grow during this SB 375 and Sustainable Communities Strategy time period. As a result, Los Angeles has a whole became more decentralized and suburban in character. Downtown’s The Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act “central place monopoly” (Davis, 1992: 118) was superseded (SB 375) was enacted in 2008 with the intent of supporting by new automobile-oriented commercial districts located California’s climate action goals to reduce greenhouse gas away from the urban core (Longstreth, 1998; Davis, 1992; emissions from vehicle use (California Air Resources Board, Bottles, 1987). Low-density sprawl has largely characterized 2014). SB 375 requires each urbanized region to prepare a the region’s development history (Longstreth, 1998). Both the Sustainable Communities Strategy (SCS), which coordinates city and region now primarily consists of suburban areas highly land use and transportation planning e orts to reduce dependent on the automobile. Although suburbanization and vehicles miles travelled over a 25 year time period (California decentralization was exacerbated by the automobile, the city Air Resources Board, 2014). Local governments within each had been following this trajectory since the turn of the 20th region are incentivized to coordinate planning e orts with the century when streetcars were the dominant mode of travel. SCS, typically because of opportunities for state and federal Mobility in a city as decentralized as Los Angeles requires some funding sources (Logan, 2013). form of vehicular travel, whether it is by public transit or the automobile. As Bottles (1987: 14) describes it, Los Angeles has In 2012, the Southern California Association of Governments “never existed as a true walking city”. (SCAG) adopted a $525 billion Regional Transportation Plan (RTP) and Sustainable Communities Strategy for the six coun- Transit Oriented Development ties and 191 cities it represents (Logan, 2013; SCAG, 2012). The plan outlines a regional transportation plan and land use plan The long-term development of Los Angeles as an automobile to meet GHG reduction targets consistent with SB 375 (SCAG, oriented city has had profoundly negative impacts on the 2012). The transportation component proposes a variety of im- environment and public health. However, there has been recent provements to the region’s multimodal transportation system, momentum in creating a more environmentally friendly and including the expansion of the system to areas where growth healthy region through transit-oriented development strategies. is appropriate (SCAG, 2012). The land use component proposes 54 ■ Essays ■ FOCUS 12

that growth should be prioritized in areas well served by public densities, and intensities. Dense transit-oriented development transportation, particularly around transportation nodes and is primarily encouraged in the Downtown Center, Regional corridors (SCAG, 2012). Center, and Community Center categories, most of which are located close to transit stations and lines. SCAG RTP/SCS Overview: Land Use Community Plans are the primary tool used by the city to Employment and housing growth is encouraged in the RTP/SCS support transit-oriented growth (Center for Transit-Oriented to primarily occur within the region’s designated High-Quality Development, 2010, p. 84). The majority of Community Plans Transit Areas (HQTA) and Transit Priority Areas (TPA) (SCAG, 2012). support transit-oriented development, while the Southeast HQTAs are described as walkable areas located within a half-mile and South LA Community Plans specically support the RTP/ radius of local and regional transit corridors with frequent service SCS. Community Plans generally propose zone changes to (15 minutes or less) during peak commute hours (SCAG, 2012). encourage mixed-use development of greater density and TPAs are areas within a half-mile of a major existing or planned intensity in areas close to transit (Los Angeles Department transit station (SCAG, n.d) where transit-oriented development of City Planning, 2001b; 2012a; 2012b; 2012c; 2013; 2014a; projects are provided with CEQA exemptions and alternative 2014; 2014c). In addition, the city is in the process of nalizing analysis of transportation impacts (OPR, 2014). the Community Plan Implementation Overlay (CPIO), a land use tool that will bolster the implementation of Community Not all HQTAs and TPAs in the region are targeted for growth Plan proposals. The CPIO will incentivize transit-oriented (SCAG, 2012). Under SB 375 an SCS cannot mandate land use development through exible zoning requirements and and General Plan policies at the local level. It is rather intended a streamlined review process (Center for Transit-Oriented to provide cities and counties with land use, transportation, Development, 2010, p. 85; Sulaiman, 2015). and housing policy guidance on how to help the region achieve greenhouse gas reduction targets (SCAG, 2012; California Air Development Permit Analysis Resources Board, 2014). SCAG RTP/SCS land use policies were heavily inuenced by local land use policies (SCAG, 2012). Many The majority of the City of Los Angeles is considered a High localities within the SCAG region have robust transit-oriented Quality Transit Area. These areas have frequent access to development land use policies and programs in place, while some form of transit, whether it is light rail, bus, BRT, or others continue to encourage auto-oriented development subway. Within the City of Los Angeles, an optimal transit- (SCAG, 2012). Development within the region will likely occur oriented development strategy involves the prioritization of outside of HQTAs. development specically within a half-mile radius of Metro stations. Development in these areas is appropriate for Local Transit-Oriented Land Use Planning several reasons. First, a half-mile radius is the standard transit station catchment area (average distance people are willing In addition to the RTP/SCS, Metro and the City of Los Angeles to walk to take transit) used in the United States, and it has have a number of transit-oriented development supportive come to represent the spatial extent of most transit-oriented policies, programs and strategies in place. Although areas development planning (Guerra, Cervero, & Tischler, 2012). around transit stations are mostly out of Metro’s jurisdiction, Second, SCAG and the City of Los Angeles encourage growth to they encourage local governments to enact land use policies occur in these areas. All areas within a half-mile radius of Metro that incentivize transit-oriented development through policy rail stations in the City of Los Angeles have been designated guidance, technical support, and grant funding (Los Angeles by SCAG as both a HQTA and a TPA (Figure 1) (SCAG, n.d). County Metropolitan Transportation Authority, 2015; Center The majority of locally designated higher-intensity land use for Transit-Oriented Development, 2010). Metro administers districts (Downtown Center, Regional Center, Community a TOD Planning Grant Program designed to facilitate the Center) are located in these areas. adoption of local land use regulations that supports transit oriented development, and a Joint Development Program In a city as large as Los Angeles, it is questionable whether or that collaborates with developers to construct transit-oriented not transit-oriented development is being maximized in Metro developments on properties owned by Metro (Los Angeles station areas. To answer this question, a spatial analysis was used. County Metropolitan Transportation Authority, 2015; Los Using ArcGIS, a half-mile bu er was placed around all existing Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority, 2015a). Metro rail stations in the City of Los Angeles. New development permit data ranging from 2013 to 2015 was then added to Transit-oriented development is encouraged in the Framework ArcGIS to examine how many new buildings were permitted in Element of the Los Angeles General Plan and in Community Metro station areas. Between 2013 and 2015, only a very small Plans. The General Plan Framework Element sets forth a long- number of development projects were permitted in transit-rich term growth strategy that guides the update of community areas. The vast majority (95%) of new development has been plans and other General Plan elements (Los Angeles Department permitted in areas located outside of a half-mile radius of Metro of City Planning, 2001c). The Framework Element has dened stations (Table 1). This supports the Center of Transit Oriented overlay zones that encourages di erent development types, Development’s conclusion that the City of Los Angeles can FOCUS 12 ■ Chamberlain & Riggs: Transit-Oriented Development in L.A. ■ 55

better accommodate transit-oriented development close to Metro stations (Center for Transit-Oriented Development, 2010). The City of Los Angeles should more aggressively incentivize multi-family residential and commercial development within walking distance of Metro stations. Complete Streets and Active Transportation

Most commuters within the region commute by car, truck, or van (SCAG, 2012a). According to the 2008 American Community Survey, less than four percent of the region’s population commuted to work via an active transportation mode (SCAG, 2012a). Although one could view these gures in a pessimistic light, the region has an opportunity to shift travel behavior. The Southern California Association of Governments (SCAG) has found that approximately 97% of residents in the region live within two miles of a transit station, considered an easily bikeable distance (SCAG, 2012a). Furthermore, the region has made massive nancial and planning investments to expand its public transit system and active transit network. These investments are largely intended to lower vehicle miles travelled as a way to achieve state mandated greenhouse gas reduction targets.

Encouraging dense, mixed-use development in areas close to transit is a critical step in building sustainable communities. Convenient access to transit, jobs, and amenities translates into less reliance on the private automobile. However, land use factors are not the only variables that a ect travel behavior. The transportation network must also be designed in a way that encourages active modes of transportation, namely walking and cycling, over the automobile. Streets and sidewalks designed to allow safe and convenient travel for active transportation Figure 1: Map of SCAG HQTAs and TPAs users are referred to as “Complete Streets”(Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority, 2014). Complete Streets feature design characteristics oriented towards pedestrians and cyclists, such as bicycle lanes, curb bulb-outs, trac calming measures, and safe pedestrian crossings. Table 1: Metro Buer Analysis - New Building Permits (January 2013 – January 2015) New Development Permitted in New Development Permitted Not Development Half Mile of Metro Station Within Half Mile of Metro Station Total Characteristics % of Total % of Total Number Number Permits Permits Citywide 5,778 279 5.26% 5,509 94.73% 1 or 2 Family 4,755 159 4.83% 4,596 95.34% Dwelling Apartment 439 36 8.20% 403 91.80% Commercial 594 84 14.14% 510 85.86%

Note: New construction permit data has been obtained from the DataLA, the open data portal for the City of Los Angeles (https://data.lacity. org/). This dataset only includes building permits from January 2013 to January 2015. Earlier permit data is available from 2001 to 2014 through Plan Check and Inspection Disks, inspection from the Department of Building and Safety (DBS). These disks only include monthly permit data, they cost $11 each and they must be purchased in person from the DBS oce in Los Angeles. Earlier permit data (prior to 2001) must be viewed on microlm at the DBS oce. 56 ■ Essays ■ FOCUS 12

Figure 2: Map of Regional and Community Land Use Districts. Figure 3: Proximity of New Development Permits (2013-2015) to Transit Stations. In order to successfully reduce automobile trips, transit-oriented development must be paired with a public realm conducive principles are intended to foster a multimodal transportation to other modes of transportation. According to Hank Dittmar, network that accommodates all users of streets – pedestrians, president of the Great American State Foundation, many cyclists, and motorists. Prior to the adoption of AB 1358, transit-oriented neighborhoods are designed for automobile there were no state laws requiring localities in California dependency, making them transit-adjacent rather than transit- to incorporate Complete Streets or active transportation oriented (Tumlin & Millard-Ball, 2003). Complete Streets are principles into their circulation elements. When paired with one strategy that can help to reduce automobile use in areas SB 375, these two bills have the potential to advance transit- served by transit. Research shows that transit commute shares oriented growth in a way that is largely unprecedented. Both increase with the implementation of pedestrian-oriented are considered as landmark planning legislation in California. design treatments in neighborhoods around rail stations. Research also shows that an increase in lineal miles of bicycle Although there is no explicit language in SB 375 or AB facilities contribute to a growth in accessing rail stations by 1358 stating that the two bills should be linked during bicycle (Cervero, Caldwell & Cuellar, 2012). Complete streets implementation, they both share similar end goals to reduce will be essential to curb automobile use in Los Angeles, a vehicle miles travelled (SB 375, 2008; AB 1358, 2008). SB region that will experience substantial transit investments in 375 approaches this goal by encouraging transit-oriented the next several decades. development, while AB 1358 approaches this goal by encouraging active transportation. In this regard, the two are AB 1358 and SB 375 fundamentally linked. Land use changes and transportation investments will go a long way in reducing greenhouse gas Enacted in 2008, the Complete Streets Act (AB 1358, 2008) emissions. However, AB 1358 provides the impetus for the requires cities and counties to incorporate Complete Streets mode shift required to reduce private vehicle use. An optimal principles into their circulation element when performing planning strategy to reduce vehicle miles travelled requires General Plan updates (AB 1358, 2008; SCAG, 2012). These both approaches. FOCUS 12 ■ Chamberlain & Riggs: Transit-Oriented Development in L.A. ■ 57

SCAG RTP/SCS Overview: Active Transportation Metro further bolstered this e ort through the draft First Last Mile Strategic Plan (2013) a set of planning guidelines with the Complete Streets and active transportation is a key cornerstone goal to improve active transportation accessibility to Metro of the Southern California Association of Government’s stations(Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Au- Regional Transportation Plan and Sustainable Communities thority, 2014a). The guidelines provide localities with examples Strategy (RTP/SCS). The RTP/SCS states that a mode shift to of design treatments that can be implemented to improve ac- walking and bicycling will be essential to reduce greenhouse tive transportation on street segments located close to Metro gas emissions and congestion (SCAG, 2012a). SCAG has stations. Because portions of these segments are out of Metro’s adopted strategies in the RTP/SCS to achieve four overarching jurisdiction, the Complete Streets policies and guidelines are goals: 1) increase dedicated funding for bicycle and pedestrian primarily meant to advise localities (Los Angeles County Met- infrastructure; 2) increase accommodation and planning for ropolitan Transportation Authority, 2014a). Metro has also pro- bicyclists and pedestrians; 3) increase transportation options, posed to establish active transportation improvements to their particularly for trips less than three miles, and; 4) signicantly transportation system, including bicycle/pedestrian facilities decrease bicycle and pedestrian fatalities and injuries (SCAG, and amenities at Metro stations (Los Angeles County Metro- 2012a). Similar to the land use component of the RTP/SCS, SCAG politan Transportation Authority, 2014). will primarily play an advisory role to local governments in an e ort to support Complete Streets and active transportation The draft 2014 update of the Circulation Element of the City of in the region. However, SCAG will allocate funding to local Los Angeles General Plan, referred to as “Mobility 2035”, strong- governments to plan and implement Complete Streets in their ly emphasizes the incorporation of Complete Streets principles jurisdictions (SCAG, 2012). in the transportation system. Three of the nine key policy initia- tives explicitly address Complete Streets and active transporta- The RTP/SCS has allocated $6.7 billion to engineering, enforce- tion. These policy initiatives include the establishment of new ment, and education strategies related to active transporta- Complete Streets standards, the promotion of “rst mile-last tion and Complete Streets (SCAG, 2012). Funding is specially mile” connections, and the expansion of the role of the street allocated to support such strategies near transit stations and as public space (Los Angeles Department of City Planning, schools to reduce vehicle trips and to improve the safety and 2014e). The element also proposes the establishment of areas desirability of active transportation modes (SCAG, 2012). The prioritized for pedestrian improvements, the development of $6.7 billion of funding does not include locally funded projects an interconnected bicycle network, and the enhancement of or large development project that involve the construction of multi-modal transportation services in areas close to transit bicycle and pedestrian facilities. When factoring in local expen- stations(Los Angeles Department of City Planning, 2014e). Mo- ditures, the region is expected to spend more than $10 billion bility Plan 2035 has yet to be adopted. As Linton (2015) points on active transportation investments by 2035 (SCAG, 2012a). out, the plan serves as a departure to auto-centric character of Los Angeles, to “an emerging multi-modal Los Angeles that Local Active Transportation Planning embraces walking, bicycling, using transit, and driving”.

Localities within the SCAG region have proposed and In 2011, the Downtown Los Angeles Neighborhood Council implemented a number of active transportation and Complete (DLANC) formed the Complete Streets Working Group to Streets projects. The draft Los Angeles County Bicycle implement design treatments aimed to improve Downtown’s Master Plan, released in 2011, calls for the development of a cycling and pedestrian environment (Downtown Los Angeles comprehensive, 695 mile network of bicycle facilities (SCAG, Neighborhood Council, n.d.). According to their website, 2012a). Metro’s Long Range Transportation Plan proposes the DLANC Working Group has primarily focused on the the development of regional bicycle trail projects throughout development of bicycle facilities and parklets. The website does the region. Metro has also created an initiative to provide an not mention trac calming strategies, education strategies, inventory of existing and proposed bicycle facilities, and an and enforcement strategies. The DLANC Working Group has estimation of expenditures for such facilities (SCAG, 2012a). been responsible for the implementation of Downtown Los In addition, Metro’s Complete Streets Policy has ranked higher Angeles’s rst bicycle lane along a segment of Spring Street, as than any region in California by Smart Growth America, who well as bicycle lanes on two more road segments (Downtown ranked Complete Streets policies and programs in the United Los Angeles Neighborhood Council, n.d.). A 40% increase in States adopted in 2014 (Curry, 2015). bicycle ridership along Spring Street was observed one year after installation of the bicycle lane (Downtown Los Angeles Metro’s draft Complete Streets Policy supports existing plan- Neighborhood Council, n.d.). ning e orts and proposes new projects. The Metro Complete Streets policy is intended to support these e orts by providing Conclusion guidance and funding to local agencies (Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority, 2014). Metro is par- The Los Angeles region has established aggressive transit- ticularly interested in the implementation of Complete Streets oriented development and active transportation programs on “rst/last” streets used to get to and from transit stations. and plans. Although transit-oriented development programs 58 ■ Essays ■ FOCUS 12

are ambitious in their intent, it is somewhat unclear how Jackson, K. 1985. Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of e ective they have been. In the last two years, only 5% of new America. New York: Oxford University Press. development has been permitted within a half-mile radius of Logan, W. 2013. Implementing Sustainable Communities Strat- Metro stations in the City of Los Angeles. It is clear that the City egies at the Municipal Level. Berkeley, CA: UC Berkeley. could do more to prioritize development within these transit- rich areas. If the region continues to develop in a low-density Longstreth, R. 1998. City Center to Regional Mall: Architecture, manor away from major transit stations, it will be dicult to the Automobile, and Retailing in Los Angeles, 1920-1950. achieve long-term greenhouse gas reduction targets. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

When scanning Los Angeles’s Complete Streets plans and Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority. programs, one could conclude that the region will be a haven 2014. Metro Complete Streets Policy Draft. Retrieved for multi-modal transportation in the future. These plans are 28 April 2015 from: http://media.metro.net/projects_ also ambitious, yet it is unclear how e ectively they have been studies/sustainability/images/Draft_Complete_Streets_ implemented. Further research is needed to examine the Policy.pdf current state of Complete Streets implementation and active Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority. transportation in Los Angeles. For example, research could 2014a. First Last Mile Strategic Plan & Planning Guide- measures the increase in lineal miles of bicycle facilities over lines. Retrieved 29 April 2015 from: http://media.metro. time. Monitoring the implementation of active transportation net/docs/sustainability_path_design_guidelines.pdf investments may be a more dicult task than development activity, as data is not as easily accessible as permit data. Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority. Overall, the City of Los Angeles has an enormous opportunity (2015). Transit Oriented Development Planning Grant. to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through land use changes Retrieved 3 May 2015 from: http://www.metro.net/proj- and transportation investments. ects/tod/Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transporta- tion Authority. (2015a). Joint Development Program. Retrieved 3 May 2015 from: http://www.metro.net/proj- ects/joint_dev_pgm/ References Los Angeles Department of City Planning. n.d. Community Plans AB 1358. 2008. California State Assembly. in Progress. Los Angeles: City of Los Angeles. Retrieved 5 December 2014 from: http://cityplanning.lacity.org/ Bottles, S. 1987. Los Angeles and the Automobile: The Making of the Modern City. Berkeley: University of California Los Angeles Department of City Planning. n.d. Land use Press. standards and typical development characteristics. Los Angeles: City of Los Angeles. Retrieved 5 December California Air Resources Board. 2014. Sustainable Communities. 2014 from: http://cityplanning.lacity.org/cwd/framwk/ (C. E. Agency, Editor). Retrieved November 27, 2014, from chapters/03/tab31.htm http://www.arb.ca.gov/cc/sb375/sb375.html Los Angeles Department of City Planning. 2001a. The Frame- Center for Transit-Oriented Development. 2011. Creating suc- work Element of the Los Angeles General Plan. Chapter cessful Transit-Oriented Districts in Los Angeles: A City- 3 – Land Use. Los Angeles, CA: City of Los Angeles. wide Toolkit for Achieving Regional Goals. Los Angeles Department of City Planning. 2001b. Wilshire Cervero, R., Caldwell, B., & Cuellar, J. 2012. Bike-and-Ride: Build Community Plan. Los Angeles: City of Los Angeles. it and They Will Come. Berkeley: UC Berkeley. Retrieved 5 December 2014 from: http://cityplanning. Curry, M. 2015. Smart Growth America Rates L.A. Metro Com- lacity.org/complan/central/wilpage.htm plete Streets Policy in Top Ten. Retrieved April 26, 2015, Los Angeles Department of City Planning. 2001c. The Frame- from Streets Blog (Web blog post): http://la.streetsblog. work Element of the Los Angeles General Plan. Executive org/category/issues/complete-streets/ Summary. Los Angeles, CA: City of Los Angeles. Davis, M. 1992. City of Quartz. London: Vintage. Los Angeles Department of City Planning. (2012a). Hollywood Dodman, D. 2009. Blaming Cities for Climate Change? An Community Plan. Los Angeles: City of Los Angeles. Re- Analysis of Urban Greenhouse Gas Emissions Inventories. trieved 5 December 2014 from: http://cityplanning.lacity. Environment and Urbanization, 21 (1), 185-201. org/complan/central/hwdpage.htm Downtown Los Angeles Neighborhood Council. (n.d.). Com- Los Angeles Department of City Planning. (2012b). South plete streets for Downtown Los Angeles. Retrieved April Los Angeles Community Plan. Los Angeles: City of 25, 2015, from: http://completestreets.dlanc.com/index. Los Angeles. Retrieved 5 December 2014 from: http:// php cityplanning.lacity.org/ FOCUS 12 ■ ■ 59

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